What is bandwidth:- In computer networks, the term bandwidth

refers to the speed of data transmissions. It is a measure of the data

that can be transmitted from one point to another in a given
amount of time.
what is Throughput:- The throughput is a measure of how fast we
can actually send data through a network. Throughput is the rate of
successful message delivery over a communication
channel/medium. Bandwidth in bits per second and throughput
seems to be the same, but they are different. Throughput is
controlled by available bandwidth.
What is jitter:- Another performance issue that is related to delay is
jitter. Jitter is the variance in time delay in milliseconds (ms)
between data packets over a network. It is a disruption in the
normal sequence of sending data packets. In technical terms, jitter is
a “packet delay variance”. The jitter is considered as a problem
when different packets of data face different delays in a network
and the data at the receiver application is time-sensitive, i.e. audio
or video data.
List controls access protocols:- 1) Reservation:- In this method, the
station needs to make a "before sending data". The time is divided
into intervals. If there are m stations, then the intervals are exactly
m. 2) Polling:- In this method, one station is designated as a primary
station and others are secondary stations. All data transfer should
be made through the primary device. 3) Token Passing:- In this
method, a station is allowed to send data when the station receives
a special frame called a token.
Define Packetizing:- The network layer receives the data from the
upper layers and creates its own packets by encapsulating these
packets. The process is known as packetizing. This packetizing is
done by Internet Protocol (IP) that defines its own packet format.
Write IPv6 address space:- The address space of IPv6 is much larger
as compared to IPv4. The address space of IPv6 contains 2128
addresses as shown below and this address space is 296 times of
the IPv4 address
List UDP services:- The general UDP services are Process to Process
Communication, Connectionless Services, Flow Control, Error
Control, Congestion Control, Encapsulation and Decapsulation,
Queuing, Multiplexing and Demultiplexing.
Write the list of states for TcP:- 1) CLOSED 2) LISTEN 3) SYN-SENT
4) SYN-RCVD 5) ESTABLISHED 6) CLOSE-WAIT 7) TIME-WAIT
8) LAST-ACK 9) CLOSING
What is full duplex communication:- In full-duplex mode, the
communication can take place in both directions simultaneously, i.e.
at the same time on the same channel. For example, the telephone
communication system is an example of full-duplex communication
mode.
Advantages: (i) Enables two-way communication simultaneously. (ii)
Fastest method of data communication.
Disadvantages: (i) More expensive and complex method. (ii) Two
bandwidth channels is required for data transmission.
What is Registered Ports:- The ports ranging from 1024 to 49151
are not assigned or controlled by IANA. They can be registered with
IANA to avoid duplication.
Write a note on BSS:- BSS is a building block for a Wireless LAN. A
BSS is made up of stationary or mobile wireless station and an
optional central base station, known as Access Point (AP). The BSS
without an AP is a stand-alone network and called as ad hoc
architecture. Such types of networks cannot send data to other
BSSs. Stations can form a network without the need of AP. Stations
can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an
AP is called an infrastructure network. All stations in such
architecture are communicating through an AP.
What are the different layers in the TCP/IP reference model?
There are four layers of the TCP/IP model: network access, internet,
transport, and application. Used together, these layers are a suite of
protocols. The TCP/IP model passes data through these layers in a
particular order when a user sends information, and then again in
reverse order when the data is received.
What are the two sub layers of data link layer:- 1) Media Access
Control (MAC): The MAC sub layer controls the means by which
multiple devices share the same media channel. This includes
contention methods and other media access details. The MAC layer
also provides addressing information for communication between
network devices. 2) Logical Link Control (LLC): The LLC sub layer
establishes and maintains links between communicating devices. LLC
sublayer provides interface between the media access methods.
Write the different control bits or flags in control field of TCP
segment:- In TCP, flags indicate a particular connection state, provide
some additional helpful information for troubleshooting purposes, or
handle control of a specific connection. Flags are also called control
bits. Each flag corresponds to 1-bit information. The most commonly
used flags are SYN, URG, ACK, PSH, FIN, and RST.
sliding window in TCP:- The TCP sliding window determines the
number of unacknowledged bytes, x , that one system can send to
another. Two factors determine the value of x : The size of the send
buffer on the sending system. The size and available space in the
receive buffer on the receiving system.
List components of data communication:- 1. Sender 2.message
3.medium 4.protocol 5.receiver
What is data communication:- The purpose of data communications
is to provide the rules and regulations that allow computers with
different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to
share resources. Data communication refers to the exchange of
information/data between two devices through some form of wired
or wireless transmission medium.
Write the some important design issues of the data link layer:-
1. Services provided to the Network Layer: The data link layer acts
as a service interface to the network layer. How to provide a
well-defined service interface in the network layer on source
machine to the network layer on destination machine.
2. Frame Synchronization/Framing: Frame synchronization is the
major issue of data link layer. The source machine sends data in
blocks called frames to be the destination machine. The starting
and ending of each frame should be identified so that the frame
can be recognized by the destination machine. This design issue
determines how the bits of the physical layer are grouped into
frames.
3. Flow Control: It deals with how to regulate the flow of frames
so that slow receivers are not swamped by fast senders.
4. Error Control: This design issue deals with transmission errors. It
must provide an error control mechanism to detect and
retransmit damaged, duplicate, or lost frames from source to
destination.
What are the main properties of routing:- 1. Correctness: The routing
should be done properly and correctly so that the packets may reach their
proper destination. 2. Simplicity: The routing should be done in a simple
manner so that the overhead is as low as possible. With increasing
complexity of the routing algorithms the overhead also increases. 3.
Robustness: Once, a major network becomes operative, it may be expected
to run continuously for years without any failures. The algorithms designed
for routing should be robust enough to handle hardware and software
failures and should be able to cope with changes in the topology and traffic
without requiring all jobs in all hosts to be aborted and the network
rebooted every time some router goes down. 4. Stability: The routing
algorithms should be stable under all possible circumstances. 5. Fairness:
Every node connected to the network should get a fair chance of
transmitting their packets. This is generally done on a first come first serve
basis. 6. Optimality: The routing algorithms should be optimal in terms of
throughput and minimizing mean packet delays. Here there is a trade-off
and one has to choose depending on his suitability.
Write the base header format of IPv6:- 1. Version (4 bits) field
specifies the version of Internet Protocol number. For IPv6 it is 6 i.e.
0110. 2. Traffic Class (4 bits) field defines the priority of the packet
with respect to traffic congestion. 3. Flow Label (20 bits) field that is
designed to provide special handling for a particular flow of data. The
purpose of flow label field is to indicate that the packet belongs to a
specific sequence of packets between source to destination and can
be used to prioritized delivery of packets for services like voice. 4.
Payload Length (16 bits) is a field defining the total length of IP
datagram including the base header. 5. Next Header (8 bits) field
identifies the type of header immediately following the IPv6 header.
6. Hop Limit (8 bits) field serves the same purpose as the TTL (Time
To Live) field in IPv4. The Hop Limit field shows the maximum number
of routers the IPv6 packet can travel. 7. Source Address (128 bits)
field identifies the original source of the datagram. 8. Destination
Address (128 bits) field identifies the destination of the datagram.
Write any eight features of IPv6 protocol:- 1.Expanded Addressing
Capabilities: IPv6 increases the IP address size from 32 bits to 128
bits, to support more levels in the addressing hierarchy, a much
greater number of addressable nodes, and simpler auto-configuration
of addresses. 2. Support for Resource Allocation: In IPv6, the type-of-
service field has been removed, but two new fields, traffic class and
flow label have been added to enable the source to request special
handling of the packet. This mechanism can be used to support traffic
such as real-time audio and video. 3. Support for More Security: The
encryption and authentication options in IPv6 provide confidentiality
and integrity of the packet. IPv6 basic specification includes security
in the form of packet encryption and source authentication 4. Header
Format Simplification: Some IPv4 header fields have been dropped
or made optional, in IPv6 to reduce the common-case processing cost
of packet handling and to limit the bandwidth cost of the IPv6 header
Describe Bus topology:- In bus topology, all nodes are connected to a
central cable which is called a bus. This bus is also called Trunk or
sometimes it was also referred to as Backbone cable. Trunk cable was
then connected to the branch cables which were further connected
to the PCs. Every network device communicates with the other
device through this Bus. Nodes are connected to the bus cable by
drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running between the
device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices
into the main cable or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a
contact with the metallic core. A node (computer) that wants to send
data, it puts the data on the bus which carries it to the destination
node.
Describe Star Topology:- In star topology each device has a
dedicated point-to-point link on it to a central controller, usually
called hub or switch. The devices are not directly connected to one
another. Each computer on a star network first communicates with a
central hub/switch that forwards the message either to all the
computers or only to the destination computers.
Describe Ring Topology :- In ring topology, the computers in the
network are connected in a circular fashion which form of a ring. • In
ring topology, each computer is connected to the next computer,
with the last one connected to the first or we can say each device is
connected to other two devices with a dedicated link in one
direction, from device to device. Each computer in the ring
incorporates a repeater.
Describe Mesh Topology:- In a mesh network topology, each of the
network nodes, computer and other devices, are interconnected
with one another with dedicated point to point link. Dedicated
means that a link carries traffic only between the two devices it
connects. So for N number of nodes, there will be a total n(n-1)/2
links required. Mesh topology is usually implemented in a limited
fashion, as a backbone connecting the main computers of a hybrid
network that can include several other topologies.
Write the difference between IPv4 and IPv6.
IPv4:- 1) IPv4 has a 32-bit address length. 2) It Supports Manual and
DHCP address configuration. 3) In IPv4 end to end, connection
integrity is Unachievable. 4) It can generate 4.29×109 address space.
5) The Security feature is dependent on the application.
IPv6:- 1) IPv6 has a 128-bit address length. 2) It supports Auto and
renumbering address configuration. 3) In IPv6 end-to-end,
connection integrity is Achievable. 4) The address space of IPv6 is
quite large it can produce 3.4×1038 address space. 5) IPSEC is an
inbuilt security feature in the IPv6 protocol.
Define protocols:- A protocol is a set of rules that governs data
communications. It represents an agreement between the
communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but could not communicate.
List any two channelization protocols:-
FDMA(Frequency-Division Multiple Access)
TDMA(Time-Division Multiple Access)
CDMA(Code-Division Multiple Access)
wireless LAN:- Today, wireless communication is one of the fastest
growing technologies. The demand for connecting devices without
the use of cables is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs are those
Local Area Networks that use high frequency radio waves instead of
cables for connecting the devices in LAN.
Application :- 1)Convenience: All notebook computers and many
mobile phones are equipped with the Wi-Fi technology to connect
directly to a wireless LAN. 2) Scalability: A wireless LAN can typically
expand with existing equipment, while a wired network might
require additional cables and other materials. 3) Ease of Setup:
Since, a wireless LAN does not require running physical cables
through a location, installation can be quick and cost-effective. 4)
Cost: It can cost less to operate a wireless LAN, which eliminates or
reduces wiring costs during office moves, reconfigurations, or
expansions.
Define Congestion Control:- This layer is also responsible for
handling the congestion problem at the node, when there are too
many packets stored at the node to be forwarded to the next node.
What is Routing:- When independent networks or links are
combined together to create internet works, multiple routes are
possible from source machine to destination machine. The network
layer protocols determine which route or path is best from source to
destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
Routes frames among networks.
What is a port number:- A port number is a way to identify a specific
process to which an internet or other network message is to be
forwarded when it arrives at a server.
What is internetworking:- Computer network term is used to
describe two or more computers that are linked to each other. When
two or more computer networks or computer network segments are
connected using devices such as a router then it is called computer
internetworking.
What is computer network:- A computer network is an
interconnection of computers and computing devices using either
wires or radio waves over small or large geographical areas. • A
computer network refers to a collection of two or more computers
(nodes) which are connected together to share information and
resources.
characteristics of Computer Network:-1) Cost: Includes the cost of
the network components, their installation, and their ongoing
maintenance. 2) Speed: Includes how fast data is transmitted
between network endpoints. 3) Security: Includes the protection of
the network components and the data they contain and/or the data
transmitted between them. 4) Topology: Describes the physical
cabling layout and the logical way data moves between components.
5) Sharing: Computer networks enable sharing of files, software,
hardware resources and computing capabilities.
What is LAN:- Local Area Networks (LANs) are privately-owned
networks covering a small geographical area, like a home, office or
groups of buildings. Depending on the needs of the organization and
the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple as two PCs and a
printer or it can extend throughout an organization.
Advantages:- 1. The reliability of LAN is high because the failure of
one computer in the network does not affect the functioning for
other computers. 2. Addition of a new computer to the network is
easy and simple. 3. High rate of data transmission is possible.
5. Less expensive to install.
What is MAN:- When the need for connecting a larger number of
computers into a single network arises, the network spreads to a
larger area comprising a metropolitan area then it is known as
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN). • A MAN is a computer network
that interconnects users with computer resources in a geographic
region of the size of a metropolitan area like the entire city.
Advantages:- 1. MAN spans a large geographical area (5 to 50 km)
than LAN. 3. MAN saves the cost and time attached to establish a
wide area network. 4. MAN offers centralized management of data.
5. MAN enables us to connect many fast LANs together.
What is VAN:- The need for the growth of computer networks to
global proportions leads to the Wide Area Network (WAN). A large
number of autonomous computers are located over a large remote
geographical area called WAN. The main feature of WAN is that
computers are located in different geographical areas and each is
connected to the main network.
Advantages:- 1. WAN covers a large geographical area. 2. WAN
shares software and resources with connecting workstations. 3.
Using WAN messages can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the
network. 4. WAN adds fluidity to user’s information communication.
5. Expensive things (like printers or phone lines to the internet etc.)
can be shared by all the computers on the network.
 Write any four application of Bluetooth technology:- 1) It is used by
modern healthcare devices to send signals to monitors. 2) It is used
for dial up networking. Thus allowing a notebook computer to call
via a mobile phone. 3) It is used for cordless telephoning to connect
a handset and its local base station. 4) It also allows hands-free
voice communication with a headset. 5) It also enables a mobile
computer to connect to a fixed LAN.
Difference between Wireless LAN and Bluetooth:-

Define pulling:- If the producer delivers the items after the consumer
has requested them, the delivery is referred to as pulling.
Define pushing:- If the sender delivers items whenever they are
produced without the prior request from the consumer the delivery is
referred to as pushing.
Explain the different services offered by the Network layer:-
1. Packetizing:- The process of encapsulating the data received from
upper layers of the network (also called as payload) in a network
layer packet at the source and decapsulating the payload from
the network layer packet at the destination is known as
packetizing. In other words, one responsibility of the network
layer is to carry the data packets from the source to the
destination without changing it or using it.
2. Routing and Forwarding:- Routing and forwarding are two other
services offered by the network layer. The network layer is
responsible for routing the packets from its source to the
destination. With the help of forwarding, data packets are
transferred from one place to another in the network.
3. Flow Control:- It regulates the amount of data a source can send
without overloading the receiver. If the source produces data at
a very faster rate than the receiver can consume it, the receiver
will be overloaded with data.
4. Error Control:- Error control also in the network layer is the
process of detecting and correcting data packets that have been
corrupted or lost during transmission.
Explain datagram format of UDP:- User datagram protocol (UDP)
operates on top of the Internet Protocol (IP) to transmit datagrams
over a network. UDP does not require the source and destination to
establish a three-way handshake before transmission takes place.
Additionally, there is no need for an end-to-end connection. Since
UDP avoids the overhead associated with connections, error checks
and the retransmission of missing data, it’s suitable for real-time or
high performance applications that don’t require data verification or
correction. If verification is needed, it can be performed at the
application layer.
 Difference between TCP and UDP:

Difference between Connectionless and Connection-oriented Services:

 Differences between Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet:

Compare OSI Reference Model and TCP/IP model

Difference between Distance Vector Routing and Link State Routing:

Difference between Message Switching, Packet Switching and

Circuit Switching:
Explain any four features supported by TCP:- 1)Numbering System:
TCP software keeps track of segment (packets) transmitted and
received. But there is no number value in the segment header. There
are two fields i.e., sequence number and the acknowledgement
number. These two fields refer to the byte number and not the
segment number. 2) Byte Number: TCP numbers all data bytes that are
transmitted in a connection. Numbering is independent in each
direction. The numbering starts with a randomly generated number.
3)Sequence Number: The value in the sequence number field of a
segment defines the number of the first byte contained in that
segment. When a segment carries a combination of data and control
information (piggybacking), it uses a sequence number.
4)Acknowledgement Number: Communication in TCP is full duplex.
Both communication parties send and receive data at the same time.
Every party starts with a different sequence number. Each party also
uses an acknowledgment number to confirm the bytes it has received.
V-Model:- The V-Model, also known as the Verification and Validation
Model, is a software development methodology that emphasizes the
relationship between development phases and their corresponding
testing activities. It is an extension of the traditional Waterfall Model
and provides a structured approach to software development, ensuring
that testing activities are integrated throughout the development life
cycle.
Sequence Model:- Sequence diagrams depict the interactions between
objects or components in a system over time. They show the flow of
messages or actions between objects, helping to visualize the dynamic
behavior of the system during execution.
Activity Model:- Activity diagrams represent the flow of activities or
actions within a system. They illustrate the sequence of actions,
decision points, and branching paths in a process or workflow. Activity
diagrams are often used to model business processes or software
workflows.
Deployment Model: Deployment diagrams depict the physical
deployment of software components and their relationships in a
hardware environment. They show how software artifacts, such as
modules or services, are distributed across hardware nodes, such as
servers or devices, in a networked environment. Deployment diagrams
are useful for understanding the deployment architecture of a system
and planning for scalability and performance.
Incremental Model/Evolutionary Model:- The Incremental Model is an
iterative software development approach that delivers the software
incrementally, in small manageable portions or increments. Each
increment represents a complete subset of functionality that is
developed, tested, and delivered independently. With each iteration,
additional features or functionalities are added to the software,
gradually building up to the final product.
Class Model:- This model represents the static structure of a system by
depicting classes, their attributes, methods, and relationships between
classes. It's commonly used in object-oriented design to visualize the
building blocks of a software system.
Detailed Answer for OSI Reference Model:-
Application Layer: This layer serves as the interface between the
network and user applications. It allows applications to access network
services, such as email, web browsing, and file transfer.
Presentation Layer: The presentation layer handles the syntax and
semantics of data exchange between systems. It is responsible for data
translation, encryption, and compression, ensuring that data is in a
format that can be understood by the receiving system.
What is Path Vector Routing:- Path Vector Routing: Path vector routing
protocols, such as BGP, involve routers exchanging information about
available paths to destinations. This information is shared using path
vectors, which indicate the path a packet must take to reach a specific
destination. Path vector protocols are scalable for large networks but
have slower convergence due to complexities involved in path selection
and policy considerations.