CET456 REPAIR AND REHABILITATION OF BUILDINGS

MODULE – 5

Crack repair - Various methods of crack repair

Cracks in concrete are common and they develop when stresses in the concrete exceed
its strength. There are several methods of concrete crack repair such Grouting, Routing
and sealing, Stitching, Dry packing, Autogenous healing, Overlays etc…

How to Select Suitable Method of Concrete Crack Repair?

Suitable method for repair of cracks in concrete can be selected based on evaluation of
the crack in structure for its causes. Once the cause is known and type of crack is
established, then suitable method can be selected. For example, if the cracking was
primarily due to drying shrinkage, then it is likely that after a period of time the cracks
will stabilize. On the other hand, if the cracks are due to a continuing foundation
settlement, repair will be of no use until the settlement problem is corrected.

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1 - Grouting Method of Crack Repair
Portland cement grouting
Wide cracks, particularly in gravity dams and thick concrete walls, may be repaired by
filling with Portland cement grout. This method is effective in stopping water leaks, but
it will not structurally bond cracked sections. The procedure consists of cleaning the
concrete along the crack; installing built-up seats (grout nipples) at intervals astride the
crack (to provide a pressure tight connection with the injection apparatus); sealing the
crack between the seats with a cement paint, sealant, or grout; flushing the crack to
clean it and test the seal; and then grouting the whole area. Grout mixtures may contain
cement and water or cement plus sand and water, depending on the width of the crack.
However, the water-cement ratio should be kept as low as practical to maximize the
strength and minimize shrinkage. Water reducers or other admixtures may be used to
improve the properties of the grout. For small volumes, a manual injection gun may be
used; for larger volumes, a pump should be used. After the crack is filled, the pressure
should be maintained for several minutes to insure good penetration.

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2 - Routing and Sealing of Cracks
Routing and sealing of cracks can be used in conditions requiring remedial repair and
where structural repair is not necessary. This method involves enlarging the crack along
its exposed face and filling and sealing it with a suitable joint sealant (Fig.1). This is a
common technique for crack treatment and is relatively simple in comparison to the
procedures and the training required for epoxy injection. The procedure is most
applicable to approximately flat horizontal surfaces such as floors and pavements.
However, routing and sealing can be accomplished on vertical surfaces (with a non-sag
sealant) as well as on curved surfaces (pipes, piles and pole). Routing and sealing is
used to treat both fine pattern cracks and larger, isolated cracks. A common and
effective use is for waterproofing by sealing cracks on the concrete surface where water
stands, or where hydrostatic pressure is applied. This treatment reduces the ability of
moisture to reach the reinforcing steel or pass through the concrete, causing surface
stains or other problems. The sealants may be any of several materials, including
epoxies, urethanes, silicones, polysulfides, asphaltic materials, or polymer mortars.

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Cement grouts should be avoided due to the likelihood of cracking. For floors, the
sealant should be sufficiently rigid to support the anticipated traffic. Satisfactory
sealants should be able to withstand cyclic deformations and should not be brittle. The
procedure consists of preparing a groove at the surface ranging in depth, typically, from
1/4 to 1 inch (6 to 25 mm). A concrete saw, hand tools or pneumatic tools may be used.
The groove is then cleaned by air blasting, sandblasting, or waterblasting, and dried. A
sealant is placed into the dry groove and allowed to cure. A bond breaker may be
provided at the bottom of the groove to allow the sealant to change shape, without a
concentration of stress on the bottom (Fig.2).

Fig.1: Routing and Sealing of Cracks in Concrete

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 Fig.2: Concrete Crack with Bond Breaker
The bond breaker may be a polyethylene strip or tape which will not bond to the sealant.
Careful attention should be applied when detailing the joint so that its width to depth
aspect ratio will accommodate anticipated movement.

Concrete Crack Repair by Stitching

Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in U-shaped
metal units with short legs (staples or stitching dogs) that span the crack as shown in
Fig.3. Stitching may be used when tensile strength must be re-established across major

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cracks. The stitching procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack,
cleaning the holes, and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with either a non-
shrink grout or an epoxy resin-based bonding system.

Fig.3: Concrete Crack Repair by Stitching

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Dry packing
Dry packing is the hand placement of a low water content mortar followed by tamping
or ramming of the mortar into place, producing intimate contact between the mortar and
the existing concrete. Because of the low water-cement ratio of the material, there is
little shrinkage, and the patch remains tight and can have good quality with respect to
durability, strength, and water tightness. Dry pack can be used for filling narrow slots
cut for the repair of dormant cracks. The use of dry pack is not advisable for filling or
repairing active cracks. Before a crack is repaired by dry packing, the portion adjacent
to the surface should be widened to a slot about 1 in. (25 mm) wide and 1 in. (25 mm)
deep. The slot should be undercut so that the base width is slightly greater than the
surface width. To minimize shrinkage in place, the mortar should stand for 1/2 hour
after mixing and then should be remixed prior to use. The mortar should be placed in
layers about 3/8 in. (10 mm) thick. Each layer should be thoroughly compacted over the
surface using a blunt stick or hammer, and each underlying layer should be scratched to
facilitate bonding with the next layer. The repair should be cured by using either water

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or a curing compound. The simplest method of moist curing is to support a strip of
folded wet burlap along the length of the crack.

Overlays
Slabs containing find dormant cracks can be repaired by applying an overlay, such as
polymer modified Portland cement mortar or concrete, or by silica fume concrete. Slabs
with working cracks can be overlaid if joints are placed in the overlay directly over the
working cracks. In highway bridge applications, an overlay thickness as low as 1-1/4
in. (30 mm) has been used successfully. Suitable polymers include styrene butadiene or
acrylic latexes. The resin solids should be at least 15 percent by weight of the Portland
cement, with 20 percent usually being optimum.
Autogenous healing

Autogenous healing is the ability of concrete to repair or heal cracks in the presence of
moisture. For a brittle material, subject to dimensional changes depending on the
amount of moisture present, the self-healing property of concrete is crucial to its
application in water-retaining structures.

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Water passing through concrete dissolves small amounts of calcium from the cement.
While the cement paste in dense, high strength concrete as used in pipes, is to all intents
and purposes impermeable to water, thin-walled concrete structures will often contain
discontinuities which allow water to pass through. These may be cracks which have
arisen in either the plastic or hardened state, internal separation at surfaces of
reinforcing wire or coarse aggregate, or local porous areas. It has been found that, given
favourable conditions, calcium originating from the cement will be deposited in
insoluble form in the void spaces and eventually seal them. The process is particularly
relevant to concrete pipe because the service conditions often provide an ideal
environment for autogenous healing to take place.

Methods of Repairing Active Cracks in Concrete

Different methods to repair active cracks in concrete structures are explained briefly in
the below section.

1. Drilling and Plugging through Crack

This method can be applied to the cracks that appear in straight lines. In this method, a

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hole is drilled near to the crack and this is filled with grout. This grout forms the key to
lock the crack preventing it from further propagation. Leakages and loss of soil are
prevented by the grout. This method is cost-effective and consumes less time.

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Another way of plugging the drilled hole is filling it with epoxy mortar or any epoxy
formulation with reinforcement bars placed in the drilled hole. The bars used are of
predetermined length and size such that it stitches the cracks across.

The procedure involves drilling a hole of 50 to 75mm diameter depending on the

width of crack following the crack location. The hole must be large enough to intersect
the crack along its full length and provide sufficient repair material to structurally
take the loads exerted on the key.

If water tightness is primary need over structural load transfer, then the drilled hole can
be filled by a resilient material of low modulus. If both properties are required, the first
hole is filled with grout and the second hole is filled with a resilient material.

2. Stitching of Cracks
Stitching of cracks seems to be simple and a durable method. In this method, holes are
drilled in a way that entry and exit points are made across the cracks. Through the holes,
a number of U-shaped metallic staples are passed through and at the ends, the holes are

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anchored strongly. Grout or epoxy can be used to anchor the ends.

Stitching of cracks is shown in figure-2 below.

Fig.2: Stitching of concrete cracks

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3. External Prestressing
Post-tensioning method can be employed to seal flexural cracks in reinforced concrete.
This can either arrest the cracks from further widening or correct it completely. The
method provides compression force in order to compensate the tendons and then
additional residual compressive force.

This method requires anchorage of the tie-rods to the anchoring device attached to the
beam as shown in figure-3

Fig.3: Post Tensioning Cracked Beam

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Any adverse effect of external prestressing on the structure as a part of crack correction
must be studied by approximate stress checks

4. Flexible Sealing
Another method for healing active cracks is the use of the flexible sealing method. This
method makes use of bond breaker as shown in figure-4 below.

Fig.4: Flexible Sealing

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Before choosing a repair method for active cracks, it must be determined whether it is
necessary to improve the flexural or tensile strength across the crack. If strength must
be restored, it is recommended to install an expansion joint near to the repaired crack in
order to avoid the occurrence of future cracks nearby the corrected one.

Repair of Dormant Cracks in Concrete

Following are the Methods of Repair for Dormant Cracks in Concrete:

Sealing of Cracks
Sealing of cracks as standalone repair should be used in conditions where structural
repair is not necessary. Isolated cracks whether extending through the concrete section
or partially into it, should be sealed at the concrete surfaces. For this a slot of approx.
25mm wide should be saw cut upto 10mm deep along the crack keeping crack at the
center of the slot. The concrete should be chiseled out from between the two saw cut
edges and concrete should be further undercut beyond the 10mm depth up to say 20mm
depth so that the base width is slightly greater than the surface width. After the slot is

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thoroughly cleaned, soaked with water for 10 hrs. and surface dried, a bond coat/ primer
coat, of an approximate latex bonding compound should be applied. Once the primer
becomes tacky, high strength polymer modified cementitious mortar should be filled in
the slot, properly tamped and surface finished. Curing compound should be applied as
soon as surface becomes touch dry. 7 days wet curing should be done by covering with
wet Hessian and polythene sheet

Routing and Sealing of Cracks : Alternatively, a V-groove should be prepared along

the crack at the surface ranging in depth from 6 to 25mm and minimum opening at
surface of 6mm (Fig. 1)

Fig: Repair of crack by routing and sealing

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A concrete saw, hand tools or pneumatic tools may be used. The groove is then cleaned
by air blasting, sand blasting or water blasting and dried. A sealant is placed into the
dry groove and allowed to cure. The sealant may be any of several materials, including
epoxies, urethanes, silicones, Polysulphide, asphaltic materials or polymer mortars. A
bond breaker may be provided at the bottom of the groove to allow the sealant to change
shape, without a concentration of stress on the bottom. The bond breaker maybe
polyethylene strip or tape which will not bond to the sealant.

Bond Breaking Method

In some cases, over bonding (strip coating) is used independently of or in conjunction
with sealing. For this an area approx. 25 to 75mm on each side of the crack is sand
blasted or cleaned by other means, and a coating (such as urethane) 1 to 2mm thick in
a band is applied over the crack. A bond breaker may be used over the crack or over a
crack previously sealed (Fig. 2). Cracks subject to minimal movement may be over
banded, but if significant movement can take place, sealing must be used in conjunction
with over banding to ensure a waterproof repair.

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Fig: Effect of bond breaker

Epoxy Injection Method
Cracks as narrow as 0.3mm can be bonded by the injection of epoxy successfully in
buildings, bridges and other concrete structures. However, unless the cause of the
cracking has been corrected, it will probably recur near the original crack. If the cause
of the crack cannot be removed and it is not causing reduction in strength of the
structure, then either the crack could be sealed with flexible sealant thus treating it as a
joint or establish a joint that will accommodate the movement and then the crack should
be grouted with epoxy. With the exception of certain moisture tolerant epoxies, this

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technique is not applicable if the cracks are actively leaking and cannot be dried out.
Epoxy injection requires a high degree of skill for satisfactory execution, and the
ambient temperature may limit application of the technique.

Corrosion of Embedded Steel in Concrete

Corrosion of steel reinforcement occurs by an electrochemical process which involves

exchanges of electrons similar to that which occurs in a battery. The important part of
the mechanism is the separation of negatively charged areas of metal or anodes where
corrosion occurs and positively charged areas or cathodes where a harmless charge
balancing reaction occurs.

Reinforcing steel in concrete normally does not corrode because of the formation of a
passive oxide film on the surface of the steel due to the initial corrosion reaction. The
process of hydration of cement in freshly placed concrete develops a high alkalinity,
which in the presence of oxygen stabilizes the film on the surface of embedded steel,
ensuring continued protection while the alkalinity is retained.

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Normally, concrete exhibits a pH above 12 because of the presence of calcium
hydroxide, potassium hydroxide – the term pH is a measure of the alkalinity or acidity,
ranging from highlyalkaline at 14 to highly acidic at zero, with neutrality at 7. Although
the precise nature of this passive film is unknown, it isolates the steel from the
environment and slows further corrosion as long as the film is intact.

Corrosion Mechanism

Corrosion of steel reinforcement occurs by a electrochemical process which involves

exchanges of electrons similar to that which occurs in a battery. The important part of
the mechanism is the separation of negatively charged areas of metal or anode where
corrosion occurs and positively charged areas or „cathodes‟ where a harmless charge
balancing reaction occurs. At the anode the iron dissolves and then reacts to form the
solid corrosion product, rust. The rust is formed at the metal/oxide interface, forcing
previously formed oxide away from the steel and compressing the concrete, causing it
to spall. So in other words for corrosion to occur four basic elements are required:

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  Anode – Site where corrosion occurs and current flows from
 Cathode – Site where no corrosion occurs and current flows to.
 Electrolyte – A medium capable of conducting electric current by ionic current
flow (i.e Soil, Water or Concrete)
 Metallic path – connection between the anode and cathode, which allows current
return and completes the circuit.

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However, there are two major situations in which corrosion of

reinforcing steel can occur.

These include:

1. Carbonation,

2. Chloride contamination

1. Deterioration through Carbonation

Carbonation is a process In which carbon dioxide from the atmosphere diffuses through

the porous concrete and neutralizes the alkalinity of concrete.

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Ca(OH)2+CO2 CaCo3+H2O

Carbon dioxide, which is present in air in proportions of around 0.3 percent by volume,
dissolves In water to form a mildly acidic solution. Unlike other acids that may
chemically attack and etch the surface of the concrete, this acid forms within the pores
of the concrete itself where the carbon dioxide dissolves in any moisture present. Here
it reacts with the alkaline calcium hydroxide forming insoluble calcium carbonate.

The pH value then drops from 12.5 to about 8.5. The carbonation process moves as a
front through the concrete, with a pH drop across the front. When it reaches the
reinforcing steel, the passive layer decays when the pH value drops below 10.5. The
steel is then exposed to moisture and oxygen and is susceptible to corrosion

Concrete inside the building frequently carbonates totally without any sign of
deterioration as the concrete dries out, leaving the steel exposed to air but not moisture.
Problems are seen externally where concrete is exposed to the elements and in certain
situations internally, such as kitchens and bathrooms, where the concrete is susceptible

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to condensation or water-leakage.

2. Deterioration due to Chloride

Salt causes corrosion by a different mechanism. When salt is dissolved in water sodium
chloride forms a versatile, highly corrosive solution of sodium ions(Na+) and chloride
ions(Cl). Salt is used for de-icing roads and its presence in sea water is a major problem
for reinforced concrete structures. The very mobile chloride ions disperse through
concrete pores in solution and where they come into contact with the reinforcing steel
they attack the passive layer.

Steel oxidizes in the presence of air and water to form rust which has a volume of up to
10 times that of the steel consumed. As concrete has a low tensile strength it will crack
when as little as a tenth of a millimeter of steel has been consumed. Horizontal cracks
from, causing corners toSPALLand surfaces to delaminate as the reinforcement’s
concrete cover becomes detached and falls away in sheets.

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The consequence can be seen on the underside of road bridges and many buildings and
structures beside the sea.ACI recommends the following chloride limits in concrete for
new construction, expressed as a percent by weight of cement:

Pre-stressed concrete : 0.08%

Reinforced concrete in wet conditions : 0.10%

Reinforced concrete in dry conditions : 0.20%

But in existing structures 0.026% is enough to breakdown the Passive Layer

Factors Influencing corrosion of Reinforcement

Various factors initiate and sustain the process of corrosion in R.C. structures. They are
broadly divided into two groups:

 General Influencing factors

 General accelerating factors

The following are the factors that generally influence corrosion of reinforcement in R.C.
structures.

 pH Value
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 Moisture
 Oxygen
 Carbonation
 Chlorides
 Ambient temperature
 Severity of exposure
 Quality of concrete
 Cover to the reinforcement
 Initial curing condition
 Formation of cracks

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General Accelerating factors

The following are the factors which accelerates the process of corrosion in R.C.
structures

 Chlorides
 Sulphates
 Chlorine
 Electrical Charges
 Methane Acids

Methods of Corrosion Protection

The following are some of the methods for protecting steel from corrosion.

 Protective coatings for reinforcement

 Cathodic protection
 Corrosion Resistant steel
 Corrosion inhibitors
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Protective coatings for reinforcement

This is an effective means to combat corrosion in such environment where ordinary

concrete with surface coating is not able to protect reinforcement against corrosion. The
surface coating for the reinforcement will increase the protection against corrosion.
There are several methods of providing protective coating to the reinforcement. The
important ones are:

i. Cement Slurry Coating

Cement Slurry Coating provides short-term protection until placement in
concrete. Several methods have been developed for an effective corrosion
protection using cement slurry. One such coating is a mixture of cement,
condensed silica and polymer dispersion. This mixer found to be
impermeable to water, chlorides and carbon-dioxide.

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 ii. Epoxy Coating
Epoxy coating is formed by application of an epoxy resin with appropriate
curing agents catalysts, pigments and flow control agents. Fusion bonding
using the electrostatic process is the recent development. Fusion bonded
epoxy coating provides long-term protection against corrosion. Though the
cost is relatively high, it is the one which is the most effective in high alkaline
and chloride contaminated environment.
iii. Plastic Coating
Similar to epoxy coating, the plastic coatings are very effective in preventing
corrosion of reinforcement even in high alkaline or chloride contaminated
environment. However, the reduction in bond between plastic coated bar and
the concrete is quite substantial and hence plastic coating cannot be
considered as a solution for prevention of corrosion which cannot be solved
by conventional methods.
iv. Galvanizing

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Galvanizing gives protection to the reinforcement against corrosion, by
means of metallic coating such as zinc. However, in case of corrosion due to
excessive chlorides, the effect of galvanizing protection is reduce and hence
is not advisable in highly chloride contaminated environments.

Cathodic protection

Cathodic protection interferes with the natural action of the electrochemical cells that
are responsible for corrosion. Cathodic protection can be effectively applied to control
corrosion of surfaces that are immersed in water or exposed to soil. Cathodic protection
in its classical form cannot be used to protect surfaces exposed to the atmosphere. The
use of anodic metallic coatings such as zinc on steel(galvanizing) is, however, a form
of cathodic protection, which is effective in the atmosphere. There are two basic
methods of supplying the electrical currents required to interfere with the
electrochemical cell action. They are

1. Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes.

2. Impressed current cathodic protection

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Cathodic protection with galvanic anodes

Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique to control the corrosion of a metal surface by

making it work as a cathode of an electrochemical cell. This is achieved by placing in
contact with the metal to be protected another more easily corroded metal to act as the
anode of the electrochemical cell. This method is also called sacrificial anode cathodic
protection system, where the active metal is consumed in the process of protecting the
surfaces, so that corrosion is controlled. In sacrificial anode systems the high energy
electrons required for cathodic protection are supplied by the corrosion of an active
metal.

Sacrificial anode systems depend on the differences in corrosion potential that are
established by the corrosion reactions that occur on different metals or alloys. For
example, the natural corrosion potential of iron is about -0.550 volts in seawater. The
natural corrosion potential of zinc in seawater is about -1.2 volts. Thus if the two metals
are electrically connected, the corrosion of the zinc becomes a source of negative charge
which prevents corrosion of the iron. In application where the anodes are buried, a

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special backfill material surrounds the anode in order to insure that the anode will
produce the despired output. Sacrificial anodes are normally supplied with either lead
wires or cast-m straps to facilitate their connection to the structure being protected. The
lead wires may be attached to the structures by welding or mechanical connections.
These should have a low resistance and should be insulated to prevent increased
resistance or damage due to corrosion. When anodes with cast-in straps are used, the
straps can either be welded directly to the structure or the straps can be used as locations
for attachment. A low resistance mechanically adequate attachment is required for good
protection and resistance to mechanical damage. In the process of providing electrons
for the cathodic protection of a less active metal the more active metal corrodes. The
more active metal (anode) is sacrificed to protect the less active metal(cathode). The
amount of corrosion depends on the metal being used as an anode but it is directly
proportional to the amount of current supplied. The anodes in sacrificial anode cathodic
protection systems must be periodically inspected and replaced when consumed.

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Impressed current Cathodic protection

In impressed current cathodic protection, an alternative source of direct electrical

current, usually a rectifier that converts alternating current to direct current is used to
provide the required electrical current. In this system, the electrical circuit is completed
through an inert anode material that is not consumed in the process

As shown in Figure low energy electrons that are picked up at a non-reactive anode bed
are given additional energy by the action of a rectifier to be more energetic than the
electrons that would be produced in the corrosion reaction. The energy for the “electron
energy pump” action of the rectifier is provided by ordinary alternating current. The
effect of these electrons at the structure being protected is the same as that derived from
the sacrificial anode type of cathodic protection system. However, the anode materials
(such as magnetic, platinum, and newly developed ceramic materials) have been
successfully used. For buried anodes, a backfill of carbonaceous material is used to
surround the anode to decrease the electrical resistance of the anode, to provide a
uniform, low resistivity environment surrounding the anode and to allow gasses

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produced at the anode surface to vent. In practice, materials such as graphite are used
for impressed current cathodic protection system anodes that are slowly consumed.
Anodes in impressed current systems must be inspected and replaced if consumed or
otherwise damaged.

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JACKETING

Jacketing is a method of structural retrofitting and strengthening It is used to increase

bearing load capacity following a modification of the structural design or to restore
structural design integrity due to a failure in the structural member.

This technique is used on vertical surfaces such as walls, columns and other
combinations such as beam sides and bottoms. It consists of added concrete with
longitudinal and transverse reinforcement around the existing column. Jacketing is the
process whereby a section of an existing structural member is restored to original
dimensions or increased in size by encasement using suitable materials. A steel
reinforcement cage or composite material wrap can be constructed around the damaged
section onto which shotcrete or cast-in-place concrete is placed.

Jacketing is particularly used for the repair of deteriorated columns, piers, and piles and
may easily be employed in underwater applications. The method is applicable for
protecting concrete, steel, and timber sections against further deterioration and for
strengthening.
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When is jacketing needed?

Jacketing is the process of strengthening weak RCC columns which have deteriorated
over some time due to adverse atmospheric conditions or due to poor maintenance of
the structure. Other reasons during the construction phase include design errors,
deficient concrete productions, bad execution process. During the service life, the need
may arise due to an earthquake; an accident, such as collisions, fire, explosions;
situations involving changes in the structure functionality; the development of more
demanding code requirements.

 The load carried by the column is increased.

 When there is an error in design.

 Deterioration of column due to weathering action.

 Dilapidation of columns.

 Heavy damage due to other causes like earthquake and fire

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Advantages of jacketing

 It increases the seismic capacity of columns.

 Amount of work is less as foundation strengthening is not required.

 It increases the shear strength of the column.

 It also increases the confinement of concrete in circular columns.

 Does not increase the significant weight of the column and also saves construction
time (curing).

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Different types of jacketing

1-Reinforced concrete jacketing

The strengthening of reinforced concrete members is a task that should be carried out
by a structural engineer according to calculations. Here only a few suggestions are
included to illustrate how the strengthening could be done. RC columns can best be
strengthened by jacketing, and by providing additional cage of longitudinal and lateral
tie reinforcement around the columns and casting a concrete ring. Jacketing a reinforced
concrete beam can also be done in the above manner. For holding the stirrup in this
case, holes will have to be drilled through the slab.

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2-Steel jacketing

Steel jacketing is also an effective method to increase basic strength capacity. Steel
jacketing not only provides enough confinement but also prevents deterioration of shell
concrete, which is the main reason for bond failure and buckling of longitudinal bars.
Steel jacketing refers to encasing the section with steel plates and filling the gap with
non-shrink grout. It is a very effective method to remedy the deficiencies such as
inadequate shear strength and inadequate splices of longitudinal bars at critical
locations. But, it may be costly and its fire resistance has to be addressed. In practice,
the most commonly used strengthening technique is by steel strips and angles. Steel

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jacketing helps to restore the strength, ductility, and energy absorption capacity of
columns thus it seems to be effective in retrofitting columns. And also the steel jacket
helps to increase the flexural strength and ductile behavior of the lap-spliced column
thus increasing the lateral performance of columns

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3-Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) jacketing

One of the most commonly used methods for retrofitting is Fiber Reinforced Polymer
(FRP) jacketing. FRP is widely used for its properties such as high strength to weight
ratio, stiffness, good impact properties, high resistance to corrosion in harsh
environmental and chemical condition, and also it causes only a minimum alteration to
the geometry of structural elements than other methods FRP is used to strengthen the
corroded rectangular columns considering different levels of corrosion and various
volumetric ratios and the test results indicate that shear resistance of FRP and column
increases with the increase in volumetric ratio and decreases with increase in different
levels of corrosion. Shrinkage is one of the factors responsible for the formation of
cracks in structural elements like beams and slab. To reduce the shrinkage hybrid fiber-
reinforced polymer (FRP) reinforced shrinkage compensating concrete is used.

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In this method, grooves are cut into the cover concrete, and FRP bars are placed in the
grooves and bonded using an appropriate filler, such as epoxy paste or cement grout.
FRP bars are usually used in the longitudinal direction to enhance the flexural strength

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of the column. Mostly, the method is used in conjunction with externally bonded FRP
jacketing, resulting in a hybrid jacketing.

Strengthening - Strengthening of Structural elements

Strengthening of concrete structures must be considered when the existing structure

deteriorates or any alteration to the structure has to be made due to which the structure
may fail to serve its purpose. Concerns must be taken to existing materials, often in
deteriorated condition, loads during strengthening and to existing geometry. In some
cases it can also be difficult to reach the areas that need to be strengthened. When
concrete structural strengthening is to be undertaken all failure modes must be
evaluated. Strengthening a structure for flexure may lead to shear failure instead of
giving the desired increased load bearing capacity. It should also be noted that not only
the failure mode of the strengthened member is important. If a critical member in a
structure is strengthened, another member can become the critical one. Because of
changed stiffness in an undetermined structural system the whole structure must be
investigated. The strengthening should also designed with consideration to minimize

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the maintenance and repair needs. When a strengthening is designed the consequences
from loss of strengthening effectiveness by fire, vandalism, collision etc. must in
addition be considered.

Repair of Leakage in the concrete structures

Leakage in the concrete structures causes inevitable damage to the reinforcement.

Construction joints, shrinkage and restraint cracks may form leak paths. The amounts
of water involved vary from damp-patches which tend to evaporate as they are formed,
to running -leaks which may eventually form undrained surfaces. Damp patches may
also be formed when water passes through the voids along reinforcing bars formed due
to plastic settlement.

The other common routes for larger volume leaks are honeycombed concrete,
movements joints like expansion and contraction joints. In case of water-retaining
structures, the extent of leakage may be measured by monitoring loss of liquid from the
structure.
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 Conventional leak-sealing methods
 Leak-sealing by injection techniques
Conventional methods

Some sources of minor leakage may dry up by autogenously healing which is an

accumulation of calcium salts along the leak path. This will obstruct the passage of
water over period of time and reduce the leakage to negligible proportions.

Once leak spots have been identified, the remedial action may involve the application
of local or complete surface seal in the form of a coating system.
 Surface preparations
 Filling of surface imperfections with resin-based grouts
 Application of primer
 Application of two coats of high-build paint

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The procedure may require quite extensive preparatory work including the injection of
suspect joints and random shrinkage cracks with allow viscosity resin.
Honey combed concrete if not particularly extensive may be filled out using a resin
based mortar. Laitance and surface contaminants may be removed by sand blasting and
power wire brush
Injection Sealing
From liquid flow and pressure considerations the simplest and most cost effective way
is to seal the leakage from the water-retaining side of the structure. When the wet side
is inaccessible, the leakage must be tackled from the dry side which is considerably
more difficult.Successfull leak sealing requires injection of sealant to fill water passages
completely, and it is necessary to attain a relatively high flow velocity to achieve this,
because of short pot-life or working time of the typical repair material.
Due to possibility of concrete being stressed during injection, it is preferable to maintain
lower pressures. The direct methods are very slow due to sealant being pumped slowly
through very narrow passages against pressure, and the pressure cannot be maintained

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for long enough to achieve complete penetration. In many cases water may find another
finer pathway leading from the same source. In contrast the indirect methods enable the
work to be completed quickly because surface seals are not required and mechanical
anchorages can be used
Repair of fire damaged structures
Most fire-damaged structures can be successfully repaired, this being the more cost-
effective solution than demolition and reconstruction. Before carrying out any repair it
is necessary to determine the extent of the damage to the concrete, and hence how much
must be removed and replaced. Similarly the effect on the reinforcement must be
determined and hence the requirement for any additional steel.
The principle types of damages are
 Reduction in strength of concrete
 Cracking and spalling of concrete
 Deflection and deformation of members
 Discolouration

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Concrete structures are determined by three main factors:

 The capacity of concrete itself to withstand heat

 The conductivity of the concrete to heat
 The coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete
A large number of reinforced concrete structures salvaged from destruction in fires by
timely fire fighting operations can be put to further service after strengthening and
providing some cosmetic repairs since the cost of restoration of such structures less than
that for dismantling and construction of new ones. The fire may cause different degrees
of damage to the structure: the structure may be completely burnt or destroyed; its
surface may be slightly damaged or slight deformation may occur. In the first case, the
whole of damaged portion has to be replaced during restoration of structure while in the
latter, only repair and finishing may be required. The extent of damage caused th the
structure during a fire depends on the duration of fire, and the temperature to which the
structure was subjected during the fire.

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High temperature during a fire reduces the strength of reinforced concrete structures
due to change in the strength and deformability of materials, reduction in cross sectional
dimensions, weakening of bond between the reinforcement and concrete which
determines structural action under the load.
When assessing the effects of a fire on a building structure, it is important to recognize
that the huge expansion that occurs in the members subjected to the fire temperature
may cause damage in other members remote from the fire. Shear cracking can occur in
columns and cracking resulting from inversion of moment may occur if detailing is not
adequate.
Restoration of fire Damaged Elements
For reinforced concrete, the main processes to be undertaken are as follows:
• Removal of damaged or weakened concrete
• Replacement of weakened reinforcement
• Replacement of concrete both to reinstate the original form and to provide adequate
structural capacity, durability and fire resistance. In some circumstances there may also
be a requirement for the reinstatement of special finishes and appearance.

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The eccentrically loaded columns fail when reinforcement bars in tension heat up. The
fire resistance of such elements can be increased by increasing the thickness of
protective layer. Heat transmission and temperature of bottom reinforcement are keys
to the behavior of reinforced concrete slab exposed to fire. The reinforcing bars are
assumed to retain one half of their original strength. Carrying capacity of slabs can be
enhanced by increasing their thickness. For beams, depth and width can be increased.
It should be kept in mind that in beams, weakening of bond between transverse
reinforcement and concrete on account of heating reduces the residual shear load
carrying capacity considerably.

The carrying capacity of axially loaded depends upon the cross section of the column
coefficient of change in strength of concrete under high temperature and corresponding
critical temperature. The carrying capacity can be restored by increasing the cross
section with suitable increase in the longitudinal steel.
Repair of earthquake damaged structures

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Earthquakes cause distress in structural components of lateral and gravity load-resisting
systems (beams, columns, load-bearing walls, and shear walls) as well as horizontal
diaphragms (slabs and roofs).
Once the structure is damaged, the structure is demolished or repaired depending on the
severity of the damage. The structure affected by the earthquake may suffer both non-
structural and structural damages.

1. Non-Structural/Architectural Repairs
Non-structural and architectural components get easily dislocated/affected during
earthquakes. Non-structural repairs cover the damages to civil and electrical items,
including the services in the building. Repairs to non-structural components are taken
up after the structural repairs are carried out. It involves the following:

1. Patching up of defects such as fall of plaster and cracks.

2. Repair of doors, windows, replacement of glass panes.

3. Checking and repairing electric conduits/wiring.

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 4. Checking and repairing gas pipes, water pipes, and plumbing services.

5. Rebuilding non-structural walls, smoke chimneys, parapet walls, etc.

6. Re-plastering of walls as required.

7. Rearranging disturbed roofing tiles.

8. Relaying cracked flooring at ground level.

9. Redecoration – painting, whitewashing, etc.

The above repairs to non-structural components do not restore the original
structural strength of structural components in the building. If only non-structural
repairs are carried out, and the required structural repairs are neglected, there may be
severe implications on the safety of the building.
2. Structural Repairs
2.1 Damage Assessment
Before taking up the structural repairs and strengthening measures, it is necessary to
conduct a detailed damage assessment to determine:

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1. The structural condition of the building to decide whether a structure is
amendable for repair; whether a continued occupation is permitted; to decide the
structure as a whole or a part requires demolition if considered dangerous;

2. If the structure is considered amendable for repair, a detailed damage assessment

(distress location, mapping of the crack pattern, crushed concrete, reinforcement
bending/yielding, etc.) shall be carried out for each structural component.

3. Non-destructive testing techniques could be employed to determine the residual

strength of the members.

4. Work out the details of the temporary supporting arrangement of the distressed
members so that the structure does not undergo further distress due to gravity
loads.

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2.2 Repair of Structural components
After a successful damage assessment of individual structural elements,
appropriate repair methods are to be carried out component-wise depending upon the
extent of the damage.
The repair may consist of the following:

1. Removal of the portions of cracked masonry walls and piers and rebuilding them
with richer mortar. Use of non-shrinking mortar will be preferable.
2. Addition of reinforcing mesh on both faces of the cracked wall, fixing it to the
wall with the use of spikes or bolts, and covering it with cement mortar or micro-
concrete.

3. Injecting cement or epoxy-like material, which is strong in tension, into the

cracks in walls.

4. The cracked reinforced cement elements may be repaired by epoxy grouting and
could be strengthened by epoxy or polymer mortar applications like shotcreting,

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jacketing, etc.
2.3 Seismic Strengthening
The main purpose of seismic strengthening is to enhance the seismic resistance of an
earthquake-damaged building to make it safer for similar future occurrences.

This work may involve some of the following actions:

1. Increasing the lateral strength in one or both directions by increasing column and
wall areas or the number of walls and columns.

2. Imparting integrity to the structure by providing a proper connection between its

resisting elements so that inertia forces generated by the building's vibration can
be transmitted to the members that can resist them. Specific vital aspects are the
connections between roofs or floors and walls, between intersecting walls, and
between walls and foundations.

3. Eliminating features that are sources of weakness or that produce stress levels in
some members. Asymmetrical plan distribution of resisting members, abrupt

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 changes of stiffness from one floor to the other, the concentration of large
masses, and large openings in walls without a proper peripheral reinforcement
are examples of defects of this kind.

4. Avoiding the possibility of brittle modes of failure by proper reinforcement and

connection of resisting members.

EPOXY INJECTION

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 SHORING AND UNDERPINNING

SHORING

Shoring is the construction of a temporary structure to support temporarily an unsafe

structure. These support walls laterally. Shoring can be used when walls bulge out,
when walls crack due to unequal settlement of foundation and repairs are to be carried

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out to the cracked wall, when an adjacent structure needs pulling down, when openings
are to be newly made or enlarged in a wall.
Types of shoring

1. Raking shoring

2. Flying shoring

3. Dead shoring
1. Raking Shoring
In this method, inclined members known as rakers are used to give lateral supports to
walls. (A raking shore consists of the following components:

1. Rakers or inclined member

2. Wall plate

3. Needles

4. Cleats

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 5. Bracing

6. Sole plate
The following points are to be kept in view for the use of the raking shores:

1. Rakers are to be inclined in the ground at 450. However the angle may be between
450 and 750.
2. For tall buildings, the length of the raker can be reduced by introducing rider
raker.

3. Rakers should be properly braced at intervals.

4. The size of the rakers is to be decided on the basis of anticipated thrust from the
wall.

5. The centre line of a raker and the wall should meet at floor level.

6. Shoring may be spaced at 3 to 4.5m spacing to cover longer length of the bar.

7. The sole plate should be properly embedded into the ground on an inclination
and should be of proper section and size.

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8. Wedges should not be used on sole plates since they are likely to give way under
vibrations that are likely to occur.

Fig.: Raking Shores Wall Support

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2. Flying Shoring

Flying shores is a system of providing temporary supports to the party walls of the two
buildings where the intermediate building is to be pulled down and rebuilt (figure 4 and
5). All types of arrangements of supporting the unsafe structure in which the shores do
not reach the ground come under this category. The flying shore consists of wall plates,
needles, cleats, horizontal struts (commonly known as horizontal shores) and inclined
struts arranged in different forms which varies with the situation. In this system also the
wall plates are placed against the wall and secured to it. A horizontal strut is placed
between the wall plates and is supported by a system of needle and cleats. The inclined
struts are supported by the needle at their top and by straining pieces at their feet. The
straining piece is also known as straining sill and is spiked to the horizontal shore. The
width of straining piece is the same as that of the strut. When the distance between the
walls (to be strutted apart) is considerable, a horizontal shore cannot be safe and
a trussed framework of memebers is necessary to perform the function of flying shore.

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Fig : Flying Shore

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 Fig : Flying shore when the distance between two walls is considerable

3.Dead Shoring TRACE KTU

Dead shore is the system of shoring which is used to render vertical support to walls
and roofs, floors, etc when the lower part of a wall has been removed for the purpose of
providing an opening in the wall or to rebuild a defective load bearing wall in a structure
(figure 6 and 7). The dead shore consists of an arrangement of beams and posts which
are required to support the weight of the structure above and transfer same to the ground
on firm foundation below
When opening in the wall are to be made, holes are cut in the wall at such a height as
to allow sufficient space for insertion of the beam or girder that will be provided
permanently to carry the weight of the structure above. Distance at which the holes are
cut depends upon the type of masonry and it varies from 1.2m to 1.8m centre. Beams
called needles are placed in the holes and are supported by vertical props called dead
shores at their ends on either side of the wall. The needles may be of timber or steel and
are of sufficient section to carry the load above

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 Fig : Dead Shore

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Fig : Section of the elevation showing arrangement of dead shores for making an
opening in an existing wall

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The dead shores stand away from wall on either side so as to allow for working space
when the needle and the props are in position. The props are tightened up by folding
wedges provided at their bases while the junction between the prop and the needle is
secured with the help of dogs. Before the dismantling work is started, all the doors,
windows or other openings are well strutted. In order to relieve the wall of load of floors
and roof above, they are independently supported. Vibrations and shocks are bound to
occur when wall cutting is done as such a measure of safety raking shores are sometimes
erected before commencement of wall cutting operation.
UNDERPINNING

Underpinning is a method for repair and strengthening of building foundations.

Underpinning methods, procedures and their applications in strengthening of different
types of foundations is discussed in this article. There are situations where a failure in
foundation or footing happens unexpectedly after the completion of whole structure
(both sub and superstructure). Under such an emergency situation, a remedial method
has to be suggested to regain the structural stability. The method of underpinning help

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to strengthen the foundation of an existing building or any other infrastructure. These
involve installation of permanent or temporary support to an already held foundation so
that additional depth and bearing capacity is achieved.

Underpinning Method

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Structural Conditions which Requires Underpinning
There are many reasons that make an engineer to suggest underpinning method for
stabilization of the substructure such as:

 The degradation of timber piles used as a foundation for normal buildings would
cause settlement. This degradation of structures is due to water table fluctuations.
 Rise and lowering of the water table can cause a decrease of bearing capacity of
soil making the structure to settle.
 Structures that are built over soil with a bearing capacity not suitable for the
structure would cause settlement.
Need for Underpinning
The decision of underpinning requirement can be made based on observations. When
an already existing structures start to show certain change through settlement or any
kind of distress, it is necessary to establish vertical level readings as well as at the offset
level, on a timely basis. The time period depends upon the how severe is the settlement.
Now, before the excavation for a new project, professionals have to closely examine

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and determine the soil capability to resist the structure that is coming over it. Based on
that report the need for underpinning is decided. Sometimes such test would avoid
underpinning to be done after the whole structure is constructed.
Methods of Underpinning
Following are the different underpinning methods used for foundation strengthening:

 Mass concrete underpinning method (pit method)

 Underpinning by cantilever needle beam method

 Pier and beam underpinning method

 Mini piled underpinning

 Pile method of underpinning

 Pre-test method of underpinning

Whatever be the types of underpinning method selected for strengthening the
foundation, all of them follow a similar idea of extending the existing foundation either
lengthwise or breadthwise and to be laid over a stronger soil stratum. This enables

36
distribution of load over a greater area. Different underpinning methods are mentioned
briefly in the following sections. The choice of method depends on the ground
conditions and the required foundation depth.
1. Mass Concrete Underpinning Method (Pit Method)
Mass concrete underpinning method is the traditional method of underpinning, as it has
been followed by centuries. The method involves extending the old foundation till it
reaches a stable stratum
The soil below the existing foundation is excavated in a controlled manner through
stages or pins. When strata suitable is reached, the excavation is filled with concrete
and kept for curing, before next excavation starts. In order to transfer the load from old
foundation to new one, a new pin is provided by means of placing dry sand-cement
pack. This is a low-cost method suitable for the shallow foundation. For more
complicated problems related to the foundation other superior methods have to chosen.

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Mass Concrete Underpinning (pit method)

2. Underpinning By Cantilever Needle Beam Method

Figure-2 represents the arrangement of cantilever pit method of underpinning, which is
an extension of pit method. If the foundation has to be extended only to one side and
the plan possess a stronger interior column, this method can be used for underpinning.

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Advantages of Cantilever Needle Beam Method:

 Faster than traditional method

 One side access only

 High load carrying capability

Disadvantages:

 Digging found uneconomical when existing foundation is deep

 Constraint in access restricts the use of needle beams

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Cantilever Needle Beam Underpinning Method

3. Pier and Beam Underpinning Method

It is also termed as base and beam method which was implemented after the second
world war. This method progressed because the mass concrete method couldn't work
well for a huge depth of foundation. It is found feasible for most of the ground
conditions. Here reinforced concrete beams are placed to transfer the load to mass
concrete bases or piers as shown in figure 2. The size and depth of the beams are based
on the ground conditions and applied loads. It is found economical for depth shallower
than 6m.

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 Pier and Beam Underpinning Method
4. Mini Piled Underpinning
This method can be implemented where the loads from the foundation have to
transferred to strata located at a distance greater than 5 m. This method is adaptable for
soil that has variable nature, access is restrictive and causes environmental pollution

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problems. Piles of diameter between 150 to 300 mm in diameter is driven which may
be either augured or driven steel cased ones.
5. Pile Method of Underpinning
In this method, piles are driven on adjacent sides of the wall that supports the weak
foundation. A needle or pin penetrates through the wall that is in turn connected to the
piles as shown in figure. These needles behave like pile caps. Settlement in soil due to
water clogging or clayey nature can be treated by this method

Underpinning by Pile Method

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6. Pre-test Method of Underpinning
It is employed for strip or pad foundation. Can be used for building with 5 to 10 stories.
Here the subsoil is made compact and compressed, in the new excavation level that
gives predetermined loads to the soil. This is done before underpinning is performed.
Here reduced noise and disruption are expected. This method cannot be implemented
for raft foundation.
Demolition Techniques
Demolition of buildings and structures are required for various reasons. Demolition
methods and processes for buildings and other structures are described. As we know
that every design of a building or a structure has a lifespan know as design life. The
building is designed considering a span of life, say 80 -100 years. When this design life
of the building is over, the structure is not safe for living and neighboring buildings.
There can be more reasons for demolition of a building, old structures are to be replaced
by new ones. The structure lost its stability or having any structural damage. Small
structures are demolished to build big structures etc

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Building Demolition Process
Different steps are involved in the process of demolition of building structures which
are:

1. Surveying

2. Removal of hazardous materials

3. Preparation of plan

4. Safety measures
Surveying of Buildings for Demolition
Surveying means study of different parameters of the structure and its surroundings.
There are two types of surveying are mainly conducted. They are

1. Building surveying

2. Structural surveying

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1. Building Surveying
In survey of buildings for demolition, following process are carried out:

 Types of construction material used

 Usage of building prior and present during demolition.

 The presence of wastewater, hazardous materials, matters arising from toxic

chemicals, flammable or explosive and radioactive materials, etc.

 Drainage conditions and possible problems on water pollution, flooding and

erosion.

 Shared facilities with adjoining building, including common staircases, partition

walls.

 Adjoining pedestrian and vehicular traffic conditions

 The sensitivity of neighbourhood with respect to noise, dust, vibration and traffic
impact.
2. Structural Surveying

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In structural survey, following process are involved in demolition:

 The method of construction

 The structural system and structural conditions of basements, underground tanks
or underground vaults.
 The original structural system employed in the design.
 The condition of the building.
Removal of Hazardous Materials
If hazardous materials like asbestos minerals, petroleum contamination, and radioactive
metals are found in the investigation of site for demolition. Specialized personals are
called for the removal of the hazardous materials from the site prior to the demolition
of structure.

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Preparation of Demolition Plan for Structures
A detailed demolition plan is made which illustrates the different process involved and
they are:

 The location of the building to be demolished.

 The distances from the building to be demolished to its adjacent buildings,

streets, structures and significant street furniture.

 The structural support systems of the building.

 A plan showing the procedure for the demolition of the building; detailed
sequence of demolishing structural members; and the method of demolition to
be adopted.

 A plan showing all precautionary measures for the protection of the public
including hoardings, covered walkways, catch platforms, catch fans, scaffolding,
protective screens and safety nets.

 Method of handling demolished building debris.


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Time required for the complete demolition process etc.
Safety Measures during Demolition of Building Structures
 All the workers, site supervisors and engineers including plant and equipment
operators are briefed with the potential hazards and process of demolitions.
 All goods that are flammable are removed from the site unless it is used in the
work involved.
 All the flammable materials like wood, timber, fuels etc. are stored in proper
storage facilities.
 Firefighting appliances are stationed in the demolition site till the process is
completed. Due to the demolition of structure, many problems are faced by the
workers, such as. exposure to dust, chemical exposure, heat stress and
ventilation, noise exposure, medical and first aid facilities, sanitation and
occupational diseases.
 To overcome these problems suitable measures are undertaken.

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Demolition Sequence

In general, the following sequence shall apply:

a) Prior to demolition of internal floors, all cantilevered slabs and beams, canopies, and

verandhas shall first be demolished

b) The structural elements, in general, shall be demolished in the following sequence:

- Slabs;

- Secondary beams; then

- Main beams

c) Mechanical plant shall descend from the floor with temporary access ramp, or be

lowered to the next day floor by lifting machinery or by other appropriate means;

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d) When a mechanical plant has just descended from the floor above, the slabs and

beams, in two consecutive floors may be demolished by the mechanical plant.

Demolition Techniques
The choice of demolition technique will depend on the nature of the building or
structure and its environment. Risks to the public, operatives involved in the demolition
process and adjacent structures and buildings should be considered.
Demolition techniques may be categorized as;-
 Piecemeal demolition, using hand-held tools
 Mechanical method by
1. Hydraulic crusher with Long Boom
arm
2. Wrecking Ball
3. Pusher Arm

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 4. Wire Rope Pulling
5. Clam Shell
Other Methods like
1. Non Explosive Demolition Agent
2. Explosive Demolition
3. Saw cutting
4. Cutting and Lifting
5. Water jet
Piecemeal Demolition (Demolition by Hand):
For demolitions of reinforced concrete buildings by hand, tools such as electric,
pneumatic breakers, jack hammers etc are commonly being used. Oxy-acetylene torch
could be used to cut the reinforcements.
The reinforcements shall remain until all the concrete connecting to or supported by the
reinforcement is broken away or when its supports are no longer required. Cantilever
canopies, balconies and exterior walls are critical elements in building demolition.

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In congested areas, these features could critically impact on the safety of the public.
Demolition of these features shall be performed with extreme caution. If rope or tie
wires are used to pull down the structural elements, the pulling wire must be at least 4
times stronger than the anticipated pulling force.
In addition, workers shall be shielded from the rope or tie wires. The rope or ties wire
shall be checked at least twice per day. Lifting appliances may be necessary to hold
larger structural members during cutting and for lowering severed structural members
and other debris. Chutes may be used to discharge debris into a vehicle or hopper.
Foundations would normally be grubbed up by excavation machines

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Mechanical Demolition
Mechanical demolition generally involves the use of large machinery with attachment
to dismantle the building from outside. The common mechanical methods include the
use of a Hydraulic crusher with long Boom arm, Wrecking Ball, pusher arm, wire rope,
clam shell etc… These methods shall only be applied to isolated buildings on relatively
flat ground. If it is attached to another structure, the two properties should be separated
by the use of hand methods before the main demolition process begins.
The concerns and good practices of the mechanical demolition generally included the
following;
1) The machine shall be operated on smooth and firm ground;
2) It shall also have adequate counter-weight to prevent overturning during the
operation;
3) The equipment and accessories such as attachments and rope shall be inspected
frequently and shall be repaired or whenever necessary;
4) The impact of the collapsed structural sections on the floor or ground shall be checked

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to prevent the potential overloading of the suspended floor, vibration and disturbance
to adjacent properties and damage to underground utilities.
5) The site shall have full time security to prevent unauthorized personnel entering the
site. No person shall stay within the working area of the machine and the building while
the machine is operating.
6) Sufficient water spray or other anti-dust precautions shall be provided to minimize
air pollution by dust;
7) The cab of the machine shall be equipped with impact proofed glass and its
construction shall be robust enough to protect the operator from flying debris;
8) A spot person shall be on site full time to provide guidance and assistance to the
operator in the demolition process.

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A. Hydraulic crusher with Long Boom arm
The crusher attachment breaks the concrete and the reinforcement by the hydraulic
thrust through the long boom arm system. The hydraulic crusher can be operated from
the ground outside the building. This method is also suitable for dangerous buildings,
silos and other industrial facilities. For environmental reason, it should be used
wherever practicable because of its quietness.

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Application Criteria
 The operation shall have a minimum clear space of 1/2 the building height as a
safety zone for the falling debris;
 The equipment shall be inspected and maintained periodically to make sure the
equipment is in good and safe condition.
 The excavator shall operate on firm ground that can support the machine during
the crusher operation;
 Except for special applications, each section of the structure shall be demolished
in a top down sequence to ensure stability of the structure;
 Debris may be used to build up a platform for the excavator to extend the range
of reach.

46
  It is important that the debris is densely compacted to support the operation of
the excavator. The platform must be flat and the slope must be stable. The height
of the build up platform shall be limited to 3 m.
 The side slope of the temporary platform shall not be steeper than 1:1 (horizontal
to vertical) unless the condition allows a steeper slope. The slope of access ramp
for the machine shall be in accordance with the manufacturer‟s
recommendation.
 The width in both directions of the platform shall be at least one and one-half the
length of the machine to allow safe maneuver during the demolition operation;
 To minimize the dust impact, the structure shall be pre-soaked with water before
demolition.
 Water shall be continuously sprayed during the crushing operation
 Debris may fall out of the building during the demolition. The site shall be
completely fenced off. There shall be 24-hour guarded security to allow only
authorized personnel for site access.

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 During the operation of the crusher there shall be no worker within the machine
operating area or inside the building;
 The crusher operator shall possess the essential skills and significant experience
in the crusher operation. There shall be a spot person to assist in the operation
and alert the operator of any potential problem during the operation.

B. Wrecking Ball:
The wrecking ball application consists of a crane equipped with a steel ball. The
destruction of the building is by the impact energy of the steel ball suspended from the
crawler crane. The wrecking ball operates outside the building. This method is suitable
for dilapidated buildings, silos and other industrial facilities. However, the operation
requires substantial clear space. The application also demands high level skill operators
and well-maintained equipment.

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Application Criteria

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The recommended criteria for the use of wrecking ball are presented in the following:
 Except for special application, the balling of each section of the structure shall
proceed from top to bottom. Care shall be taken to maintain the stability of the
structure;
 Recommended techniques for the wrecking ball operations include:
1) Vertical Drop – free falling of the wrecking ball onto the structure;
2) Swing in line – swinging of the ball in-line with the jib.
 A second dragline will normally connect to the ball horizontally to control the
ball motion. The ball shall be swung into the building. The ball shall strike at the
top of the mem9ber so as to avoid the member from falling outside the building.
 Slewing the jib (boom) is not recommended. The motion of the ball by slewing
the jib is difficult to control. It demands expert knowledge of the machine and
structure as well as operating skills to safely perform the task.
 Slewing can potentially induce a tremendous amount of stress on the jib, as such,
its use shall be avoided

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 The jib or boom shall be operated with not less than 3 m above the portion of the
structure being demolished;
 Clear space for operation between the crane and the structure being demolished
shall be 50% of the height of structure, the clear distance between the site
boundary and the building to be demolished shall not be less than 50% of the
building height plus an additional 6 m for the crane to maneuver, this criteria
shall apply to all sides of the building to be demolished by wrecking ball;
 The demolition ball shall be connected with swivel type anti-spin device to
prevent twisting and tangling of the wire during operation;
 The wire and boom of the machine used for balling shall have a rated capacity,
at the working radius, of at least 5 times the weight of the ball;
 The strength of the wire shall be at least twice the tensile strength of the nominal
steel reinforcement of the floor slab and beams. The high strength wire allows
the pullout of the wrecking ball from potential traps;
 To ensure that the crane is in good condition, the wire connecting to the ball, the

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boom components and connecting pins shall be inspected twice daily.
 A sufficient length of the wire shall be provided to allow the ball to drop to the
lowest working level plus an addition of 10% of the wire length and no less than
3 drums.
 For swing in-line method, there shall be sufficient length of the dragline wire to
allow the ball to fall in the event that the ball is entangled with the falling debris;
 The operation shall not be performed adjacent to overhead power lines; The site
shall be entirely fenced off to forbid public access.
 A 24-hour security guard shall be assigned to the site to enforce the access
restriction; depending on the relative location between the fence and the
building, and fence shall be designed to withstand accidental impact by the
wrecking ball;
 During the use of the demolition ball, expect for the crane operator and the spot
person, all other workers shall be kept away from the demolition ball‟s working
radius.

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  Nobody shall stay inside the building;
 To minimize the dust impact on the surrounding area, the structure to be
demolished shall be pre-soaked with water before demolition. Water spraying
shall continue on the structure during demolition;
 Since the safety and success of the project depend highly on the operator and site
personnel, the operator must have proven experience and skill for operating the
wrecking ball to the satisfaction of the approval authority; and
 A spot person shall be on site during the operation to assist the operator and to
ensure site safety. The spot person shall have extensive knowledge and
experience in the use of wrecking ball. T
 The qualification and experience of the spot person shall be equivalent to those
of the wrecking ball operator.
C. Concrete sawing maethod :

There are only two methods of concrete sawing:

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1. Dry sawing –

This method is only suited for outdoor concrete sawing because it generates an
enormous amount of dust. Dry sawing requires the use of diamond blades to
prevent the sawing machine from overheating and to reduce the production of
dust.

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 2. Wet sawing –

The most popular method because it produces less dust and is environment-
friendly. The blade does not overheat because the water keeps it cool.

Explosive Demolition Method for Building Structures :

Implosion Method of Building Demolition / Implosion by delayed detonation

technique

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Implosion is the process of demolition of a building using explosives. If the supports of
the building are removed, the structure collapses. Using implosion technique, the main
supports of the buildings such as column’s, beams and slab are fixed with explosives.
When these explosives are detonated, the column collapse and so is the structure.
Depending how the structure falls, there are two types of implosion:

a) Falling like a tree

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In this type of implosion, the building is made to fall like a tree to the sideward. This is
the commonly used type of implosion. When free space is available besides the
building, this type of demolition is prescribed.

If the free space is available on the left side of the building, the explosives are set on
the lower level of the building on the left side columns. As the explosives are detonated,
the columns bursts, the building tends to falls towards the left side. Steel cables are tied
to the building to control the falling direction of the building.

b) Falling into its own footprint

When the free spaces are not available around the building and the structure around the
building are to be protected. This type of demolition is used.

In this type of demolition, explosives are set in the floor below the middle part of the
building.

These explosives are to be heavy as the explosion must demolish the building at once..

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As the explosions are detonated, the upper part of building destroys and falls upon the
lower building. Due to the heavy load and force the lower part of the building also
collapses and falls on its own footprint.

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