CS-404

As Per C-21

Computer Hardware &

Networking
2nd Year – IV semester - CS & AI

B. BABAMASTHAN
MOHD RIAZ
N. DHANANJAYA

Price Rs. 250

Maanya’s M.G.B Publications

Hyderabad. Cell: 9290 429 549 & 9000 3050 79
Computer Hardware & Networking

First Edition: December – 2022

© All Rights Reserved

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 Table of Contents

Chapter Name ……. Page No

1. PC hardware and its Components ……. 1.1 to 1.21
2. System Board, Processors, Memories and Mass ……. 2.1 to 2.63
storage devices
3. Study of Input and Output Devices ……. 3.1 to 3.38
4. Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies ……. 4.1 to 4.27
5. LAN components and Protocols ……. 5.1 to 5.34
6. Network Addressing and Management ……. 6-1 to 6.30
 Preface
This Textbook of “Computer Hardware & Networking” has been carefully
designed for Second year Third semester CS & AI Diploma students.

The object of this book is to provide a suitable Textbook for Diploma students. A
modern approach has been adopted in presentation of this text.

This book meets the desires of all students. Some of the salient features of this
book are:

1. This book is written strictly as per the syllabus prescribed in C-21 by SBTET,
Telangana.
2. The material has been presented in a very simple and logical manner so as to lead
the students from simple to complex in “Computer Hardware & Networking”.
3. The difficult topics are explained with the help of clear diagrams, wherever
necessary.
4. The language used in this book is so simple.
5. Throughout the book, the reader will have a clear understanding of the subject
matter discussed.
6. The book will be very much useful not only to the students but also to the subject
teachers.
7. The book is organized into SIX chapters.

B. BABAMASTHAN
MOHD RIAZ
N. DHANANJAYA
(Authors)

E-mail: mgbpulications@gmail.com
 Computer Hardware & Networking
Course Title : Computer Hardware & Course Code CS - 404
Networking

Semester IV Course Group Core

Teaching Scheme 4:1:0 Credits 3
in Hrs(L:T:P)
Methodology Lecture + Tutorial Total Contact
Hours : 75Periods
CIE 60 Marks SEE 40 Marks

Specific Learning Outcomes

1.0 Understand PC hardware and its Components.
1.1 Explain PC Hardware and software
1.2 State the importance of BIOS
1.3 Describe the BIOS hardware interaction
1.4 Explain the BIOS functions (i) POST, (ii) Bootstrap loading
1.5 State the configuration of a general purpose computer.
1.6 Identify Mother board, Processor, Chipset, SMPS, Disk Drives,
RAM,ISA/EISA, PCI, IDE slots, RAM slots, AGP Slot, Mouse, Keyboard
connector, Monitor connector (VGA Port), Printer connector, Speaker
connector, USB ports, Parallel port, Serial Port, and Modem of the
system.

2.0 System Board, Processors, Memories and Mass storage devices

2.1 Mother Board
2.1.1 Explain various motherboards based on the form factor : such as AT,
ATX, micro ATX, mini ATX, Baby AT, BTX, NLX etc.,
2.1.2 List various components on motherboard.
2.1.3 List the I/O ports available on motherboard
2.1.4 Explain SMPS
2.1.5 State the importance of SMPS over linear voltage power supply
2.1.6 Know the connectors from SMPS and list the voltage levels of each
wire in various connectors based on the standard color of the wire
2.2 Processors
2.2.1 Describe various processors used in the system : INTEL P4, Celeron,
XEON, Itanium processors, AMD Athlon, Dual core, Core 2 Duo,
Quad core, Octa-core and i-series (i3,i5, i7 and i9).
2.2.2 Define chipset.
2.2.2.1 Explain the INTEL chipsets 915,945,955, 965, 975
2.2.2.2 List the AMD chipsets
2.2.3 State different processor sockets Like ZIF, SEC, LGA, PGA, BGA.
2.3 Memories
2.3.1 Define the static and dynamic RAM.
2.3.2 Explain RAM types - SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM), Asynchronous
DRAM, DDR1, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4 (1-4) RAM, Rambus RAM

2.3.3 Know about SIMM and DIMM

2.3.4 Explain RAM Slots
2.3.5 Explain the procedure to upgrade RAM capacity of the system by
adding additional RAMs
2.3.6 Define Cache memory and explain how it improves the performance
of memory.
2.3.7 Define L1, L2 and L3 cache and their locations.
2.4 Mass storage devices
2.4.1 List the different Mass Storage devices.
2.4.2 Give the constructional details and working of a Hard disk Drive
2.4.3 Explain the importance of jumper settings of Hard Disk drive and give
details of it
2.4.4 Familiarize with hard disk interfacings standards like IDE / EIDE /
PATA
2.4.5 SCSI / SATA
2.4.6 Know about various optical disk drives like CD-ROM, CD-RW, Combo
Drive, DVD-ROM, DVD-RW, and Blu-ray drives.
2.4.7 Explain the process of reading and writing of data on various disk
drives like CD- ROM, CD- Writer, DVD Drive and Blu-Ray Disk drive
etc.
2.4.8 Explain the working principle of a Pen drive
2.4.9 Know about Solid-State Drives (SSD)
3.0 Study of Input and Output Devices

➢ Input Devices
3.1 List the various Input devices used with a general purpose computer
3.2 Explain the working principle of Keyboard (Wired & Wireless Keyboard)
3.3 Discuss the working principle of Opto-mechanical mouse and Optical
Mouse (Wired & wireless Mouse)
3.4 List the various scanners
3.5 Explain the working of flat bed scanner and hand held scanner.
3.6 Explain the working of a Webcam
➢ Output Devices
3.7 List the various Output devices used with a general purpose computer
3.8 Describe the working principle of CRT Monitor
3.9 Describe the working principle of LCD/TFT/LED/OLED Monitors
3.10 Describe different categories of printers (Impact and Non-Impact)
3.11 Describe the working principle of Dot matrix printer
3.12 Describe the working principle of inkjet printer
3.13 Describe the working principle of Laser printer
3.14 Know about Multi-Function printer
4.0 Introduction to Networks and Network Topologies
4.1 Understand the Overview of Networking.
4.2 State the Need for Networking.
4.3 Classification of Networks –LAN, MAN, WAN
4.4 List the Hardware and Software Components of Computer Network
4.5 Overview of Network Topologies.
4.6 Understand the basic Network Topologies such as Bus, Ring and Star
and Complex topologies like Mesh and Hybrid Topologies.
4.7 Various Network Communication Standards.
4.8 OSI Reference Model.
4.9 TCP/IP Reference Model.
5.0 LAN components and Protocols
5.1 Know about LAN Connectors, wireless network adapter
5.2 Know about Coaxial Cables, Twisted-Pair Cables, Optical Fiber Cables,
and connectors used in Networking.
5.2.1 Know the Preparation of straight and cross cable
5.3 Know about Ethernet
5.4 Explain LAN Devices
5.4.1 Repeaters
5.4.2 Hubs
5.4.3 Switches
5.4.4 Bridges
5.4.5 Gateways
5.4.6 Network Interface Cards (NICs)
5.4.7 Routers
5.4.8 MODEM (56KBPS Internal/External, DSL/ADSL Modems etc.)
5.4.9 Access Point
5.5 Explain WLANs (Wireless LAN)
5.6 State the need for protocols in computer networks.
5.7 Know about protocols
5.7.1 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
5.7.2 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
5.7.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
5.7.4 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
5.7.5 Telnet
6.0 Network Addressing and Management
6.1 Introduction to Network Addressing.
6.2 Know about TCP/IP Addressing Scheme.
6.2.1 Components of IP Address.
6.2.2 IP Address Classes.
6.2.3 Classify the Internet Protocol addressing IPv4
6.2.4 Explain classful addressing and classless addressing in IPv4.
6.2.5 Know about IP Subnetting
6.2.6 State the need for IPv6.
6.2.7 Describe Internet protocol version-6 (IPv6) addressing.
6.3 Know about Wi-fi networking standards and encryption types.
6.4 Understand the Overview of Network Management.
6.5 Understand the Model of ISO Network Management
6.6 Understand the Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting.
6.7 Networking troubleshooting tools
6.8 Learn about Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).
6.9 Explain how SNMP works.
6.10 Know about Remote Monitoring (RMON).
1
PC hardware and its Components

OBJECTIVES
1.0 Components of a Computer
1.1 Explain PC Hardware and software
1.2 BIOS
1.3 Importance of BIOS
1.4 Describe the BIOS hardware interaction
1.5 Explain the BIOS functions (i) POST, (ii) Bootstrap loading
1.6 State the configuration of a general purpose computer.
1.7 Identify Mother board, Processor, Chipset, SMPS, Disk Drives, RAM, ISA/EISA, PCI,
IDE slots, RAM slots, AGP Slot, Mouse, Keyboard connector, Monitor connector (VGA
Port), Printer connector, Speaker connector, USB ports, Parallel port, Serial Port, and
Modem of the system.
 1-2 PC hardware and its Components

1.0 Components of aWord

Microsoft Computer
• The term computer is derived from the Latin Word “Compute” which means to
calculate or to manipulate.
• Definition: A computer is an electronic device; it accepts data and instructions,
stores it in its memory, process and gives the results to the user.
• Computer is one of the greatest inventions of man.
• Computer is a wonderful gift of science created by man to help mankind. Laptop
and desktops are the forms of computers that are ruling the world today and these
has definitely changed the live style of people and status of developing countries.
• A computer is basically a device that can be used for a lot of purposes ranging
from storage of information, messaging, email, calculation, software
programming, data processing and so many more.
• In today’s world, humans have become so dependent on computers that it is
impossible for them to live without it.
• A computer contains many electric, electronic and mechanical components known
as hardware. These components include input devices, output devices, a system
unit, storage devices, and communications devices and also the invisible parts that
control the workability of the computer system.
• The computer system is classified basically into two major parts:
▪ Hardware
▪ Software
• Hardware refers to the physical and visible components of the system such as a
monitor, CPU, keyboard and mouse.
• Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to operate computers and
execute specific tasks.
• Software is a generic term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that
run on a device.

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PC hardware and its Components 1-3

1.1 Explain PC Hardware and software

• A computer system (also called a desktop) is usually classified into two sections,
namely hardware and software.
• Both these sections are necessary for the computer system to run properly.
• Although both the terms seem to be similar, there are significant differences
between hardware and software.
1.1.1. Hardware
• In computer terminology, all computer peripherals are referred to as hardware.
• Any physical device or equipment used in or with a computer system is called
hardware.
• Hardware is anything you can see and touch.
• Hardware devices are designed to either provide instructions to the software or
render results from its execution.

• Without any hardware, the computer would not exist.

• Hardware components are less expensive than software.
• Types of Hardware: Hardware devices or components are usually classified
into external and internal hardware, depending on whether we can directly or
indirectly see and touch such devices.
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 1-4 PC hardware and its Components
• For example, RAM is internal hardware while the keyboard is external hardware.
Microsoft Word
a) External hardware
• Any hardware device that is located outside the computer is the external
hardware.
• Input device – a piece of hardware device which is used to enter information to
a computer for processing.
Examples: Keyboard, mouse, trackpad (or touchpad), touchscreen, joystick,
microphone, light pen, webcam, speech input, etc.
• Output device – a piece of hardware device that receives information from a
computer.
Examples: Monitor, printer, scanner, speaker, display screen (tablet, smartphone),
projector, head phone, etc.
b) Internal hardware
• Internal hardware devices (or internal hardware components) – any
piece of hardware device that is located inside the computer.
• Examples: CPU, hard disk drive, ROM, RAM, etc.
1.1.2. Software
• In computer terminology, all computer programs are known as software.
• A set of programs which enable all the hardware components of a computer to
work together is known as software.
• In simply software tells the hardware what to do.
• A computer without software is like a car without driver.
• Software, in its most general sense, is a set of instructions or programs instructing
a computer to do specific tasks.
• Software is generally costlier as compare to hardware.
• Software programs are stored as binary data that is copied to a computer's hard
drive, when it is installed.
• Since software is virtual and does not take up any physical space, it is much easier
to upgrade than computer hardware.
• Types of software: Software can be divided into two major categories.
a) System software.
b) Application software.
• System software is designed to manage and control the hardware components and
to provide a platform for running application software.
• Application software (also known as 'apps') are designed to help the user to
perform specific tasks.
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PC hardware and its Components 1-5

a) System Software
• The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and
extend the processing capabilities of the computer itself.
• System software is generally prepared by the computer manufacturers.
• The purpose of the system software is to improve the performance of the system.
• These software products comprise of programs written in low-level languages,
which interact with the hardware at a very basic level.
• System software serves as the interface between the hardware and the end users.
• Some examples of system software are operating system, compilers, interpreter,
assemblers, etc.

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 1-6 PC hardware and its Components
b) Application Software
Microsoft Word
• The software which is developed for a specific application is called application
software.
• Application software products are designed to satisfy a particular need of a
particular environment.
• All software applications prepared in the computer lab can come under the
category of application software.
• Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad
for writing and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of
programs, often called a software package, which work together to accomplish a
task, such as a spreadsheet package.
• Examples of Application software are the following-
▪ Microsoft Word
▪ Microsoft Excel
▪ Microsoft PowerPoint
▪ Payroll Software
▪ Student Record Software
▪ Inventory Management Software
▪ Income Tax Software
▪ Railways Reservation Software
▪ Microsoft Office Suite Software

1.1.3. Comparison between Hardware and Software

Sl.No Hardware Software

1 All physical components of All computer programs/set of

computer are known as hardware. instructions are known as software.

2 Hardware can be seen and touched. Software cannot be touched.

3 Has four main categories: Input Mainly divided into system software
devices, output devices, secondary and application software.
storage devices and internal
components.

4 Examples: Examples:
Monitor, mouse, keyboard, hard Chrome browser, antivirus,
drives, routers, printers, scanners, windows, adobe photoshop,

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PC hardware and its Components 1-7
video cards etc. Microsoft office, adobe reader, VLC
media player etc.

5 Hardware is made-up of electronic Software is developed by writing

components. instructions in programming
language.

6 Hardware is not affected by Software is affected by computer

computer viruses. viruses.

7 Hardware cannot be transferred Software can be transferred from one

from one place to another place to another electronically
electronically through network. through network.

8 User cannot make new duplicate User can make many new duplicate
copies of the hardware. copies of the software.

9 Hardware is repaired in case of Software is debugged in case of

problem. problem.

10 If hardware is damaged, it can be If Software is damaged, it can be

replaced with new one. replaced with its backup copy.

1.2 BIOS
• The operating system is a system software and an essential component of every
computer system. The operating system acts as an interface between computer
hardware components and the application programs. And therefore, the user
cannot operate the computer system, till the time operating system is completely
loaded into the main memory RAM and fully operational
• The CPU (Central Processing Unit) is the brain of the computer system. The CPU's
first job is to locate and initiate the process of loading the operating system, every
time the computer system is switched on.
• This is done with the help of system utility program called BIOS - Basic Input
Output System.
• The BIOS is the first start-up program executed by the CPU when the computer
system is switched on.
• The main job of the BIOS is to locate and load the operating system in to the
main memory RAM (Random Access Memory).

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 1-8 PC hardware and its Components

1.3 ImportanceMicrosoft
of BIOS Word

1.3.1. Features of BIOS

• BIOS refers to Basic Input Output System.
• It is a type of firmware used by the processor during the booting process.
• Firmware is a permanent software or program that is written in the ROM (Read
Only memory) during the time of manufacturing.
• BIOS chip is powered by CMOS battery.
• BIOS configuration is saved due to CMOS battery.

1.3.2. Functions of BIOS

• The main function of the BIOS is to manage the data flow between computer's
operating system and attached devices like hard disk, keyboard, mouse and etc.
• The various functions performed by the BIOS are:
1. Check the power supply to the computer system.
2. Check the essential internal components such as RAM and external
peripheral devices are connected and working.
3. Initiate the computer system booting sequence.
4. Provide and load the initial basic set of device drivers.
5. Locate the operating system and load into the RAM.
6. Handover the system control to the operating system once the OS is fully
loaded and operational.
1.3.3. Importance of BIOS
• Whenever we press the power button of our computer system, all the devices get
the power and they are initialized.
• Our main memory which is responsible to hold the instructions will be initially
empty as RAM is volatile memory.

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PC hardware and its Components 1-9
• So, there will be small set of instructions present in the non-volatile memory
called ROM. These instructions will be passed to CPU and the execution of
instructions takes place which will check all the hardware connected with the
system.
• If there are any problems with the hardware, we will get the alert by beep sounds
or even on-screen messages.
• After the testing of hardware is completed, the booting process continues and load
the operating system.
• The BIOS stored in the ROM chip attached to the motherboard is called as system
BIOS.

1.4 Describe the BIOS hardware interaction

• The computer system booting process starts when the user switch on the
computer system.
• BIOS identifies, configures, tests and connects computer hardware to the OS
immediately after a computer is turned on. The combination of these steps is
called the boot process.
• These tasks are each carried out by BIOS four main functions:
▪ Power-on self-test (POST): This tests the hardware of the computer before
loading the OS.
▪ Bootstrap loader: This locates the OS.
▪ Software/drivers: This locates the software and drivers that interface with
the OS once running.
▪ Complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) setup: This is a
configuration program that enable users to alter hardware and system settings.
CMOS is the name of BIOS non-volatile memory.
• The BIOS acts as a mediator between the Input-Output devices and the CPU once
the booting process is complete. It is not always necessary to have the all

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 1-10 PC hardware and its Components
information about the hardware attached for operating the system or the process
Microsoft Word
running on the computer.
• All the aspects of the hardware of the computer are recognized and managed by
the BIOS. Whenever Input-Output device data changes, then this information
needs to be related to the BIOS.
• To enter into BIOS setup, need to follow the following steps
1. Switch ON the Power Button of the computer
2. As soon as the computer starts switching ON, press and hold the F2 or Delete/
Del key to enter the BIOS setup
3. BIOS setup page will appear. Now you can make the necessary changes you
want to do.
4. For saving the changes Press the F10 key.

1.5 Explain the BIOS functions (i) POST, (ii) Bootstrap

loading
• The computer system booting process starts when the user switch on the
computer system.
• The system power supply unit carries out self-test called POST. The "Power On
Self-Test" checks the computer systems internal hardware components for

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PC hardware and its Components 1-11
compatibility, connection and ensures that no errors exist before loading the
operating system.
• Only after successful completion of the POST, the bootstrap loader loads the
operating system. If the POST fails then the computer system will beep for
different beep codes.
1.5.1. POST
• A Power on Self-Test is the first step of the boot sequence.
• The POST (Power ON Self-Test) is a collection of test programs. The functions of
these program is testing various functional units in the PC and verifying whether
they are working properly or not.
• The POST programs are automatically executed by the PC whenever the PC is
started or reset.
• The POST is series of simple programs designed to test and catch faults in
different hardware components and circuits.
• The BIOS will begin its POST duties when the CPU is reset.
• If the POST test fails computer generates different types of beeps to indicate the
type of error.
• If the POST test is passed then booting starts.
• Since POST runs before the computer's video card is activated, it may not be
possible to progress to the display screen. So, invariably the error message is
communicated as a series of beeps.
a) The Principal duties of BIOS during POST
• The principal duties of the BIOS during POST are as follows:
1. Verify CPU registers.
2. Verify the integrity of the BIOS code itself.
3. Verify some basic components like DMA, timer, interrupt controller.
4. Verify system main memory.
5. Initialize BIOS.
6. Identify, organize, and select which devices are available for booting.
b) Post Audio Error Codes
Audio Code Problelm (FaultDomain)
1 short beep Normal POST-system OK
2 short beep POST error-error code
No beep Power supply, system board

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 1-12 PC hardware and its Components
Continous beep Word
Microsoft Power supply, system board
Repeating short beeps Power supply, system board
One long, one short beep System board
One long, two short Display adapter (MDA, CGA)
beeps
One long, three short Enhanced graphic Adapter
beeps (EGA)
Three long beeps 3270 keyboard card

1.5.2. Bootstrap loading

• BIOS first does some hardware initialization and testing. After which, it loads a
special program called bootloader from some storage device, such as hard drive
or CD, and calls the entry function of the bootloader.
• BIOS doesn't know which program is the bootloader or where the bootloader is
located in the hard drives. It simply loads the first sector (512 bytes) of the hard
drive and runs the code inside it. Therefore, we need to place our bootloader
inside the first sector.
• Bootstrap loader, also called Boot loader, Boot Program, Initial Program Loader
or Bootstrapping is a program that resides in computer's EPROM, ROM or
another non-volatile memory.
• It is automatically executed by the processor when turning on the computer.
• The bootstrap loader reads the hard drives boot sector to continue to load the
computer's operating system.
*Note: Booting Process of Operating System
• When you power on the computer, the CPU (Central Processing Unit) activates
the BIOS (Basic Input Output System).
• The first program activated is POST (Power On Self-Test).
• Using the CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) memory it checks
all the hardware and confirms that they are functioning properly.
• After that it reads the MBR (master boot record) in boot drive in accordance with
the firmware ‘bootstrap loader’ which is provided by the computer manufacturer.
• Then the computer loads in the operating system in boot drive to the RAM.
• Once this is performed, the operating system takes over the control of the
computer and displays an user interface to the user.

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1.6 State the configuration of a general purpose

computer.
• A type of PC configuration depends on type of processor, motherboard, hard disk,
chipset, size of cache memory, size of primary memory etc.
• Any software you install on a computer mentions the minimal configuration that
your computer should support in order to successfully run it.
• Configuration of a computer represents the characteristics and capability of the
following components of a computer.
1. Processor.
2. System board (or) motherboard.
3. Primary memory or RAM.
4. Secondary memory or Hard disk drive.
5. CD ROM drive.
6. Keyboard.
7. Mouse.
8. Display/Monitor.
9. Graphic card.
10. Netwrok adaptor.
11. SMPS and peripherals such as webcam, speakers, printer, etc.
1.6.1. PC configuration
• We recommend systems that meet or exceed the following specifications:
1. Processor (CPU) Intel Core i5 (sixth generation or newer) or equivalent
2. Operating System Microsoft Windows 10 Professional x64
3. Memory 8 GB RAM
4. Storage 512 GB internal Solid State Drive (SSD) or
1 TB internal HDD
5. Monitor/Display 24" LCD monitor
6. Network Adaptor 802.11ac 2.4/5 GHz wireless adapter
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 1-14 PC hardware and its Components
7. Others Key board, mouse (wired/wireless), Webcam, UPS,
Microsoft Word
Speakers, Printer, Graphic card, external drive for
backups etc.

1.7 Identify Mother board, Processor, Chipset, SMPS,

Disk Drives, RAM, ISA/EISA, PCI, IDE slots, RAM slots,
AGP Slot, Mouse, Keyboard connector, Monitor
connector (VGA Port), Printer connector, Speaker
connector, USB ports, Parallel port, Serial Port, and
Modem of the system.
1.7.1. Mother board
• Mother board is the most important component in any personal computer.
• It is heart of the computer.
• A motherboard, also known as main board, system board, or logic board.
• As the name suggests, a motherboard is the mother to all the other parts. In other
words, everything in a computer connects to the motherboard.

1.7.2. Features of Mother board

• A motherboard (mobo) is the primary circuit board in a computer.
• The motherboard is the main circuit board inside the PC which holds the
processor, memory and expansion slots and connects directly or indirectly to
every part of the PC.

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PC hardware and its Components 1-15

• It's made up of a chipset, ROM and the various interconnections or buses.

• Motherboard provides the electrical connection between various components in
the system.
• Mother board provides interface for various add on cards such as 3D graphic
cards, sound cards, network interface cards etc.
• Mother board provides CMOS battery driven real time clock.
• Supports ports like serial, parallel, USB and infrared etc.
1.7.3. Identification of various parts of Mother board

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 1-16 PC hardware and its Components
• The various parts of mother board shown in above figure are listed in below table.
Microsoft Word
Part No Name
1 Mouse & Keyboard Ports
2 USB (Universal Serial Bus) Ports
3 Parallel Port
4 CPU Chip
5 RAM Slots
6 Floppy Controller
7 IDE Controller
8 PCI Slot
9 ISA Slot
10 CMOS Battery
11 AGP Slot
12 CPU Slot
13 Power Supply Plug In

1.7.4. Identification of various Ports of Mother board

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1.7.5. Components & Ports of Mother board

S.No Component Features
1 CPU Socket • CPU socket or Processor Socket is used to
install or insert the processor.
• There are two types of sockets:
✓ LIF sockets
✓ ZIF socket
• LIF stands for Low Insertion Force, this is
the old model socket and ZIF stands for
Zero Insertion Force, this is the present
model sockets.
2 Chipset • A Chipset is a group of ICs that are
designed to work together and are usually
marked as a single product.
• A chipset controls communication
between processor and external devices.
• For PC motherboards, there are two main
chipsets: the northbridge and the
southbridge.
3 North Bridge • North bridge is always near the processor
socket, which is one of the important
components of a motherboard.
• It is a focal Point of Motherboard and it is
also called as Memory Controller Hub.
• North bridge interconnects processor
socket, RAM slots and AGP slot.
4 • South bridge interconnects primary and
secondary IDE interfaces, SATA
connectors, Floppy Drive connector, PCI
slots and BIOS.
South Bridge
• Note that North bridge and South bridge
are the two main poles of a motherboard.
5 RAM Slots • RAM slots are used to insert RAMs.
• There are so many types of ram slots, they
are:

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✓ SD RAM slots
Microsoft Word
✓ DDR RAM slots
✓ DDR2 RAM slots
✓ DDR3 RAM slots
• SD stands for synchronize Dynamic and
DDR stands for Double Data Rate.

6 AGP Slots • AGP slots are used to insert or install AGP

cards.
• AGP full form is Accelerated Graphics
Port.
• This slot is for graphics and 3D gaming
purpose, it is always beside the PCI slots.
7 PCI Slots • PCI slots are used to insert or install Add-
on cards, such as LAN cards, Sound cards,
Capture cards and TV tuner cards.
• PCI full form is peripheral components
interconnect.

8 Floppy Connector • Floppy Drive Connector is used to connect

floppy drives.
• It supports two floppy drives. It has 32
pins.

9 Primary and Secondary IDE • Primary and Secondary IDE interfaces are
Connectors also called as IDE connectors or PATA
connectors.
• IDE full form is Integrated Device
Electronics.
• It supports IDE devices, such as Hard
disks and CD and DVD.

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10 SATA connectors • SATA connectors are also called as Serial
ATA connectors.
• SATA full form is Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment.
• These are connected with serial ATA
devices, such as Hard disk drives and CD
or DVD drives.

11 Power connectors • This power connector is ATX power

connector.
• It has 20 or 24 pin connectors.
• Motherboard takes the power from this
connector to work.

12 BIOS • BIOS stands for Basic input and Output

system.
• This is also one of the important chips, it
conducts the POST (Power On Self-Test).

13 CMOS battery • There is a battery in the motherboard,

which is used to power the south bridge
and the BIOS to save the setting, data and
time.

14 Ports • Ports are used to connect input and output

devices.
• They are attached and come with
motherboard and they are in backside of
CPU.
15 PS/2 Ports • The PS/2 ports are used to plug computer
(Keyboard and mouse mouse and keyboards into personal
ports) computer.
• It consists of 6 pins in small and
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Microsoft Word
round shape socket.
• The PS2 ports are color-coded.
• The purple connector is for the
keyboard.
• The green connector is for the
mouse.
16 VGA port • This port is used to connect a monitor or
other VGA-compatible devices.

17 Audio ports • These ports are used to connect speakers,

Micro phone and Head phones to the
computer.

18 Universal serial bus (USB) • USB (Universal Serial Bus) port is a plug-
port and-play hardware interface for
connecting peripherals such as the
keyboard, mouse, joystick, scanner, printer
and modem. Without adding an adapter
card.
• These ports are replacement for parallel
and serial ports.
19 Ethernet Port • Ethernet port is used to connect a
computer on network through RJ-45
connector.

20 Parallel port • parallel port with 25-pins can be used to

connect a parallel port printer.

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21 Serial port • It is a general-purpose communications
port, through which data is passed
serially, that is, one bit at a time.

22 ISA • Industrial standard architecture (ISA) is

the bus architecture that was introduced
as an 8 bit bus with the original IBM PC.
• It was later expanded to 16 bits with IBM
PC/AT.
• The ISA bus permitted bus mastering, i.e.
it enabled controllers connected directly to
the bus to communicate directly with the
other peripherals without going through
the processor.
23 EISA • The Extended Industry Standard
Architecture is a bus standard for IBM PC
compatible computers.
• Extended ISA (EISA) has a 32-bit data bus
but still operates at 8MHz.
24 Modem • A modem card is an internal type of
modem that is plugged into the PCI slot of
a PC motherboard.
• A modem is a communications device that
allows a computer to send and receive
data through telephone or cable lines.
• It is the circuit that converts digital data
signal into analog data signal (carrier
based) during transmission and converts
analog data into digital data during
reception.

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2 System board, processors,
memories and mass storage devices

OBJECTIVES
2.1 Mother Board
2.1.1 Explain various motherboards based on the form factor : such as AT, ATX, micro ATX, mini ATX, Baby AT,
BTX, NLX etc.,
2.1.2 List various components on motherboard.
2.1.3 List the I/O ports available on motherboard
2.1.4 Explain SMPS
2.1.5 State the importance of SMPS over linear voltage power supply
2.1.6 Know the connectors from SMPS and list the voltage levels of each wire in various connectors based on the
standard color of the wire
2.2 Processors
2.2.1 Describe various processors used in the system: INTEL P4, Celeron, XEON, Itanium processors, AMD
Athlon, Dual core, Core 2 Duo, Quad core, Octa core and i-series (i3, i5, i7 and i9).
2.2.2 Define chipset.
2.2.2.1 Explain the INTEL chipsets 915,945,955, 965, 975
2.2.2.2 List the AMD chipsets
2.2.3 State different processor sockets Like ZIF, SEC, LGA, PGA, BGA.
2.3 Memories
2.3.1 Define the static and dynamic RAM.
2.3.2 Explain RAM types - SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM), Asynchronous DRAM, DDR1, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4 (1-4)
RAM, Rambus RAM
2.3.3 Know about SIMM and DIMM
2.3.4 Explain RAM Slots
2.3.5 Explain the procedure to upgrade RAM capacity of the system by adding additional RAMs
2.3.6 Define Cache memory and explain how it improves the performance of memory.
2.3.7 Define L1, L2 and L3 cache and their locations.
2.4 Mass storage devices
2.4.1 List the different Mass Storage devices.
2.4.2 Give the constructional details and working of a Hard disk Drive
2.4.3 Explain the importance of jumper settings of Hard Disk drive and give details of it
2.4.4 Familiarize with hard disk interfacings standards like IDE / EIDE / PATA /
2.4.5 SCSI / SATA
2.4.6 Know about various optical disk drives like CD-ROM, CD-RW, Combo Drive, DVD-ROM, DVD-RW, and Blu-ray
drives.
2.4.7 Explain the process of reading and writing of data on various disk drives like CD- ROM, CD- Writer, DVD
Drive and Blu-Ray Disk drive etc.
2.4.8 Explain the working principle of a Pen drive
2.4.9 Know about Solid-State Drives (SSD)
 2-2 System Board, Processors, Memories and Mass Storage Devices

2.1 System Board (Mother

Microsoft WordBoard)

• A computer motherboard is one of the most crucial components of a computer.

• As the name suggests, a motherboard is the mother to all the other parts. In other
words, everything in a computer connects to the motherboard.
• The motherboard is also known as main board or system board.
• The motherboard connects the components of a computer and provides power to
the systems that need low power.
• A motherboard provides the electrical connections by which the other components
of the system communicate. Unlike a backplane, it also contains the central
processing unit and hosts other subsystems and devices.
• A typical desktop computer has its microprocessor, main memory, and other
essential components connected to the motherboard.
• Other components such as external storage, controllers for video display and
sound, and peripheral devices may be attached to the motherboard as plug-in
cards or via cables; in modern microcomputers it is increasingly common to
integrate some of these peripherals into the motherboard itself.

• In the initial days of computing, a computer was built in a case or Mainframe with
a series of wired together connectors called a backplane into which the CPU,
memory and I/O on separate cards was plugged.
• With the arrival of the microprocessor, it became more cost-effective to place the
backplane connectors, processor and logic onto a single 'mother' board, and have
the video, memory and I/O on 'child' cards hence the terms 'Motherboard' and
Daughterboard.

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2.1.1 Explain various motherboards based on the form factor:

such as AT, ATX, micro ATX, mini ATX, Baby AT, BTX, NLX etc.,
• Form factor is the specification of a motherboard like the dimensions, power
supply type, location of mounting holes, number of ports on the back panel, etc.
• Motherboards are classified by form factors.
• The form factor of motherboard refers to its overall dimensions and layout. In
additional to the dimension, a form factor will also dictate the layout and
specifications of the ports, expansion slots, mounting holes, power supply, and of
motherboard components.
• There have been a variety of form factors over the decades. However, only the ATX
form factor is common today.
• Various form factors of motherboards are AT, Baby AT, ATX, Mini-ATX, Micro-
ATX, Flex ATX, LPX and Mini LPX and NLX.
• Regardless of the form factor, each has its own standardized which manufacturers
must follow to ensure their parts are compatible with a particular motherboard.
2.1.1.1 Form factors of mother boards
The different types of form factors of Motherboards as explained below.
Form Released Dimensions Description
Factor Date
AT IBM 1984 12 × 11-13 • Very popular standard developed by
(Advanced inches IBM for Intel 80286 Processor.
Technology) • These motherboards have bigger
physical dimensions of hundreds of
millimeters and hence they are not the
right fit for the mini desktop category of
computers.
ATX Intel 1995 12 × 9.6 • It was an improved version over an
(Advanced inches earlier version of AT motherboard.
Technology • Became most popular form factor for
extension) commodity mother boards since 1995 till
2007.
• This form factor is commonly used in
tower and desktop systems.
• It supports a maximum of seven
expansion slots.

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Micro ATX 1996 9.6 x 9.6 • This form factor is a smaller version of
Microsoft Word
inches ATX (25% shorter).
• Compatible with most ATX cases, but
has fewer slots than ATX, with a smaller
power supply unit.
• It supports a maximum of four
expansion slots.
Mini ATX 2001 6.7  6.7 • Mini-ATX is slightly smaller than micro-
inches ATX.
• These were designed with MODT
(Mobile on Desktop Technology) which
adapt mobile CPUs for lower power
requirement, less heat generation and
better application capability.
Baby AT IBM 1985 8.5 × 10-13 • The Baby AT was the first PC
inches motherboard to build in sockets for I/O
ports (serial, parallel, etc.), which were
cabled to connectors on the back of the
case.
• Widely used in 386, 486 and early
Pentium PCs
BTX Intel 2004 12.8 × 10.5 • A standard proposed by intel, according
(Balanced inches to intel the layout has better cooling. BTX
Technology) boards are flipped in comparison to ATX
Boards.
• The RAM slots and the PCI slots are
parallel to each other.
• This form factor is commonly found in
newer tower and desktop systems. It
supports a maximum of seven expansion
slots.
NLX Intel 1999 8-9 x 10 • NLX was a form factor proposed by Intel
(New Low inches and developed jointly with IBM and other
Profile vendors for low profile, low cost, mass-
eXtended) marketed retail PCs
• This form factor can be found in smaller
desktop and mini towers.
• The number of expansion slots
supported, varies.
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2.1.2 List various components on motherboard.

• Motherboard is the most important part of any computer. It can be considered as
the backbone of a computer.
• Definition: Motherboard is a printed circuit board on which all the electronic
components of a PC are mounted.
• A motherboard is known as the main board, system board, logic board, main card,
mother card, or mobs.
• A typical computer motherboard is shown in the fig. (a).

Fig. (a)
• The motherboard serves as a single platform to connect all of the parts of a
computer together. All of the basic circuitry and components required for a
computer to function are either contained in or attached to the motherboard.
• A motherboard connects CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card,
sound card, and other ports and expansion cards directly or via cables.
• In other words, for all the PC’s external devices, the motherboard functions like a
central railway station. All traffic originates from or ends up in the motherboard.
• Layout diagrams of a Baby AT motherboard and an ATX motherboard are shown in
the figures (b) and (c) respectively.

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Microsoft Word

Fig. (b): Layout diagram of a Baby AT Motherboard

Fig. (c): Layout diagram of an ATX Motherboard

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• The most important constituent components of both the motherboards shown in the
figures 1.1(a) & (b) are listed below:
1. CPU
2. BIOS chip
3. RAM slots
4. CMOS ram
5. CMOS backup battery
6. Bus expansion slots
7. IDE, EIDE and SCSI connectors
8. Chipset
9. Onboard I/O connectors
10. Cache memory

2.1.3 List the I/O ports available on motherboard

• An I/O Port is a connection point that acts as interface between the computer and
external devices like mouse, printer, modem, etc. is called I/O port.
• Ports are of two types:
❖ Internal port: It connects the motherboard to internal devices like hard disk
drive, CD drive, internal modem, etc.
❖ External port: It connects the motherboard to external devices like modem,
mouse, printer, flash drives, etc.
2.1.3.1 I/O Ports available on Mother Board

• PS/2 (Mini-DIN) port for connecting Keyboard and Mouse.

• VGA Port for Connecting Monitor.
• HDMI Port: HDMI means High-Definition Multimedia Interface, a standard
for simultaneously transmitting digital video and audio from a source, such as a
computer or TV cable box, to a computer monitor, TV or projector.
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• Serial (COM) Port can be used to connect devices that use a serial interface such as
Microsoft
a modem, scanner, mouse,Word
etc.
• Parallel (LPT) Port for connecting Parallel Printer.
• USB port for connecting USB devices.
• IEEE 1394 (FireWire) port for connecting high-speed bidirectional serial
transmission.
• MIDI Port for connecting Musical Instrument keyboard and sound cards.
• LAN port for RJ-45 networking. A LAN port is also known as an Ethernet port.
• Audio Ports: The following image shows the six 3.5mm Audio Ports on a modern
motherboard along with their color codes and speaker configurations.

2.1.4 Explain SMPS

• The full form of SMPS is Switched Mode Power Supply also known as Switching
Mode Power Supply.
• SMPS is an electronic power supply system that makes use of a switching regulator
to transfer electrical power effectively.
• It is a PSU (power supply unit) and is usually used in computers to change the
voltage to the appropriate range for the computer.

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• An SMPS adjusts output voltage and current between different electrical
configurations by switching the basics of typically lossless storage such as
capacitors and inductors.
2.1.4.1. Working Principle of SMPS

Fig. Block Diagram of SMPS

• In a switching power supply, the active device that provides regulation is always
operated in switched mode i.e. either in cut off or in saturation.
• The input dc is chopped at high frequency (10 KHz - 100 KHz) using an active
device and the converter/output transformer.
• The transferred chopped waveform is rectified and filtered.
• A sample of output voltage is used as feed signal for the drive circuit for the
switching transistor to achieve the regulation.
• This type of power supply makes use of feedback mechanism to alter the output
voltage as per the requirement of the load.
2.1.4.2. Advantages of SMPS
1. The switch-mode power source is small in scale.
2. The SMPS is very lightweight.
3. SMPS power consumption is typically 60 to 70 per cent, which is ideal for use.
4. SMPS is strongly anti-interference.
5. The SMPS production range is large.

2.1.5 State the importance of SMPS over linear voltage power

supply
• The main difference between the linear power supply and SMPS is that linear
power supply converts the high voltage of AC into low voltage AC first then the
rectification procedure takes place.
• On the contrary, the SMPS converts the AC signal into DC signal first then the
stepping down of voltage signal takes place.
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• Linear power supply use voltage regulator for voltage regulation of the output
Microsoft
voltage while SMPS Word
uses feedback circuit for voltage regulation.
• Power dissipation also plays a key role in differentiating linear power supply and
SMPS. The Linear power supply also dissipates power and thus requires a heat
sink, but SMPS do not require heat- sink as there is no power dissipation.
• The step-down transformer used in linear supply is bulky while in SMPS the step-
down transformer is light
• The noise disturbance is more in SMPS due to in weight. switching action; this
makes SMPS inappropriate for audio and radio frequency application. • The linear
power supply is immune to noise disturbance and thus used in audio and radio
frequency application.
• There is the major difference between the efficiency of the linear power supply and
SMPS.
• The efficiency of the linear power supply is low about 20-25% due to ohmic losses
while that of SMPS is high, i.e. about 65-75%.
Switch Mode Power
Parameters Linear Power Supply
Supply (SMPS)
1. Definition It completes the stepping It converts the input
down of AC voltage first signal into DC first then
then it converts it into DC. it steps down the voltage
up to desired level.
2. Efficiency Low efficiency i.e. about 20- High Efficiency i.e. about
25% 60-65%
3. Voltage Voltage regulation is done Voltage regulation is
Regulation by voltage regulator. done by feedback circuit.
4. Weight It is bulky. It is less bulky in
comparison to linear
power supply.
5. RF interference No RF interference RF shielding is required
as switching produces
more RF interference.
6. Noise and It is immune to noise and Effect of noise and
Electromagnetic electromagnetic electromagnetic
interference interference. interference is quite
significant, thus EMI
filters are required.
7. Applications Used in Audio frequency Used in chargers of
applications and RF mobile phones, DC
applications. motors etc.

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2.1.6 Know the connectors from SMPS and list the voltage levels
of each wire in various connectors based on the standard color
of the wire
a) Connectors from SMPS
• SMPS or PSU is the component that supplies power to the major computer
components.
• There are different types of connectors or cables of an SMPS that supply power to
various computer components and devices.

Fig. SMPS Connectors

A) 20 + 4 Pin ATX / Motherboard Connector
• This is the main ATX connector that supplies power to your motherboard and
other components like RAM, Low-end graphics card, PCI cards that are connected
to your motherboard. Earlier motherboards have 20 pin sockets only but now
modern-day motherboards require 24-pin power connectors. Therefore nowadays
all the SMPS comes with 24 pin detachable connector (20 + 4) that can be split into
20 pin and 4 pin cables.
B) CPU 4 + 4 Pin Connector
• This is the 12 Volt connector that supplies power to your CPU or Processor. Some
motherboards have 4 pins 12V CPU socket and some have 8 pins 12V socket,
therefore most of the good power supplies come with 8-pin (4 + 4) detachable
connectors which can be split into two 4 pin connectors.

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C) SATA Power Connector
Microsoft Word
• This power connector is used to power up SATA devices that mostly include Hard
Disks, DVD Writers / Drives.
D) Floppy 4 Pin Connector
• This 4 pin power connector is used to power floppy drives. Floppy Drives are not
being used commonly, but in some cases they can prove very useful.
E) Peripheral 4 Pin Molex Connector
• Peripheral 4 Pin Molex Connector is used to provide power to IDE devices and
other peripherals like Fans, case lights etc. You can also use this Molex 4 pin
connector to power other devices like SATA devices, Graphics cards etc. by the use
of converters or adapters e.g. Molex to SATA power connector etc.
F) PCI-e 6 Pin / PCI-e 8 Pin Connector
• PCI-e 6 Pin or PCI-e 6+2 Pin are 12 Volt Connectors that are used to provide power
to mid to high range graphics cards that require extra amount of power for their
working. Budget and low-end graphics cards do not need them as they draw their
power from the motherboard PCI-Express x16 slot only.
• The new PCI Express 8 Pin cable can provide a maximum of 150 Watts power
which is double that of the PCI Express 6 Pin cable i.e. 75 Watts.
b) Voltage levels based on the standard color of the wire
• In early PCs using the PC/XT, AT, Baby AT and LPX form factors all use a
mechanical switch to turn the computer on and off.
• Newer form factor starting with ATX/NLX have changed the way the power supply
is turned on and off.
• Instead of using a physical switch, these systems are turned on by a signals from the
mother board telling the power supply what to do.
• The popular power supply form factors are:
(1) AT
(2) ATX/NLX
1. AT Style SMPS
• AT-style computer cases had a power button that was directly connected to the
system computer power supply unit (PSU).
• The wires were either soldered to the power button (making it difficult to replace the
power supply if it failed) or blade receptacles were used.
• The AT-style SMPS provides DC output on two 6-pin connectors and 4 pin (four)
connectors.
• The two 6 pin connector carry DC power connection to the motherboard.

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• It carries +5V, -5V, 12V and 12V voltages and a PGS (Power Good Signal) as shown
in figure 2.4.1.

AT Style SMPS Outputs

• The Power Good Signal is a special flag to the CPU indicating that the output
voltages are stable and usable by the CPU.
• In absence of the Power Good Signal CPU remains resets.
2. ATX/NLX Style SMPS
• The ATX form factor is sometimes called the ATX/NLX form factor.
• An ATX power supply does not directly connect to the system power button,
allowing the computer to be turned off through software.
• ATX used one large, keyed connector instead. making a reversed connection very
difficult.
• It provides five DC voltages +5V, -5V, +12V, -12V and+3.3V, through a 20 pin
connector.
• In ATX systems, the power good connector is made through connector P8 Pin 1 from
the power supply to the motherboard and the colour is ATX, BTX and later system
use Pin 8 of the orange.
• ATX, BTX and later system use pin 8 of the 20/24 Pin main power connector which
is usually a gray wire.
• It has three special signals:
• PS-ON: It is an input to SMPS only when this signal is low, the SMPS output should
be ON otherwise the output should be off. The signal can be generated by software.
• 5VSB: The 5VSB is a standard by voltage, which supplied power to special circuits
even when the SMPS and the system are off. (3) PW-OK: The PW-OK is a power
good signal.

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Microsoft Word

Fig. ATX/NLX 20-Pin Power Connector

2.2 Processors
• The processor is commonly known as Central Processing Unit or CPU. It is an
electronic circuit which executes computer programs containing a processing unit
and a control.
• A processor (CPU) is the logic circuitry that responds to and processes the basic
instructions that drive a computer.
• The CPU is seen as the main and most crucial integrated circuitry (IC) chip in a
computer, as it is responsible for interpreting most of computers commands.
• A central processing unit (CPU) processes the instructions by performing the basic
arithmetical, logical, and input/output operations of the system.
• Every motherboard supports either an AMD or an Intel processor. They are not
interchangeable. If a motherboard requires an AMD processor, it cannot use an Intel
and vice-versa.
• A computer's CPU handles all instructions it receives from hardware and software
running on the computer.
• Processors can be found in PCs, Laptops, Smart phones, tablets and other computers.

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2.2.1 Describe various processors used in the system: INTEL P4,

Celeron, XEON, Itanium processors, AMD Athlon, Dual core,
Core 2 Duo, Quad core, Octa-core and i-series (i3,i5, i7 and i9).
1) INTEL P4 Processor
• Pentium 4 was a series of single-core central processing units (CPU) for desktop PCs
and laptops. The series was designed by Intel and launched in November 2000.
• Pentium 4 clock speeds were over 2.0 GHz.
• Pentium 4 processors have an integrated heat spreader (IHS) that prevents the die
from accidentally being damaged when mounting and unmounting cooling
solutions.
• Intel shipped Pentium 4 processors until August 2008. Pentium 4 variants included
code named Willamette, Northwood, Prescott and Cedar Mill with clock speeds that
varied from 1.3-3.8 GHz.

Fig. Intel P4 Processor

• The Pentium 4 processor replaced the Pentium III via an embedded seventh-
generation x86 microarchitecture, known as Netburst Microarchitecture.
2) Celeron
• Celeron is Intel's brandname for low-end IA-32 computer microprocessor models
targeted at low-cost personal computers.
• The newest Intel Pentium and Celeron processors offer amazing video
conferencing abilities, faster wireless connectivity, improved overall application
and graphics performance, and long battery life.

Fig. Celeron Processor

• Celeron processors are compatible with IA-32 software. They typically offer less
performance per clock speed compared to flagship Intel CPU lines, such as
the Pentium or Core brands.
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• Whether you’re a Windows, Chrome OS or Linux OS user, the Intel Pentium
Microsoft
Celeron processor Word delivers unmatched balance of performance,
family
experience, and value for education and entry level computing.
3) XEON
• The third Generation Intel Xeon Scalable processors offer a balanced architecture
with built-in acceleration and advanced security capabilities, designed over decades
of innovation for the most in-demand workload requirements—all with the
consistent, open Intel architecture you know and trust.
• Xeon is a brand of x86 microprocessors designed, manufactured, and marketed
by Intel, targeted at the non-consumer workstation, server, and embedded
system markets. It was introduced in June 1998.

Fig. XEON Processor

• XEON processors are based on the same architecture as regular desktop-grade CPUs,
but have advanced features such as support for ECC memory, higher core counts,
more PCI Express lanes, support for larger amounts of RAM, larger cache
memory and extra provision for enterprise-grade reliability, availability and
serviceability (RAS) features responsible for handling hardware exceptions through
the Machine Check Architecture.
Types of INTEL XEON Processors
1. Intel Xeon Scalable Processors
• Delivering modern performance and security that scales with your business needs.
• These processors are optimized for common, critical, and emerging usages with
advanced Al and security capabilities.
2. XEON Intel Xeon D Processor
• When space and power are at a premium, these innovative system-on-a-chip
processors bring workload optimized performance.
3. XEON Intel Xeon E Processor
• Essential, business-ready performance, expandability and reliability for entry
server solutions.

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4. XEON Intel Xeon W Processor
• Designed for creative professionals, delivering the performance you need for VFX,
3D rendering, and 3D CAD on a workstation.
4) Itanium Processors
• Itanium is Intel's first microchip (microprocessor) family based on 64-bit
architecture. It is commonly used in high-end workstations and enterprise servers.
• Itanium is a discontinued family of 64-bit Intel microprocessors that implement
the Intel Itanium architecture (formerly called IA-64).

Fig. Itanium Processor

• Itanium not only provides access to very large memory (VLM), but it also uses a
smart compiler to improve how commands are sent to the processor.
• This greatly reduced processing time and hence enhanced the chip's performance.
• Itanium is able to process two sets of information out of three with a 64-bit
processor, whereas in 32-bit microprocessors the information is decoded before
being used by the 64-bit processor, hence utilizing an extra clock cycle.
• Itanium is widely used for driving large-scale applications that run on more than
4GB of RAM memory, such as Web servers, enterprise resource planning (ERP),
databases, high-end operating systems and Internet routers.
5) AMD Athlon
• AMD's Athlon processors offer better out-of-the-box gaming performance than
Intel's Pentium lineup, unless you pair them with a discrete graphics card.

Fig. AMD Athlon Processor

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• Athlon is the brand name applied to a series of x86-
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compatible microprocessors designed and manufactured by Advanced Micro
Devices (AMD).
• The original Athlon (now called Athlon Classic) was the first seventh-generation x86
processor and the first desktop processor to reach speeds of one gigahertz (GHz).
6) Dual core
• IBM introduced dual-core chips in its Power 4 microprocessors in 2000. Dual core
CPUs were introduced in 2004.
• Because of the continual increase in single core clock speeds, CPUs were generating
more heat and using more power.

Fig. Intel Dual Core Processor

• Dual cores were introduced to improve performance without generating more heat
as dual core systems use about the same amount of energy. Processors with triple
and quad cores have since been introduced.
• A dual-core processor is type of Central Processing Unit (CPU) that has 2 complete
execution cores.
• Dual core is a CPU that has two distinct processors that work simultaneously in the
same integrated circuit.
• This type of processor can function as efficiently as a single processor but can
perform operations up to twice as quickly.
• Because each core has its own cache, the operating system is able to handle most
tasks in parallel.
• While a dual-core system has twice the processing power of a machine with a single
processor, this doesn't mean it will always perform twice as fast. This is because
some operating systems and programs are not optimized for multiprocessing.
7) Core 2 Duo Processor
• The Intel Core 2 duo is an entry level CPU. It can handle basic tasks like web
browsing and document editing well.

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Fig. Intel Core 2 Duo Processor

• Core 2 Duo comes under series of dual-core processors which are invented by Intel.
• Intel named its series as Pentium Dual Core during starting of dual core processors,
which referred to companies dual cores.
• Number of up-gradation and improvement in Intel first series processors resulted in
them calling their processors as Core 2 Duo, with duo hinting two processors that
are found on processor.
• These are known as 1st generation of dual processors. Example AMD refers to its
dual core processors as X2.
• Specifications:
Total Cores 2
Processor Base Frequency 3.00 GHz
Cache 6 MB L2 Cache
Bus Speed 1333 MHz

8) Quad Core Processor

Fig. Quad Core Processor

• A quad-core processor is a type of computer processor architecture that has four
processor cores embedded within a single processor dye.
• Each of the four cores can execute and process instructions independently of the
other cores.

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• Inside the chip, each core operates in conjunction with other circuits, such as cache,
memory management Microsoft Word
and input/output ports.
• Quad-core processors integrate two dual-core processors within a single processor.
The two separate dual cores communicate with each other using processor cache.
• A quad-core processor can execute multiple instructions simultaneously, meaning
that each core can be dedicated for separate instruction.
• Although quad-core processors increase the processing performance of a computer
by a significant margin, system speed also depends on other computing components
to deliver overall computing performance.
9) Octa-Core Processor
• Octa-core processors are those processing systems that have eight cores which are
arranged in two sets of four cores each core can perform the work as that of a quad-
core processing system.
• It was designed to give high performance and speed as compared to any other
processing system.

Fig. Octa Core Processor

• There are two sets of 4 cores are present, which means a total of 8 cores that can
perform numerous tasks at the same time and it uses comparatively more power as
compared to quad-core systems.
• All cores work when multiple heavy tasks are given otherwise one set is enough.
These are designed to handle multi-threaded jobs efficiently.
• The power of one set is high as compared to other sets of cores. These are made to
handle complex and heavy graphics along with rendering capabilities.
10) i3 Processor
• These processors are designed with cheap price points, while still retaining the
power of the Intel Core line. As such they (along with Intel's i5 series) are often
found in laptops and low-end desktop computers.
• This is developed and manufactured by Intel, and first introduced and released
in 2010, the Core i3 is a dual-core computer processor, available for use in both
desktop and laptop computers.

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Fig. Intel i3 Processor

• It is one of three types of processors in the "i" series (also called the Intel Core family
of processors).
• The Core i3 processor is available in multiple speeds, ranging from 1.30 GHz up to
3.50 GHz, and features either 3 MB or 4 MB of cache.
• It utilizes either the LGA 1150 or LGA 1155 socket on a motherboard.
• Core i3 processors are often found as dual-core, having two cores. However, a select
few high-end Core i3 processors are quad-core, featuring four cores.
• The most common type of RAM used with a Core i3 processor is DDR3 1333 or
DDR3 1600.
11) i5 Processor
• The i5 processor is a pretty powerful processor and is suited for tasks that require
more processing power, such as video editing or gaming.

Fig. Intel i5 Processor

• However the i5 processor is reasonably cheaper than an i7 CPU, so you can get just
as much performance in games,at a cheaper cost.
• i5 processors have a rapid performance rate. So, it can perform at the maximum
CPU rate of 3.6 GHz.
• Some of the features of i5 Processors are

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1. Advancing Performance Hybrid Architecture
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• The 13th Gen Intel Core processors advances performance hybrid
architecture1 with up to eight Performance-cores (P-core) and up to 16 Efficient-
cores (E-core), combined with workloads intelligently routed by Intel Thread
Director2.
2. Built for Modern Gaming
• Built for gamers looking for maximum performance to play the latest games,
while also having the capabilities to tackle other workloads.
• New 13th Gen Intel Core processor-based PCs make it all possible.
3. Superior Creating Experience
• The 13th Gen Intel Core processor family offers faster P-cores and more E-cores
with support for DDR4/DDR5 and PCIe 4.0/5.0.
• That provides a platform that can max out multitasking and choice for
configurability.
4. Customize for What You Do Every Day
• 13th Gen Intel Core™ processors deliver highly flexible architecture and
industry-leading tools for the ultimate in performance customization.
12) i7 Processor
• Core i7 is a family of high-end performance x86 64-bit processors developed by
Intel. It is designed for high-end desktops and laptops.

Fig. Intel i7 Processor

• It is the first processor generation using Nehalem Microarchitecture.
• However, using Core i7 makes sense only for users who need to use high-
resolution software like AAA video games, video editing, or want to render 3D
objects.
• The Core i7 line of microprocessors are intended to be used by high-end users.
• Core i7 processor is dual-core, quad-core, and hex-core processor architectures
and Hyper-Threading is possible in Core i7 processors.
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• The clock speed of corei7 is 1.3-3.5 GHz and the cache size of Core i7 is 4MB-
8MB.
13) i9 Processor
• Intel Core i9 processors offer higher performance because they have more cores,
higher frequencies, more cache and draw more power.

Fig. Intel i9 Processor

• The Core i9 is Intel's fastest consumer processor yet. Going up to 16 cores, these
are CPUs meant for enthusiasts and power users.
• The Core i9 series gets that extra power in the simplest way: by adding more
cores. A "core" is a processor (not the chip itself), and each core adds more
processing power to the overall performance.

2.2.2 Define chipset.

a) Introduction
• In the initial days, the motherboards used discrete integrated circuits. Therefore,
many chips were needed to create all the necessary circuitry.
• After some time, chip manufacturers started to integrate several chips into larger
chips. These big integrated chips are known as Chipsets. Instead of requiring dozens
of small chips, a motherboard could now be built using only one or two big chips.
• Chipsets work in conjunction with the processors.
b) Chipset
• It is a collection of microcontroller chips integrated into the motherboard. It
provides a high-speed communication interface between the main system
components.
• The chipset is designed for a particular processor or range of processors to maximise
performance.
• The latest chipset includes integrated graphics, sound cards, Ethernet, and wireless
network adapters.
• A new chipset has to be developed for a new processor to accommodate its
technology.
• The two main manufacturers are NVIDIA and Intel.

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Microsoft Word

c) Northbridge and the southbridge

• The two most important chips on the motherboard are known as the northbridge
and the southbridge. These two chips have most of the important communications
and control functions provided by the motherboard.
• The northbridge also known as the memory controller hub is connected directly to
the processor via the front-side bus to system memory via the memory bus, and to
the southbridge via an internal bus.
• It is also connected to a high-speed graphics card slot via either an Accelerated
Graphics Port (AGP) bus or a PCI Express (PCI-E) bus, depending on the type of slot
provided. The communication handled via the northbridge that is between the CPU,
memory, and video card requires the use of highspeed buses. The CPU gains fast
access to memory via a memory controller built-in to the northbridge. The
northbridge basically controls the processor, RAM slots, PCI Express and
southbridge.
• The southbridge also known as the I/O controller hub connects to the processor
indirectly via the northbridge and controls slower devices such as the hard drive,
USB, audio, video, LAN, PCI, I/O controller, and integrated device hardware, such
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as, sound card, video card, USB, PCI, Ethernet, IDE, ISA, Bios. If there is one chip,
then everything is controlled by that chip. The PCI bus connects the southbridge to
the northbridge.

2.2.2.1 Explain the INTEL chipsets 915,945,955, 965, 975 and

AMD chipsets
Chipest Intel 915 Intel 945 Intel 965 Intel 975 AMD
1. Introduction 2004 2005 2006 2009 2009
2. Socket LGA 775 LGA 775 LGA 775 FCLGA1366 AME9+
3. Processor Pentium4 Pentium Core2, Athlin Pentium 4 Phenom
4,Pentium
4. Support Celeron 4,PentiumD,Sempron Celeron
Pentium Celeron D
D
5. System FSB533 , FSB533,FSB800 FSB533,FSB800 3.33 GHz 4.8 GT/s
speed FSB800
FSB1006
6. Memory Dual Dual DDR2- Dual DDR-2- DDR3  4DDR3
controller DDR400 667 800 Triple –
DDR2- channel
533
7. Graphics PCI PCI PCI 32 Mb
interface Express Express  16 Express  16 AMI
 16 UEFI
Legal
BIOS
with GUI
support
8. Max. 4 GB 8GB 8 GB 8 GB 32 GB
Memory
9. South ICH6-652 ICH7 (82801- ICH8 (82801- For USB 2.0 AMD SB
bridge (8280 GB) -652 balls HB) controller controller 950
IFB) with two ports with two
each ports each
10. Ultra 2 1 Channels 1 Channels 2 Channels 2
ATA/100 Channels Channels
11. Raid RAIDO,1 Either Serial RAID,0,
support (ICH6-R) ATA RALD1
Channels

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2.2.3 State different processor

Microsoft Word sockets Like ZIF, SEC, LGA, PGA,
BGA.
• A socket is a place on the motherboard of the computer where the processor is
inserted.
• It acts as a connector to connect and provide mechanical and electrical connections
between the central processing unit (CPU) to the motherboard.
• The processor, before it is installed in the motherboard, must match its socket. So
the processor socket is almost the most important characteristic.
• Sockets differ in the number of pins, which usually grows with the power and
complexity of the processors. Some of the pins are used to power the processor,
and some are in use for the operation of the processor itself, PCI Express bus,
RAM, etc.
• There is a wide variety of sockets where each one is used in different types of
microcomputers. They have different pins and have differences in terms of the
interconnection made and their geometric arrangement.
• Depending on the physical arrangement of the socket components, there are
mainly five types of computer processor sockets:
1. ZIF sockets
• ZIF (Zero Insertion Force): This is an evolution of the PGA, where the pins are
carried by the microprocessor and inserted into the socket connectors. This
mechanism is defined by not exerting any pressure (Zero Insertion Force) when
installing or removing the processor from the socket.

Fig. ZIP Socket

• For CPU chips with many pins, the ZIF type of CPU sockets is preferred. To install
a processor in a ZIP CPU socket, simply remove the chip. Once the chip is in place,
turn a lever to lock the CPU in place. To remove the processor, turn the lever in the
other direction and lift the chip.
• ZIF sockets are widely used in memories or any computer component that allows
the modification of informative data.

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2. SEC Sockets
• SEC Single Edge Contact Cartridge is a central processing unit (CPU) component
designed to hold certain Intel microprocessors such as Pentium II and Pentium III,
Pentium Pro and Celeron.
• The SECC is also known as Slot 1 because it is inserted into Slot 1 on the
motherboard and it is used by Intel Pentium II and III processors.
• The card was easily inserted into Slot 1 and eliminated the chance of pins being
broken or bent as with older socket versions.
• The processor, along with several L2 cache chips, is mounted on a small circuit
board, which is then sealed in a metal and plastic cartridge.
3. LGA Sockets
• The LGA (Land Grid Array) is a socket whose assembly is in packaging for
integrated circuits.
• In these types of sockets, the needles are located in the CPU socket, and there are
metallic points of contact in the lower area of the processor.

Fig. LGA Socket

• The LGA can be electrically connected to a motherboard through a connector or by
soldering the board directly.
• Since the socket has the pins on the motherboard instead of on the microprocessor,
the microprocessor contains holes in its lower part where they insert; this prevents
the microprocessor pins from being damaged, and it is the most current of all
sockets.
• Many Intel sockets have seen LGA types, such as the LGA 1150, LGA 1155, or LGA
1200. AMD has also used this type of socket since the powerful “Opteron” chips in
the early 2000s.
4. PGA Sockets
• The PGA (Pin Grid Array) is an integrated circuit packaging identified by being
rectangular or square, whose pins are aligned in a regular matrix.
• It is designed to contain processors with a set of pointing pins. A PGA grip applies
a compressive force once the handle is in place.

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• This allows for better mechanical retention and avoids the risk of bending the pins
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when inserting the Word
processor into the socket.

Fig. PGA Socket

• It falls within the oldest types of CPU sockets in computing, although they are not
the most senior.
• Their configuration allows more pins per circuit than DIP sockets, which are much
older. The big problem with the PGAs was that if a pin broke, it becomes
worthless.
• Examples of processors that have used PGA, like the legendary Intel 80386 or
80486, used this socket.
5. BGA Sockets
• Not as famous as other types of sockets, the BGA (Ball Grid Array) socket is not
technically a socket because its main characteristic is that the microprocessors
are permanently mounted in this socket.

Fig. BGA Socket

• In this case, instead of pins, some copper balls are soldered directly to the
motherboard. Eliminate any possibility of upgrading or replacing the
microprocessor.
• The BGA connector and motherboard could cost less, but there are very few
equivalents between consumer BGA and LGA and PGA products. So, where do
you find this socket? Well, in laptops, mobiles, memory chips, or any other small
electronic board.
• However, with the increase in system-on-a-chip (Intel) hardware, Intel has
expanded the use of its BGA socket. Likewise, ARM, Broadcom, Qualcomm,
Nvidia, and other SoC manufacturers rely heavily on BGAs.

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2.3 Memories
• Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing information
temporarily or permanently.
• Computer memories are primarily of three types
1. Cache Memory
2. Primary Memory/Main Memory
3. Secondary Memory

• Internal memory: It is also called as main or primary memory. It refers to

memory that stores small amount of data, that can be accessed quickly while the
computer is running.
• External memory: It is also called secondary memory. It refers to a storage
device that can retain or store data persistently. There are internal or removable
storage devices. Examples include hard disk or solid state drives, USB flash drives,
and compact discs (CD).
• There are basically two kinds of internal memory- ROM and RAM.
• Secondary memory: Secondary memory is computer memory that is non-
volatile, persistent and not immediately accessible by a computer or processor.
Secondary memory is a physical device for the permanent storage of programs and
data (Hard disk, Compact disc, Flash drive, etc.)
a) ROM
• It is read-only memory.
• It is non-volatile, which means it can retain data even without power.
• It is used mainly to start or boot up a computer.
• The data in ROM can only be read by CPU but it cannot be modified.
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• The CPU cannot directly access the ROM memory, the data has to be first
transferred to theMicrosoft
RAM and Word
then the CPU can access that data from the RAM.

Fig. ROM
• ROM stores the instructions requires during a process of booting up of the
computer (bootstrapping). The content in ROM cannot be modified and the data
inside the ROM is retained even after the CPU is switched off.
• The capacity of ROM is comparatively smaller than that of RAM, it is slower and
cheaper than RAM. There are many types of ROM as given below:
• PROM (Programmable read-only memory): It can be programmed by an user.
Once programmed, the data and instructions in it cannot be changed.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable read-only memory): It can be
reprogrammed. To reprogram it, one has to erase all the previous data. Data can be
erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light
• EEPRO EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable read only
memory): Only portions of this chip can be erased by applying an electric field.
b) RAM
• It is random access memory; it means the CPU can directly access any address
location of RAM memory.
• The read and write (R/W) memory of a computer is called RAM.
• It is quickly accessible memory of the computer and its speed is measured in
nanoseconds (billionths of a second).

• It is a read-write memory of the computer, the processor can read the instructions
from RAM and write the result to the RAM.

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• It is fast and volatile which means it stores the data temporarily till the power is
switched ON while the CPU is executing other tasks.
• It is therefore important to save data to the storage device before the system is
turned off Modern computers have RAM ranging from 2 GB to 16 GB.
• There are two basic types of RAM:
1. Dynamic RAM
2. Static RAM.

2.3.1 Define the static and dynamic RAM.

1) Static RAM:
• Semiconductor memory devices in which the stored data will remain permanently
stored as long as power is applied, without the need for periodically rewriting the
data into memory is known as static memory.
• It does not need to be periodically refreshed. It uses switching circuitry instead of
capacitors and can hold the charge without constant refresh.
• It requires more components to store data per bit, so it is more expensive.
• In static RAM, a form of flip flop holds each bit of memory.
• It is faster, has lower density, and uses less power than DRAM. Due to its speed,
SRAM is commonly used for CPU cache but not as the primary RAM due to its
higher cost).
• It is widely used in portable gadgets such as cell phones, where minimum power
consumption is important.
2) Dynamic RAM:
• Semiconductor memory devices in which the stored data will not remain
permanently stored, even with power applied, unless that data are periodically
rewritten into memory is known as dynamic memory.
• It is widely used as a computer's main memory.
• Each DRAM memory cell is made up of a transistor and a capacitor within an
integrated circuit.
• It uses one capacitor and one transistor to store each bit (binary digit) of
information. The capacitor needs to be regularly refreshed to hold the charge.
• This configuration uses very few components per bit, keeping the cost low but the
constant refresh reduces the speed.
• Dynamic RAM, loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even
when power supply is on.
• D-RAM's are cheaper and lower.

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• Smaller to a microprocessor chip is an integrated Circuit (IC) made of millions of
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transistor and capacitors.
3) Comparison between static RAM and dynamic RAM
Sl.No Static RAM Dynamic RAM
1. Fabricated using bipolar and
Fabricated using MOS technology only.
MOS technology.
2. Static RAM contains less Dynamic RAM contains more memory cell as
memory cell per unit area. compared to static RAM per unit area.
3. It has less access time hence
Its access time is greater than static RAMs.
faster memories.
4. Static RAM consists of number Dynamic RAM stores the data as a change on
of flip-flop. Each flip-flop the capacitor. It consists of MOSFET and the
stores one bit. capacitor for each cell.
5. Refreshing circuitry is not Refreshing circuitry is required to maintain
required. the charge on the capacitors after every few
milliseconds. Extra hardware is required to
control refreshing. The makes system design
complicated.
6. Fast in operation. Moderate in operation.
7. Power consumption is more. Power consumption is less.
8. Cost is more. Cost is less.

2.3.2 Explain RAM types - SDRAM (Synchronous DRAM),

Asynchronous DRAM, DDR1, DDR2, DDR3 and DDR4 (1-4) RAM,
Rambus RAM
A) Synchronous DRAM
• SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory), is an improvement to
DRAM which was developed in the early 1990s to solve the problem of increasingly
powerful computers.
• It is a type of DRAM that runs in synchronization with the memory bus and delivers
information in high-speed bursts using clocked interface.
• Due to the synchronization of signals with motherboard clock, the latency time of
SDRAM is very small as compare to EDO RAM.

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• SDRAM speeds up the process by "synchronizing" the memory's responses to control
inputs with the system bus, allowing it to queue up one process while waiting for
another, because it retrieves data alternatively between two sets of memory.
• Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is about 528 MBps.
B) Asynchronous DRAM
• The DRAM described above is the asynchronous type DRAM. The timing of the
memory device is controlled asynchronously.
• A specialized memory controller circuit generates the necessary control signals to
control the timing. The CPU must take into account the delay in the response of the
memory.
C) DDR1 SDRAM
• The next generation of SDRAM is DDR.
• DDR SDRAM provides greater bandwidth than SDRAM due to transfer of data on
the rising and falling edges of the clock signal.
• Effectively, it doubles the transfer rate without increasing the frequency of the
clock. It is commonly referred to as DDR1 or DDR.
• With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer rate of
(memory bus click rate) x 2 (for dual rate) x 64 (number of bits transferred)/8
(number of bits/byte).
• With a bus frequency of 100 MHz, DDR-SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of
1600 MB/s.
• It has been succeeded by DDR2, DDR3, and most recently, DDR4 SDRAM. Each
generation delivers higher transfer rates and faster performance.
D) DDR2 SDRAM
• DDR2 SDRAM or Double-Data-Rate two Synchronous Dynamic Random Access
Memory is a random access memory technology used for high speed storage of the
working data of a computer or other digital electronic device.
• It has the ability to operate the external data bus twice as fast as DDR SDRAM.
• It has a four-bit pre-fetch buffer, enabling faster performance. DDR2 SDRAM
memory has greater latency than DDR SDRAM memory.
• DDR2 cells transfer data both on the rising and falling edge of the clock, a
technique called "dual pumping".
• The key difference between DDR and DDR2 is that in DDR2 the bus is clocked at
twice the speed of the memory cells, so four words of data can be transferred per
memory cell cycle.

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• Thus, without speeding up the memory cells themselves, DDR2 can effectively
operate at twice Microsoft Wordof DDR.
the bus speed
*Note: Latency is a measure of how long it takes to receive information from
memory the higher the number, the greater the latency.
E) DDR3 SDRAM
• DDR3 memory reduces 40% power consumption compared to current DDR2
modules, allowing for lower operating currents and voltages (1.5 V, compared to
DDR2's 1.8 V or DDR's 2.5 V).
• DDR3 SDRAM or Double-Data-Rate three Synchronous Dynamic Random Access
Memory is a random access memory technology used for high speed storage of the
working data of a computer or other digital electronic devices.
• Its primary benefit is the ability to run its I/O bus at four times the speed of the
memory cells it contains, thus enabling faster bus speeds and higher peak
throughputs than earlier technologies.
• Also, the DDR3 standard allows for chip capacities of 512 mega bit to 8 gigabit,
effectively enabling memory modules of maximum 16 gibibyte in size.
• It runs on lower voltages, has twice the internal banks and most versions run at
faster speeds than DDR2.
• It also has an 8-bit prefetch bus with greater latency than DDR2.
F) DDR4 SDRAM
• It was introduced alongside Intel's X99 chipset for Core i-series processors in
August 2014 and is the fourth generation of DDR memory.
• DDR4 SDRAM improves performance over DDR3 SDRAM through more
advanced signal processing (reliability), even greater memory capacity, even lower
power consumption (1.2 V), and higher standard clock speeds (up to 1600 Mhz).
DDR4 SDRAM uses a 288-pin configuration, which also prevents backward
compatibility.
• It runs on lower voltage (1.2V) and supports density up to 16 Gb per chip (twice
the density of DDR3), twice the memory banks and uses bank groups to speed up
access to memory, but uses the same eight-bit, prefetch as DDR3.
• Data rates range from 1600 Mbps to 3200 Mbps.
G) Rhombus SDRAM
• The RDRAM provides a very high data transfer rate over a narrow CPU-memory
bus.
• It uses various speedup mechanisms, like synchronous memory interface, caching
inside the DRAM chips and very fast signal timing. The Rambus data bus width is
8 or 9 bits.

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• Rambus showed increase in latency, heat output, manufacturing complexity, and
cost. Because of more complex interface circuitry and increased number of memory
banks, RDRAM die size was larger than that of contemporary SDRAM chips

2.3.3 Know about SIMM and DIMM

a) Single in-line memory module (SIMM):
• These modules were widely used from the late 1980s to 1990s, and are now
obsolete.
• They typically had 32-bit data bus and were available in two physical types-30 and
72 pin.
• SIMM is a memory module developed by Wang laboratories in 1983.
• The SIMM circuit board that holds six to nine memory chips per board, the ninth
chip usually an error checking chip (parity or non parity).
• The SIMM was used with computers using a 486, early Intel Pentium, and
compatible processors.
• However, because the Pentium is 64-bit and a SIMM is only 32-bits wide, they
must be installed two at a time to work properly.
• Below is a graphic illustration of a 4 MB SIMM and a diagram pointing out the
important features of a SIMM. The SIMM was replaced by DIMMs.

Fig. 72 pin SIMM

b) Dual in-line memory module (DIMM):
• DIMM is an abbreviation of the Dual in-line Memory Module. It is also a
computer memory, which is commonly known as the RAM stick. It installs in the
memory cells of the motherboard. It is a module which is used in laptops, personal
computers (Pcs), printers, and other devices.

Fig. DIMM
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• The memory chips of DIMM are DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory),
Microsoft
which is the most commonWord
category of main memory.
• As compared to SIMM (single in-line memory module), it has a 64-bit data path,
which allows DIMMs to transfer data at a fast speed. DIMM is a module which
comes in the replacement of SIMM.
• This memory module consumes 3.3 volts, which are comparatively lower.
• The dual in-line memory module stores each bit of data in the separate memory
cell.
• The following are the types of DIMM
1. Unbuffered DIMM
2. Fully-buffered DIMM
3. Registered DIMM
4. Load-reduced DIMM
5. SODIMM
6. Micro DIMM
S. No DIMM SIMM
1 DIMM is a short form of SIMM is an abbreviation of the Single In-Line
Dual In-Line Memory Memory Module.
Module.
2 The pins of this memory The pins in this memory module present on
module are independent. either side are connected.
3 DIMM memory module SIMM memory module supports a 32-bit channel
supports a 64-bit channel for transmitting the data.
for transmitting the data.
4 Dual In-Line memory Whereas, Single In-Line memory module
module consumes only 3.3 consumes 5 volts of power.
volts of power.
5 The storage provided by The storage provided by SIMM is 4 MB to 64 MB.
DIMM is 32 MB to 1 GB.
6 As compared to SIMM, As compared to DIMM, its performance is not
the performance of DIMM good.
is good.
7 Modern Pentium This memory module is used by both 486 CPU
computers use this and early Pentium computers.
memory module.
8 Two notches are present A single notch is present in SIMMS.
in DIMMs.

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2.3.4 Explain RAM Slots

• RAM slots are often found in pairs and are sometimes color-coded for
identification A RAM module is rectangular and has a connector on one of the long
sides
• RAM slots or sockets on a PC motherboard are long channels, generally located
close to the CPU.

Fig. RAM Slots on Motherboard

• There are clasps on each end of the socket, which will snap tight around the edge
of the RAM when plugged in.
• Pressing the RAM into the socket will engage these clasps, so they must be
disabled before you can remove the currently installed RAM
• You usually push the clasps away from the memory module, and they help
disconnect the module from the motherboard.

2.3.5 Explain the procedure to upgrade RAM capacity of the

system by adding additional RAMs
• Random access memory (RAM) is a type of data storage used in computers that is
generally located on the motherboard.
• This type of memory is volatile and all information that was stored in RAM is lost
when the computer is turned off.
Step 1: Check how much RAM the computer and operating system can support
• There are several factors that will dictate how much RAM your system can
support, including the operating system and motherboard limits:
• If we are using Windows, a 32-bit version can support up to 4 GB, while a 64-bit
version can support up to 128 GB.
• We will need to check the documentation for your motherboard or run an online
system scanner to see how much memory the motherboard supports.
Step 2: Check what RAM format the motherboard supports
• RAM has gone through several revisions over the years.

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• The standard these days is DDR4 RAM, but if we are upgrading an older
Microsoft
computer, you may Word DDR2 or even DDR.
need DDR3.
• We can determine what type the computer uses by referring to the documentation
or running a tool like CPU-Z, a freeware utility that analyzes the system.)
Step 3: Determine the clock speed
• RAM comes in a variety of different speeds.
• If there are multiple speeds installed, the entire system will clock down to the
lowest speed present.
• This can actually hurt the performance of Computer, even if we are adding RAM.
• The clock speed of RAM is measured in megahertz (MHz).
• Motherboards typically support a range of clock speeds.
• If we use CPU-Z to check your memory clock speed, we will need to multiply the
displayed MHz value by two, since CPU-Z doesn't display the memory multiplier.
All installed RAM should be the same speed for the best performance.
Step 4: Purchase RAM modules in pairs
• Nearly all RAM should be installed in pairs.
• The total value of each module should be within the limits of the motherboard.
• For example, if we are installing 16 GB of RAM, we will need to install either two 8
GB modules or four 4 GB modules.
• If the motherboard has an 16 GB limit, it likely won't support a single 16 GB
memory module.
• RAM often comes packaged in pairs to make purchasing easier.
• Many computers will work with only one RAM module, but this is bad practice
and will have worse performance.
Step 5: Power down the computer
• Unplug the power cable.
• If we need to move the computer to access it easier, remove all the cables from the
back.
• Place the desktop on its side somewhere that gives easy access. Lay it down with
the ports on the back closest to the table.
Step 6: Open the Computer case
• Some cases have thumbscrews for easy opening, while older cases typically require
a Phillips head screwdriver. Slide the panel off or pull it open after removing the
screws.
• Make sure to remove the panel that allows access to the motherboard.

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• We can determine which panel to remove by looking for the I/O ports on the back
of the computer. These ports include monitor, Ethernet, speaker, USB, and more.
They are connected to the motherboard, so remove the panel on the opposite side.
Step 7: Remove existing RAM (if necessary)
• If we are replacing RAM, pop out the old modules by pressing down on the latches
on each end of the module.

Fig. Removing existing RAM

• The RAM module should pop out of the slot, allowing to lift it directly out.
Step 8: Install the new RAM
• Push each module directly into the slot, ensuring that the notches at the bottom
line up.
• Apply even pressure directly to the top of the module until it is inserted and the
latches snap into place on each side.
• Do not force the modules in or you may break them Nearly all RAM is installed in
pairs.
• Some computers will have difficulty with a single RAM stick, and using only one
stick will decrease performance.
Step 9: Close up the computer
• With the RAM installed, close up your computer and screw the case panel back
into place.
• Plug all of the cables back in.
Step 10: Boot up the operating system.
• Turn on the computer and allow it to boot into the operating system. We may be
prompted to continue due to your new RAM installation.
Step 11: Verify that the RAM is recognized
• Open computer's system information to verify that the RAM was properly
installed and is being used.
• Double-check that the amount is being displayed correctly.
• Windows - Open the System Properties window pressing Win+Pause.
• Verify your installed RAM in the System section.
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• If we receive an error message or hear a series of beeps, the system might not be
Microsoft
recognizing the new Word
memory modules.
• Remove and reinstall the modules.
• Push down hard on the modules until the clips fold back up.
Step 12: Checking RAM
• Click on the Start menu or Windows button Right-click on Computer or My
Computer
• Select Properties
• You will see the Installed Memory (RAM) listed. It should match the amount you
installed.
• If you encounter problems after checking these helpful tips, please contact Crucial
Technical Support.

2.3.6 Define Cache memory and explain how it improves the

performance of memory.
a) Cache memory

• The memory connected between the CPU and the main memory is called as cache
memory.
• Cache memory is a very high-speed semiconductor memory which can speed up
CPU.
• It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory.
• The frequently used data is placed in the cache memory.
• The main advantage of cache memory is its very fast speed.
• It can be accessed by the CPU at much faster speed than main memory. So cache
memory is to improve the performance of the system.
• It is a static RAM and therefore has much smaller access times as compared to
main memory which is DRAM.
• Capacity of the Cache Memory is too low in compare to Memory and Hard Disk.
b) Importance of Cache
• The cache memory lies in the path between the processor and the memory. The
cache memory therefore, has lesser access time than memory and is faster than the
main memory.

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• Cache memory has an access time of 100 ns, while the main memory may have an
access time of 700 ns.
• The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity.
• Earlier cache memories were available separately but the microprocessors contain
the cache memory on the chip itself.
• The need for the cache memory is due to the mismatch between the speeds of the
main memory and the CPU.

2.3.7 Define L1, L2 and L3 cache and their locations.

• Levels of Cache: Cache memory is categorized in levels based on it's closeness and
accessibility to the microprocessor. There are three levels of a cache.

• Cache built into the CPU itself is referred to as Level 1 (LI) cache or internal cache.
• Cache that reside on a separate chip next to the CPU is called Level 2 (L2) cache or
External cache.
• Some CPUs have both L1 and L2 cache built in and designate the separate cache
chip as Level 3 (L3) cache.
• Cache that is built into the CPU is faster than separate cache, running at
microprocessor itself.

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• However, separate cache is still roughly twice as fast as Random Access Memory
(RAM). Microsoft Word

a) Level 1 (L1) Cache

• This cache is inbuilt in the processor and is made of SRAM(Static RAM).
• In this type of cache memory configuration a single level cache memory is
introduced between the processor and the main memory.
• It would store the most frequently used portions of program and data.
• This type of cache memory is very fast because it runs at the speed of the processor
since it is integrated into it.

Fig. Level 1 Cache

• L1 or primary cache, is a small, high-speed cache.
• The LI cache typically range in size from 8 KB to 64 KB.
b) Level 2 (L2) Cache
• The L2 cache is larger but slower in speed than L1 cache.
• L2 or secondary cache is memory between the RAM and the CPU.
• The L2 cache typically ranges in size from 64 KB to 2 MB.

c) Level 3 (L3) Cache

• L3 Cache memory is an enhanced form of memory present on the motherboard of
the computer.

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• It is an extra cache built into the motherboard between the processor and main
memory to speed up the processing operations.
• It reduces the time gap between request and retrieving of the data and instructions
much more quickly than a main memory.
• L3 cache are being used with processors nowadays, having more than 3 MB of
storage in it.

2.4 Mass storage devices

• A mass storage device (MSD) is any storage device that makes it possible to store
large amounts of data across computers, servers and within an IT environment.
• MSDs are portable storage media that provide a storage interface that can be both
internal and external to the computer.
• A mass storage device may also be referred to as an auxiliary storage device.
• Mass storage device is primarily related to storage devices that provide consistent
and permanent storage capacity.
• Mass storage includes devices with removable and non-removable media.
• Internal mass storage devices generally can't be removed, whereas external mass
storage devices can be easily removed, ported and plugged into another computer.
• The earliest storage devices were punched paper cards
• Modern mass storage devices include all types of disk drives and tape drives.
• Today, mass storage is measured in gigabytes (1,024 megabytes) and terabytes(1,024
gigabytes).
• Older mass storage technology, such as floppy drives, are measured in kilobytes
(1,024 bytes), megabytes (1,024 kilobytes),

2.4.1 List the different Mass Storage devices.

• Common types of mass storage include the following:
1. Hard Disk Drives
2. External hard drives
3. Solid-State drives (SSD)
4. Optical drives
5. RAID storage
6. USB storage
7. Flash memory cards
• Note that hard drives are the most common types of mass storage devices.

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2.4.2 Give the constructional

Microsoft Word details and working of a Hard disk
Drive
A) Introduction

• A hard disk drive (sometimes abbreviated as a hard drive, HD, or HDD) is a non-
volatile data storage device.
• It is usually installed internally in a computer, attached directly to the disk
controller of the computer's motherboard.
• It contains one or more platters, housed inside of an air-sealed casing.
• Data is written to the platters using a magnetic head, which moves rapidly over
them as they spin.
• A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk is an electro-
mechanical data storage device that uses magnetic storage to store and retrieve
digital data using one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated with magnetic
material.
• The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually arranged on a moving
actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter surfaces.
• Data is accessed in a random-access manner, meaning that individual blocks of
data can be stored and retrieved in any order.
• HDDs often store operating system, software programs and other files, and can be
found in desktop computers, mobile devices, consumer electronics and enterprise
storage arrays in data centres.
• In a computer, an HDD is commonly found in the drive bay and is connected to
the motherboard via an ATA, SATA or SCSI cable.

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• The HDD is also connected to a power supply unit and can keep stored data while
powered down.
B) Hard Disk Construction

• There are many different types and styles of hard disks on the market, all of which
have roughly the same physical components.
• The differences among the different drive styles and types are usually in the
components-the materials used and the way they are put together. But essentially
one disk drive operates like all others.
• The major components in a typical hard disk drive are as follows.
1. Disk platters, spindle and spindle motor
2. Read/write heads
3. Head actuators
4. Air filter
5. Connectors and jumpers
• Of this list, only the connectors and jumpers are accessible outside of the enclosure
that houses all of the other components of the disk drive.
• The metal case and the components it encloses form what is called the Head Disk
Assembly (HDA). The HDA is a sealed unit that is never opened.

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• The following sections provide an overview of each of the hard disk's components.
Microsoft Word
1) Disk Platters, spindle and spindle motor
• The primary unit of a hard disk drive is its platters or disks.
• The disks are the storage media for the disk drive and it is on them that the data is
actually recorded.
• Disks are made from a number of different materials, each with its own
performance and storage characteristics. The primary two materials used in disks
are aluminum alloys and glass.
• Each platter is mounted on the disk spindle so that each side of the disk can be
accessed with a read/write head.
• The surface of each disk platter is polished and then covered with a layer of
magnetic material, which is used to store data.

2) Read/Write Heads
• Each side of a disk platter has media applied to it that allows it to store data.
Accordingly, each side of a disk platter also has at least one read/write head, as
illustrated in Fig.
• As shown, a disk drive that has two disk platters has four read/write heads. There
are exceptions to this rule, but generally a disk drive has two heads for each
platter, one to read and write data to the top side and one for the bottom side.
• The read/write heads are all connected to the same actuator mechanism, as
illustrated in Fig, which moves the heads in unison in and out, from the spindle to
the edge of the platter.
• In most disk drive designs, only one read/write head is active at a time.

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3) Head/Voice Coil Actuators

• A voice coil actuator controls the movement of the read-write head following the
principle of electromagnetic attraction and repulsion
• The name "voice coil" is used for this system because the basic principle behind this
system is taken from the voice coil used inside a typical audio speaker.
4) Air Filters
• In fact, most drives have two air filters, a recirculating filter and a barometric or
breather filter.
• These filters are permanently sealed inside the HDA and never have to be
changed. They are designed to last the life of the drive. PC hard disk drives do not
bring outside air into the HDA and circulate it.
• The purpose of the recirculating filter is to trap any particles of media that may be
scraped off the disks by the read/write heads or any small particles that may have
been trapped in the HDA during manufacturing.
• The HDA has a vent that allows it to equalize the air pressure through a breather
filter.
5) Connectors and Jumpers
• Fig. shows two of the three general types of connectors found on most disk
systems: data and power."
• The data connector, which is also called an interface connector, carries both the
data and command signals from the controller and CPU to and from the disk drive.
• The power connector is the standard power connector available from the PC's
power supply that supplies the disk with 5V and 12V DC power. The logic power
and other circuitry of the disk drive uses 5V, and the spindle motor and head
actuator use 12V power.

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• Fig. shows all the internal parts of a hard disk drive.
Microsoft Word

Fig: Internal parts of a hard drive

Part of Hard disk Description
1. Platter Store the data
2. DC Spindle Motor Spins the platter
3. Head Reads or writes data from or to the
platter
4. Actuator Causes the arm to move
5. Printed Circuits board Connects arm and head to
electronics
6. Arm Moves across the disk. Positioning

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the head
7. Chassis Cast metal base on which other
components are mounted
8. Protective Cover Seals the mechanism against dust
9. Logic Circuits Handle address translation, data
buffering and I/O requests
C). Working of a Hard disk Drive

Fig: Top view and front view of a hard disk platter assembly showing Tracks, sectors and cylinders
• The circular platter is divided into concentric circles known as tracks.
• Each track is divided into several partitions known as sectors.
• Each sector holds 512 bytes of data.
• Sector is the smallest accessible unit of a platter.
• A group of sectors is termed as a cluster.
• The number of sectors available on the inner track is less than that of the outer
tracks.
• A combination of sectors and tracks of all vertical platters is known as a cylinder.
• Data is stored in sectors, tracks and cylinders and in both sides of the platters.
• The process of reading from or writing to the sectors involves two steps.
1. First the read/write head is moved to the desired track. The position of the
head is controlled by the head actuator. The head waits until the required
sector comes under it.
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2. In second step, the spindle is rotated by the electric motor (stepper motor)
that makesMicrosoft Word
the sector to take position below the head correctly. When the
desired sector comes under the head, the reading or writing takes place.

2.4.3 Explain the importance of jumper settings of Hard Disk

drive and give details of it
• Jumpers allow the computer to close an electrical circuit, allowing the electricity to
flow on a circuit board and perform a function.
• Jumpers consist of small pins that can be covered with a small plastic box (jumper
block), as shown in the illustration.
• Below the illustration is a picture of what jumpers may look like on
your motherboard.

Fig.(a) Open Fig.(b) 1-2 Jumped Fig.(c) 2-3 Jumped

• In this example, the jumper is the white block covering two of the three gold pins.
Next to the pins is a silkscreen description of each pin setting. The picture shows
pins 1-2 jumped for Normal mode, 2-3 for config mode, and when open, the
computer is in recovery mode.
• Jumpers manually configure computer peripherals, such as the motherboard, hard
drives, modems, sound cards, and other components.
• Before plug and play, jumpers were used to adjust device resources, such as
changing what IRQ the device uses.

• Moving a jumper between two pins changes the drive

from primary drive, secondary drive, or cable select.

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2.4.4 Familiarize with hard disk interfacings standards like IDE /

EIDE / PATA / SCSI / SATA
• The hard disk interface is the connecting part between the hard disk and the host
computer system, and its function is to transmit data between the hard disk cache
and the host memory.
• The hard disk interface specifies the method used by the hard disk to send and
receive data to the system using a data cable.
• Different hard disk interfaces determine the data transmission speed between the
hard disk and the computer.
• In the entire system, the quality of the hard disk interface directly affects the speed of
the program and the performance of the system.
• There are a few ways in which a hard disk can connect interface with, which are
1. IDE
2. EIDE
3. ATA
4. Parallel ATA (PATA)
5. Serial ATA (SATA)
6. SCSI
1. Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE)
• Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) is more commonly known as ATA or Parallel
ATA (PATA).
• IDE is a standard electronic interface used between a computer motherboard's data
paths or bus and the computer's disk storage devices.
• The IDE interface is based on the IBM PC Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) 16-
bit bus standard, but it is also used in computers that use other bus standards.
• IDE was adopted as a standard by the American National Standards Institute
(ANSI) in November 1990.
• Essentially, an IDE interface is a standard way for a storage device to connect to a
computer.
• The basic concept behind IDE is that the hard drive and the controller should be
combined.
• The IDE interface was capable of transmitting information 16 bits at a time,
compared to 8 bits on the original ISA bus
• A single IDE interface can support two devices. Most motherboards come with dual
IDE interfaces (primary and secondary) for up to four IDE devices.

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• The IDE interface consisted of 40-pin connectors which generally attached drives to a
ribbon cable. EachMicrosoft Word
cable has two or three connectors, one of which plugs into an
adapter that interfaces with the rest of the computer system. The remaining one or
two connectors plug into drives.

Fig. 40 Pin IDE Interface components

Note:
1) IDE is different from the Small Computer Systems Interface (SCSI) and Enhanced
Small Device Interface (ESDI) because its controllers are on each drive, meaning the
drive can connect directly to the motherboard or controller.
2) IDE and its updated successor, Enhanced IDE (EIDE), are the most common drive
interfaces found in IBM compatible computers today.
2. Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
• "SCSI stands for Small Computer System Interface and is a standard for
Communication between a sub-system of peripherals and the system bus.
• SCSI is like a small LAN inside a computer.
• SCSI is a kind of bus.
• The SCSI bus can contain up to 15 devices. The number of devices the SCSI bus can
support depends on the type of SCSI being used.

Fig. SCSI Interface

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• SCSI is commonly used in servers, and more in industrial applications than home
uses
❖ Advantages
✓ Faster
✓ Wide range of applications
✓ Better scalability and flexibility in Arrays (RAID)
✓ Better for storing and moving large amounts of data
✓ Reliability
❖ Disadvantages
✓ Costs
✓ Not widely supported
✓ SCSI drives have a higher RPM, creating more noise and heat.
3. Serial Advanced Technology Attachment(SATA)
• "SATA" stands for Serial Advanced Technology Attachment, is a bus interface for
connecting devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives.
• It is basically an advancement of ATA.

Fig. SATA Interface

• SATA is a standard for connecting and transferring data from hard disk drives
(HDDs) to computer systems. As its name implies, SATA is based on serial signalling
technology. Unlike Integrated Drive Electronics (IDE) hard drives that use parallel
signalling.
• SATA cables are thinner, more flexible and less massive than the ribbon cables
required for conventional PATA hard drives. It also reduced cable-bulk and cost
(reduced from 80 wires to seven), faster and more efficient data transfer, and hot
swapping.
❖ Advantages
✓ Low costs
✓ Large capacity
✓ Faster transfer rates
✓ Smaller cables for better heat dissipation.

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❖ Disadvantages
Microsoft Word
✓ Slower transfer rates compared to SCSI
✓ Not supported in older systems without the use of additional components

4. Parallel Advanced Technology Attachment (PATA)

• PATA, short for Parallel ATA, is an IDE standard for connecting storage devices like
hard drives and optical drives to the motherboard.

Fig. PATA Interface

• PATA is also advancement of ATA but this works in a parallel procedure.
• PATA generally refers to the types of cables and connections that follow this
standard.
• It's important to note that the term Parallel ATA used to simply be called ATA. ATA
was retroactively renamed to Parallel ATA when the newer Serial ATA (SATA)
standard came into being.
• Even though PATA and SATA are both IDE standards, PATA (formally ATA) cables
and connectors are often referred to simply as IDE cables and connectors. It's not a
correct usage but it's very popular nonetheless.

❖ Advantages
✓ Low costs
✓ Very faster transfer rates.
✓ Smaller cables for better heat dissipation.

❖ Disadvantages
✓ Not supported in older systems without the use of additional components.

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2.4.5 Know about various optical disk drives like CD-ROM, CD-
RW, Combo Drive, DVD-ROM, DVD-RW, and Blu-ray drives.

• An optical drive is an internal or external computer disk drive that uses laser beam
technology to read and write data.
• Optical disk drives are associated with CDs, DVD and Blue-Ray technology.

• Optical drives work by rotating the inserted disc at a constant speed, calculated in
revolutions per minute (RPM).
• The rotating disc in an optical drive is read with a laser beam using a lens embedded
within the optical drive's head.
• Optical drives mainly use an Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) bus or a
Serial
• ATA (SATA) bus, along with Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) to send and
receive data from a computer.
A) CD-ROM
• CD-ROM is an acronym for Compact Disc-Read Only Memory.
• CD-ROM is an optical storage device for computer data and programs.
• It is a type of compact disc that has read-only data, meaning that once data has been
recorded onto the disc, it can only be read or played and cannot be altered or erased.
• A CD-ROM is a type of optical disc and can be read by a computer with an optical
drive, or CD-ROM drive, and a DVD/Blu Ray Drive.

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• It's used to store programs and files that require large amounts of data storage. A
Microsoft650-700
CD-ROM holds between Word megabytes (MB) of data, meaning it has enough
memory to store approximately 300,000 pages of text.
• The compact disc was introduced in 1982 for digital audio reproduction. But because
a compact disc can hold any type of digital information, the disc was adapted by the
computer industry in the mid-1980s for a low-cost storage solution for large
computer programs, graphics, and databases.
• As the storage capacity was considered large, it quickly replaced the floppy disk,
which has a maximum capacity of 1.4 MB.
• A compact disc, a CD-ROM can store more data and allows much faster access than
a magnetic disk.
B) CD-RW
• CD-RW (Compact Disc-ReWritable) is a digital optical disc storage format.
• A CD-RW compact disc (CD-RWs) can be written, read, erased, and re-written.
• One disc can store up to 700 MB of data or 80 minutes of digital audio.
• Rewritable discs may not play correctly in all CD players, as the rewritable layer on
the underside of the disc is not as reflective as the pressed layer on a CD-ROM.
• Writing to a CD-RW disc requires a compatible disc drive that supports
rewriting optical media.
• Once data is written to a CD-RW disc, it is read-only and cannot be edited; in order
to make any changes to the files on a disc, it must be erased and re-written. This
process makes the format a poor choice for storing files that need to be frequently
modified.
C) Combo drive
• A combo drive refers to optical drive that are capable of recording and/or reading
two or more types of optical media.
• As DVD drives were introduced, combo drives referred to those optical disk drives
that combined CD media read and write capabilities with the capability to read DVD
media.
• As the popularity of DVD media grew, the definition of what makes a drive a combo
drive also changed.
• In CD and DVD media, the term now usually describes a DVD drive that also
includes CD media read and write capabilities. Before combo drives, consumers
needed to choose between a CD burner or a DVD-ROM drive.
• Combo drive is also a term which can be used to describe disc players capable of
playing one or more media formats.

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System Board, Processors, Memories and Mass Storage Devices 2-57
• For example, a combo drive that is capable of playing best HD-DVD and Blu-ray
discs would be a combo drive
D) DVD-ROM
• DVD-ROM is a read-only compact disc that can hold a minimum of 4.7GB
(gigabytes), enough for a full-length movie.
• The DVD-ROM specification supports disks with capacities of from 4.7GB to 17GB
and access rates of 600 KBps to 1.3 MBps.
• One of the best features of DVD-ROM drives is that they are backward-compatible
with CD-ROMs.
• This means that DVD-ROM players can play old CD-ROMs, CD-I disks, and video
CDs, as well as new DVD-ROMs. Newer DVD players can also read CD-R disks.
• DVD-ROMs use MPEG-2 to compress video data.
E) DVD-RW
• Short for DVD-ReWritable, a re-recordable DVD format similar to CD-RW or DVD +
RW.
• The data on a DVD-RW disc can be erased and recorded over numerous times
without damaging the medium. DVD-R, DVD-RW and DVD-RAM are supported by
Panasonic, Toshiba, Apple Computer, Hitachi, NEC, Pioneer, Samsung and Sharp.
F) Blue ray Disk
• Blue-ray Disk (BD) is the name of a next generation optical disc format developed by
the Blu-ray Disk Association (BDA), a group of the world's leading consumer
electronics, personal computer and media manufacturers.
• The format was developed to enable recording, rewriting and playback of high
definition video (HD), as well as storing large amounts of data. The format offers
more than five times the storage capacity of traditional DVDs and can hold up to 25
GB on a single layer disc and 50 GB on a dual layer disc.
• Blu-ray products can easily be made backwards compatible with CDs and DVDs
through the use of a BD/DVD/CD compatible optical pickup unit.
• The benefit of using a blue-violet laser (405 nm) is that is has a shorter wavelength
than a red laser (650 nm), which makes it possible to focus the laser spot with even
greater precision.
• This allows data to be packed more tightly and stored in less space, so it's possible to
fit more data on the disc even though it's the same size as a CD/DVD.
• This together with the change of numerical aperture to 0.85 is what enables Blu-ray
Discs to hold 25 GB/50 GB.
• Although the Blu-ray specification has been finalized, engineers continue working to
advance the technology.
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G) Comparison of CD, DVD & BRD
Microsoft Word
Parameter CD (compact Disk) DVD (Digital BRD
Versatile Disk ) (Blue-Ray-disk)
1. LASER Red Red Blue
2. LASER 750 nm. 640 nm. 450 nm.
Wavelength
3. Capacity 196 MB to 700 MB 4.7 GB to 17 GB 27 GB or 54 GB
4. Track pitch 1.6  M. 0.74  M. 0.32  M.
5. No. of Heads 1 (Only Lower) 2(Both 2(Both
Lower/Upper) Lower/Upper)
6. Formats SSSL SSSL, SSDL, DSSL, SSSL, DSSL
Supported DSDL
7. Cost Low Moderate Relatively High
8. Use Audio, Data, Video Data, Video (MPEG) Data, Video
(MPEG), , Compressed (MPEG),
Compressed Audio Audio(MP3) HD Compressed Audio
(MP3) Video (MP3) HD Video
(SSSL – Single sided single Layer ; SSDL- Single sided Double Layer ; DSSL – Double
sided single Layer ; DSDL – Double sided Double Layer )

2.4.6 Explain the process of reading and writing of data on

various disk drives like CD- ROM, CD- Writer, DVD Drive and Blu-
Ray Disk drive etc.
• All CD-ROM, CD- Writer, Combo drive, DVD Drive are called optical storage
devices because they work with light energy such as a laser beam.
• A beam of light energy is emitted from an infrared laser diode and aimed toward a
reflecting mirror. The mirror is part of the head assembly, which moves linearly
along the surface of the disk.
• The light reflects off the mirror and through a focusing lens, and shines onto a
specific point on the disk.
• A certain amount of light is reflected back from the disk. The amount of light
reflected depends on which part of the disk the beam strikes: each position on the
disk is encoded as a one or a zero based on the presence or absence of "pits" in the
surface of the disk.

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• A series of collectors, mirrors and lenses accumulates and focuses the reflected
light from the surface of the disk and sends It toward a photo detector.
• The photo detector transforms the light energy into electrical energy. The strength
of the signal is dependent on how much light was reflected from the disk Combo
drive is a drive which can read and write CD as well as DVD
• The reading and writing process in both CD and DVD will be the same.
2.4.6.1. Working principle of DVD drive
The working principle of a DVD drive is clearly explained below.
a) Data Retrieving/Reading
• To read data, the less powerful laser beam is focused on the disk surface. This beam
is strongly reflected by the coated surface (land) and weakly reflected by the burnt
surface (pit), producing patterns of ON and OFF reflections that are converted into
electronic signals of binary 1s and 0s by the photo detector.
• A mechanical forward – backward moving read/write access arm with laser source
and detection lens (called eye) assembly is used to place the unit to the desired place
on the optical disk.
• This assembly and the disk do not come in contact at all. The disk itself is placed on
a spindle attached to motor that rotates the disk during access.

Fig. (a): LASER beam reflected by lands and pits

• The binary signal from the optical system is then sent to a Digital to Analog
converter which will be setup in the circuit board. Thus the corresponding analog
signal of the DVD is obtained.
• This analog signal is sent to an audio amplifier which amplifies the signal and then
sends it to the graphic and audio systems of the computer/TV.
• Thus, the corresponding audio/video signal is obtained. The basic working of a
DVD player is shown in the fig. (b).

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Microsoft Word

Fig. (b) : Block diagram of a DVD drive

b) Data Recording/Writing
• Recording is done in a spiral manner starting from the inside of the disc towards
outside.
• The data that is to be stored in the medium is encoded as a series of patterns.
• A high intensity laser beam which turns ON and OFF according to the data patterns,
is projected on to the rotating disk.
• If the laser beam is turned ON, it melts the metal coating of the disk surface along
the tracks, to form tiny “pits” visible only through a powerful microscope.
• If the laser is OFF, it does not produce any change. The areas that are left unburnt
between successive pits are called “Lands”. This is why, the writing of optical
storage device is known as Burning.
• The formation of pits and lands on a DVD during burning is shown in fig. (c).

2.4.7 Explain the working principle of a Pen drive

a) Introduction
• USB Flash Drives or commonly called as Pen Drives are popular removable storage
media having a storage capacity up to 256 GB.
• They are preferred over the other conventional storage devices like floppy disks or
CD ROMs as they are faster, smaller and have a longer life span.
• The devices like memory card, hard disk, pen drive etc with high data storage
capacity fall under the category of Mass Storage Devices.
• In order to communicate data with devices falling under this category the USB has
defined a set of protocols.
• The operating system provides inbuilt libraries to handle such devices thereby
preventing the need of any external drivers to be installed before using these
devices.

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Fig. Pen Drive

b) Working principle of a Pen drive
• The pen drive comprises a small printed circuit board (PCB), which is usually built
of plastic or metallic body.
• This device used the technology of EPROM, i.e., Erasable Programmable Read-only
Memory, which means the data stored in the pen drives can be read, written, and
erased easily.
• The PCB is provided with a power circuit, integrated circuits, and USB connectors.
• One of the integrated circuits acts as the interface between the USB connectors and
the memory, and another integrated circuit is a NAND flash memory, which stores
all the data.
• The data stored in the pen drive is controlled by a 12MHz clock signal crystal
oscillator.
• The following image shows the internal structure of the pen drive.

1. USB Connector
• The USB connector is the interface between the computer (where the pen drive is
attached) and the NAND flash memory chip.
• It is secured by a removable cap.
• Mostly, the pen drives consist of a standard type-A USB connection that is
connected to the port of the device, but nowadays, a faster version, i.e., USB Type-
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C connector is gaining more popularity. The electric power from the computer is
consumed by theMicrosoft Word
pen drive through the USB connector.
2. USB Mass Storage Controller/Controller Chip
• The controller chip is called the brain of the pen drive.
• This chip helps to read or record the information/data on the NAND flash
memory.
• It also helps to recover the data from the pen drive.
3. NAND Flash Memory Chip
• The purpose of the NAND flash memory chip is to store the data.
• It also allows the users to erase the data stored in the pen drive so that new
information can be transferred into it.
• The memory stored by the NAND flash chip is of non-volatile type, i.e., it does not
need any power to retain the information.
4. Crystal Oscillator
• The crystal oscillator is a small piece of quartz fitted in the pen drive, which
vibrates at a specific frequency.
• It acts as a small clock inside the Pendrive, which manages the functioning/timing
of each component inside the pen drive by providing accurate timings.
5. LED
• It is used to indicate the working condition of the Pendrive.
6. Write Protect Switch
• It is an optional component and is generally installed in pen drives if the user
demands high data security.
• It is a tiny switch, which safeguards the data stored on the pen drive from the host
devices.

2.4.8 Know about Solid-State Drives (SSD)

• An SSD, or solid-state drive, is a type of storage device used in computers
• SSDs store data permanently inside an integrated circuit, typically using flash
memory.
• The flash memory inside an SSD means data is written, transferred, and erased
electronically and silently
• SSDs don’t have the moving parts found inside mechanical hard-disk drives
(HDDs).
• Without moving parts, SSDs are fast and quiet, but they are costly compared to
HDDs.

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Fig. SSD
• SSDs replace traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) in computers and perform the
same basic functions as a hard drive. A solid-state drive (SSD) is a new generation
of storage device used in computers
• Upgrading to an SSD is one of the best ways to speed up your computer
• Sometimes referred to as semiconductor storage devices, SSDs are more commonly
known as solid state drives, because they don't have the moving parts found in
hard-disk drives (HDD).

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3
Study of Input and Output Devices

OBJECTIVES
➢ Input Devices
3.1 List the various Input devices used with a general-purpose
computer
3.2 Explain the working principle of Keyboard (Wired &
Wireless Keyboard)
3.3 Discuss the working principle of Opto-mechanical mouse and
Optical Mouse (Wired & wireless Mouse)
3.4 List the various scanners
3.5 Explain the working of flatbed scanner and hand-held
scanner.
3.6 Explain the working of a Webcam
➢ Output Devices
3.7 List the various Output devices used with a general-purpose
computer
3.8 Describe the working principle of CRT Monitor
3.9 Describe the working principle of LCD/TFT/LED/OLED
Monitors
3.10 Describe different categories of printers (Impact and Non-
Impact)
3.11 Describe the working principle of Dot matrix printer
3.12 Describe the working principle of inkjet printer
3.13 Describe the working principle of Laser printer
3.14 Know about Multi-Function printer
 3-2 Study of Input and Output Devices

3.0. Introduction
• Input devices are hardware that allows data to be entered into a computer. They
use either manual entry (such as a keyboard or a mouse) or direct data entry (such
as sensors or optical character readers).
• Essentially, these devices turn input into a form the computer can understand - for
example, a mouse turns hand movements into cursor movements on the screen.
• When a computer processes data, and the human operator wants to see the results
of the processing, then the computer sends the data to an output device.
• An output device shows the computer's output in a form that is understood by a
human - for example, as text on a printer or moving images on a monitor.
• Some devices can act as both input and output. For example, a touch screen can do
both, as can a DVD writer/player; but most devices are only capable of either
inputting data into a computer or displaying the results of computer processing
(output device).
3.0.1 Differences between input and output devices
S. No Input Devices Output Devices
1 An input device is any hardware An output device is any hardware
device that allows a user to enter device that takes the output data
data or instructions into a from a computer and puts it into a
computer directly. human-readable format or uses it to
control another device.
2 An input device can send data to An output device is capable of
another device, but it cannot receiving data from another device in
receive data from another device. order to generate an output, but it
cannot send data to another device.
3 Input devices are necessary for a Output devices are needed by a
computer to receive commands computer so it can share the results
from its users and data to process; of its processing with a human,
the devices are under the control output devices are under the control
of the user or can be direct data of the computer.
entry
4 Input devices can be fairly Output devices are less complex than
complicated because they have to input devices because they only have
ensure that the user can interact to turn computer signals into an
with the computer correctly. output.

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Study of Input and Output Devices 3-3

3.1 List the various Input devices used with a general-

purpose computer
Following are some of the important input devices which are used in a computer
• Keyboard is the most common and very popular
1. Keyboard input device which helps to input data to the
computer.
• Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys,
but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108 keys are also
available for Windows and Internet.
2. Mouse • Mouse is the most popular pointing device.
• Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the
right button and a wheel is present between the
buttons.
• A mouse can be used to control the position of the
cursor on the screen, but it cannot be used to enter
text into the computer.
3. Joy Stick • Joystick is also a pointing device which is used to
move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
• It is mainly used in Computer Aided Designing
(CAD) and playing computer games.

4. Light Pen • Light pen is a pointing device and it is used to select a

displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor
screen.
• When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor
over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed
its photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.
5. Track Ball • Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in
notebook or laptop computer instead of a mouse.
• This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving
fingers on the ball the pointer can be moved.

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6. Scanner • Scanner is an input device which works like a
photocopy machine.
• It is used when some information is available on
paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the
computer for further manipulation.
• Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into a digital form that can be stored
on the disk.
7. Graphic Tablet • Digitizer is also known as tablet or graphics tablet as
it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary
inputs.
• A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for line works of
drawing and image manipulation applications.

8. Microphone • Microphone is an input device to input sound that is

then stored in a digital form.

9. Magnetic Ink Card • MICR input device is generally used in banks used in
Reader (MICR) banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day.
• The bank’s code number and cheque number are
printed on the cheques with a special type of ink that
contains particles of magnetic material that are
machine readable.
• This reading process is called magnetic ink character
recognition (MICR).
10. Optical Character • OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.
Reader (OCR) • OCR scans the text optically character by character,
converts them into a machine-readable code and
stores the text on the system memory.

11. Bar Code Reader • Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar code
data (data in the form of light and dark lines) Bar
coded data is generally used in labelling goods,

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Study of Input and Output Devices 3-5
numbering the books, etc.
• It may be a handled scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner.

12. Optical Mark • OMR is a special type if optical scanner used to

Reader (OMR) recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
• It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be
selected and marked.
• It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of
examinations having multiple choice questions.

3.2 Explain the working principle of Keyboard (Wired &

Wireless Keyboard)
3.2.1. Construction
• A wired keyboard means there is a wire connecting your keyboard to your
computer. At the end of the wire is a USB plug that goes into a USB port on your
computer. Wired keyboards are extremely reliable—there is little that could go
wrong with this direct connection.
• A keyboard contains many mechanical switches or push-buttons called "keys".
• A standard computer keyboard has about 110 keys.

Fig. Keyboard
• Most keyboards use the QWERTY layout, named for the first six keys in the top
row of letters.
• Alphanumeric keys: Alphanumeric are divided into two parts, alphabets, and
number keys and this includes letters, numbers, punctuation, and symbol keys.

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• Function keys: This is located at the top of the board, there are a total of 12
function keys and used to perform specific tasks, like F1 displays a help window
and F5 used to refresh window or any browser same as all 12 keys have their own
work to perform.
• Control keys: Control keys are used to perform different work examples of control
keys are Ctrl, Alt key, Window logo key, and Esc. these keys are used alone or with
other function keys.
• Numeric Keypad: This is located on the right side of a keyboard. The arrangement
of all numeric keys is very similar to calculators that included numbers, decimals,
and many other keys. this is the most recent invention, to enhance the user
experience.
• Navigation keys: These keys are just touching with the numeric keys which
include Arrow keys, page up and down keys, delete keys, home, and insert keys.
3.2.2. Working principle of Keyboard
• When a key is not pressed, there is no contact between the upper and lower
conducting layers and hence the keyboard does not sends a signal to your computer
as shown in Fig (a).

Fig. (a)
• The computer keyboard is very simple. You push a key, and it puts a letter on the
screen.
• When you press a key, the upper and lower conducting layers come together which
allows a current to flow to the computer. The computer measures the voltage and
transforms the amount of volts in to binary.
• The computer compiler reads the binary, and a letter appears on a screen.

Fig. (b)

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3.2.3. Working principle of Keyboard/Mouse (Wireless)
• This is the same as standard wired keyboard except their wires, the wireless device
is connected with the computer with the help of Bluetooth, Radiofrequency or by
other methods but not by wires.
• The major components of an infrared keyboard (or an infrared mouse) are a
transmitter and a receiver.
• The infrared transmitter is built inside the wireless device. Because each wireless
component manufacturer designs their own transmitters, the keyboard or mouse
operates at a proprietary frequency.
• The infrared keyboard or mouse comes with a separate infrared receiver which is
tuned to this proprietary frequency.
• This infrared receiver must be connected to the PC through a USB port (or) a
keyboard or mouse port. This cabled receiver then must be placed on the top of the
monitor.
• When the user pressed any key or clicked the mouse, the corresponding data is
transmitted by the infrared keyboard (or mouse) through the IR signals.
• These IR signals are generated by the infrared laser or LED present in the infrared
transmitter. The infrared receiver connected to the PC receives these infrared
signals and decodes them.
• It consists of an infrared light detector which converts the infrared signals send by
the infrared keyboard (or mouse) to the corresponding electrical signals which are
then decoded by the logic circuits present in the IR receiver.
• The decoded signals are then sent to the CPU, for further processing.

3.3 Discuss the working principle of Opto-mechanical

mouse and Optical Mouse (Wired & Wireless Mouse)
• Another most common input device used in the computer field is Mouse.
• In GUI or windows operating system, using keyboard commands to carry out
different works by the computer is difficult to remember and understand even for
experienced users. A user can easily move on screen to select different options on
the screen using the mouse.
• The computer mouse is considered an input device. With a click of a button, the
mouse sends information to the computer.
• The computer mouse is an interesting device that offers an alternative way to
interact with the computer beside a keyboard.
• It looks like real mouse with the cord is the tail and the part we hold is the body.

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3.3.1. Types of mouses
• The mouse has one, two or three buttons on the top. Three types of mouse are
available:

Fig. Classification of Mouse

a) Mechanical
• This is a type of computer mouse that has a rubber or metal ball on its underside
and it can roll in every direction.
• There are sensors within the mouse, which are mechanical, detect the direction in
which the ball is moving and moves the pointer on the screen in the same direction.
A mouse pad should be used under the mouse to run on.
b) Opto-mechanical
• This is the same as the mechanical mouse except that it uses optical sensors to the
motion of the ball. User should use a mouse pad under the mouse to run on.
c) Optical
• This type uses a laser for detecting the mouse's movement. User don't need a mouse
pad but can use one made for optical mice. Optical mice do not have any
mechanical moving parts.
• The optical mouse responds more quickly and precisely than the mechanical and
opto- mechanical mice.
3.3.2. Working principle of Opto-mechanical mouse
a) Construction
• The mouse consist of the following components:
1. A roller ball which signals movement to the system.
2. Buttons for making the selection.

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3. The sensing circuit i.e. a combination of LED and photo detector is used to sense
the distance travelled by the mouse.
4. Cable for connecting the mouse to the system.
5. Connector for interfacing mouse to the system.

Fig.(a)
b) Working:
• When mouse is moved, the ball of the mouse moves and it turns two separate
rollers fixed at 90° angle to each other.
• One roller is used for vertical movement and other is used for horizontal movement
of the roller cursor on a screen.
• Each roller connected with a wheel, these wheels are rotated by the corresponding
movement of the rollers.
• These are small opening on the rim of each wheel. As the wheel rotates, a pair of
LED and photo detector detects the number of opening passed between them and
generate an electrical signals.
• These signals are passed to the PC through the wire connecting mouse to the main
system.
• Mouse driver which then convert these signal into distance, direction and speed of
mouse. Pressing any mouse button also produce a signal.
3.3.3. Working principle of Optical mouse
a) Construction
• Optical mouse consists of a light source and photo detector, with a special mouse
pad with a grid is used and a small camera.
• Inside each optical mouse a camera that takes more than a thousand snapshot
picture every second and the reflected light is sense by photodiode is inputed to the
digital signal processing.

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 3-10 Study of Input and Output Devices
• The digital signals processing is used to compare the pictures and determine the
speed and direction of movement.
b) Working

• First the LED produces a red light that is emitted onto the surface.
• The light is reflected off the surface back to the CMOS sensor.
• The CMOS sensor sends each image that is reflected back to a DSP (Digital Signal
Processor) for analysis.
• Using the thousands of images that the CMOS is sent to the DSP for analysis, the
DSP is able to detect both pattern and imager and can determine if mouse moved,
at what speed and distance.
• Determine co-ordinates which are then sent to computer.
• Mouse co-ordinates are updated more than hundreds of times per second.

3.4 List the various scanners

Fig. Types of Scanners

• Scanner is a special input device to convert both pictures and text into stream of
data.

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Study of Input and Output Devices 3-11
• The function of the scanner is to obtain an electronic image of the character to be
read, in a form which is suitable for the recognition process.
• The text, image or any data can be directly entered into computer memory with the
help of scanners.
• For better reproduction of the original image, it is always better to scan the image at
the highest possible resolution, but the hard disk space required in such cases is
more.
• Scanner allow to use optical character recognition software (OCR) to convert
printed matter to ASCII text files.
a) Flatbed scanner
• A flatbed scanner is used for scanning most documents, photos and even flat
objects from a PC or laptop.
• This type of scanner works like a copy machine or Xerox machine.
• A flatbed scanner is made up of a glass pane and moving optical CIS or CCD
array.
• The pane is illuminated with the help of bright light planted underneath it.
• The image which is to be scanned is then placed. On the glass pane, the
sensor and the source of light move across the glass pane to scan the
document and produce its digital copy.
b) Handheld Scanner
• Handheld scanner is smaller than flatbed and sheet fed scanners.
• It is a small scanning device which is moved over the object that needs to be
scanned.
• One of the most utilized handheld scanner is the barcode scanner, typically
used in shopping stores.
• Image quality is usually lower.
c) Sheet Fed Scanner
• Sheet fed scanner usually smaller than flatbed and portable.
• In sheet fed scanners, the document that is supposed to be scanned is fed
into the horizontal or vertical slot provided with scanner.
• The main components of sheet fed scanner are the sheet-feeder, scanning
module and calibration sheet.
• It is most often used to scan single page, and it cannot be used to scan
thicker object.

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3.5 Explain the working of flatbed scanner and hand-

held scanner.
3.5.1. Working of a Flatbed scanner
• A flatbed scanner is like a copier machine consisting of a box having a glass
plate on its top and a lid that covers the glass plate (see Figure 3.5(a)). A
document to be scanned is placed upside down on the glass plate.

Fig. 3.5(a) : Flatbed scanner/Desktop scanner

Fig. 3.5(b) : Working of a flatbed scanner

• When you press the scan button after placing the document to be scanned on
the glass plate of the scanner, the following process is undertaken by the
scanner to scan the document.

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Study of Input and Output Devices 3-13
1. The light source illuminates the document.
2. An angled mirror in the scan head reflects this image onto the lens as shown
in the fig. 3.5(b).
3. The lens focuses this image onto the CCD. Each light detector on the CCD
detects the amount of light falling on it as a voltage level.
4. The voltages generated by these CCDs are sent to an analog-to-digital
converter.
5. The ADC converts each analog reading of voltage as digital pixel
representing the scanned area.
6. After scanning one line, the scan head moves up a little and scans the next
line. The process is repeated for all the lines. It takes about 20 seconds to
scan a document of size 21 cm x 28 cm.
3.5.2. Working of a Hand-held scanner
• A hand-held scanner looks as shown in the fig. 3.5(c). It can be held in hand
conveniently. The working principle of this scanner is same as that of the
flatbed scanner.
• To scan a document, the scanner is dragged slowly over it from its one end
to the other end with its light on as shown in the fig. 3.5(d).

Fig. 3.5(c): Hand-held scanner

• The scanner has to be dragged very steadily and carefully, otherwise the
conversion of the document into its equivalent bit map will not be correct.
• Due to this reason, hand-held scanners are used only in cases where high
accuracy is not needed. They are also used when the volume of documents
to be scanned is low.
• They are much cheaper than flatbed scanners.

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Fig. 3.5(d): Scanning a document using hand-held scanner

3.6 Explain the working of a Webcam

• A webcam is a small digital video camera that connects to a computer.
• It is also known as a web camera that can capture pictures or motion video. These
cameras come with software that needs to be installed on the computer that helps
transmit its video on the Internet in real-time.
• It has the ability to take pictures, including HD videos, but its video quality can be
lower as compared to other camera models.

Fig. Webcam
• Many laptops have a webcam built into the display for purposes like for attending
video conferences and business calls etc.
3.6.1. Working
• A webcam is a compact digital camera that can be attach to the computer for
capturing images and videos.
• It works like a conventional digital camera, but it is designed to communicate with
the internet pages and other web pages.
• It broadcasts video images in real-time through a tiny grid of light-detectors that is
known as charge-coupled device from the location where it is placed.
• First, the charge-coupled device (CCD) converts the image into a digital format;
then the computer would be capable of accessing this data.

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• To store the images, Webcams do not have the internal memory. Therefore, it
transfers the data instantly to the host device with the help of USB or another
analog cable. It includes two functionalities; first capturing the images or videos
and then transmit it to the predestined device.
• To interact with the host device, Webcams also come with the appropriate software
along with the digital camera.
• It comes with a webcam software. The program "grabs a frame" from the digital
camera at a preset interval (for example, a picture is taken once every 30 seconds)
and transfer it to another location for viewing.
• The software provides users to edit the images and to record the videos for a certain
duration, and it obtains the digital data from the camera at particular intervals of
time.
• The number of pictures or video streaming is displayed on the computer on the
basis of the frame rate. The software converts the image frame into a JPEG file,
which is received from a digital camera. Then, sends it to the webserver by using
the file transfer protocol.

Output Devices
3.7 List the various Output devices used with a general
purpose computer
• The output devices take care of displaying the result after data processing by the
input device. It may be in image, graphic, textual or audio form.
• These devices show the visual elements on the display. The information on the
screen is soft copy and some of the important output devices are

Output Devices Description

1. Monitors • The visual display units are the most important output
device responsible for showing the visual made of pixels
to the user.
• The pixels decide the image sharpness.

2. Printers • A printer is a hardware output device that is used to

generate hard copy and print any document. A document
can be of any type such as a text file, image, or the
combination of both.
• It accepts input command by users on a computer or on

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other devices to print the documents.

3. Speakers • An output device that produces sound after receiving a

command from the computer.
• They support the computers as well as other hardware
devices.
• Now we also have wireless speakers with Bluetooth
technology.
4. Projector • This is an optical device that presents visuals on the
screen, stationary and moving both.
• They are present at movie theatres, auditoriums, etc. It
connects to the computer and displays the image on it on a
larger screen.

5. Plotter • It is a device to make graphics, prints and other vector

images to give a real life illustration vibe. It is mandatory
to have a graphic card to use the device.
• The pen like device that comes with it helps in replicating
the exact design on the computer.

6. Braille Reader • Made for the blind users, this device is to process
computer data in braille format.
• It allows users with low or no vision to recognize the data
as the braille reader put data on the paper in embossed
format. They can run their fingers over it to understand
everything easily.
7. Television • A very common output device present in most of the
households is a display output device.
• It portrays video and audio files on the screen according
to the user’s needs. Before we had CRT screens but now
most of us use plasma displays.

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8. Video Card • This device goes inside the sockets of a motherboard of
the computer system. It improvises the digital content
appearance in other output devices.
• It is very important now with many people having
multiple devices just for personal use.

9. Global • A device to help users with directions, GPS uses satellite

Positioning System technology to track geographical location of the users.
• There is a continuous latitudinal and longitudinal
calculation to have an accurate result every time. Most of
the vehicles and smart devices have GPS as an inbuilt
feature.

10. Headphones • Similar to speakers, this device has a lower sound

frequency. They can’t be easily heard in large areas like
grounds and parks but are only accessible to a single
person using the device.
• A headset is another name for them.

3.8 Describe the working principle of CRT Monitor

3.8.1. Introduction
• A cathode ray tube (CRT) is a specialized vacuum tube in which images are
produced when an electron beam strikes a phosphorescent surface.
• It modulates, accelerates, and deflects electron beam(s) onto the screen to create the
images. Most desktop computer displays make use of CRT for image-displaying
purposes.
3.8.1. Construction
• The primary components are the heated metal cathode and a control grid. The heat
is supplied to the cathode (by passing a current through the filament). This way the
electrons get heated up and ejected out of the cathode filament.
• This stream of negatively charged electrons is accelerated towards the phosphor
screen by supplying a high positive voltage.

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• This acceleration is generally produced by means of an accelerating anode.
• The next component is the Focusing System, which is used to force the electron
beam to converge to a small spot on the screen.
• If there will not be any focusing system, the electrons will be scattered because of
their own repulsions and hence we won’t get a sharp image of the object.
• This focus can be either by means of electrostatic fields or magnetic fields.
3.7.3. Working
• The working of CRT depends on the movement of electrons beams. The electron
guns generate sharply focused electrons which are accelerated at high voltage.
• This high-velocity electron beam when strikes on the fluorescent screen creates
luminous spot.

Fig. Cathode Ray Tube

• After exiting from the electron gun, the beam passes through the pairs of
electrostatic deflection plate. These plates deflected the beams when the voltage
applied across it.
• The one pair of plate moves the beam upward and the second pair of plate moves
the beam from one side to another.
• The horizontal and vertical movement of the electron are independent of each
other, and hence the electron beam positioned anywhere on the screen.
• The working parts of a CRT are enclosed in a vacuum glass envelope so that the
emitted electron can easily move freely from one end of the tube to the other.

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3.9 Describe the working principle of

LCD/TFT/LED/OLED Monitors
3.9.1. LCD Monitors
A) Introduction
• A Liquid Crystal Display or LCD draws its definition from its name itself. It is a
combination of two states of matter, the solid and the liquid. LCD uses a liquid
crystal to produce a visible image.
• Liquid crystal displays are super-thin technology display screens that are generally
used in laptop computer screens, TVs, cell phones, and portable video games.
• Liquid crystal display is composed of several layers which include two polarized
panel filters and electrodes. LCD technology is used for displaying the image
electronic devices like mini computers. Light is projected from a lens on a layer of
liquid crystal.
• This combination of coloured light with the grayscale image of the crystal (formed
as electric current flows through the crystal) forms the coloured image. This image
is then displayed on the screen.
B) Working
• The basic principle of operation of a LCD monitor is clearly explained below.
Case 1:

Fig. 3.9.1(a)
• Consider a single pixel area in LCD, in which there are two polarization
filters oriented at 900 angle to each other as shown in fig. 3.9.1(a).

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• The polarization filters polarize the light. The vertical polarization filter
produces vertically polarized light, whereas the horizontal polarization filter
produces horizontally polarized light.
• When the vertically polarized light passes through the second filter
(Horizontal polarized filter) no light output will be produced as shown in
the fig. 3.9.1(a).
Case 2:
• Now, let us assume that a liquid crystal is inserted between two polarization
filters as shown in fig. 3.9.1(b).
• The liquid crystal consists of rod shaped tiny molecules. The ordering of the
molecules in a liquid crystal determines the final orientation of the light that
is travelling through it.
• In a LCD display, the molecules in the liquid crystals are twisted 90 degrees
as shown in fig. 3.9.1(b).

Fig. 3.9.1(b)
• Now, the vertically polarized light passes through rotation of the liquid
crystal molecules and twisted to 90 degrees.
• Thus, the orientation of light matches with the Horizontal (outer)
polarization filter. Therefore, the light will pass through it and brightens the
screen.
Case 3:
• The orientation of the molecules in the liquid crystal can be altered by
applying an external electric field.

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Fig. 3.9.1(c)

Fig. 3.9.1(d)
• Consider the figures 3.9.1(c) and 3.9.1(d). Here, two glass transparent
electrodes are aligned front and back of the liquid crystal in order to change
the orientation of the crystal molecules by applying voltage between them.
• If there is no voltage applied between the electrodes, the orientation of
molecules will remain twisted at 90 degrees and the light passes through the
outer polarization filter, thus pixel appears as complete white.
• If the voltage applied reaches a threshold limit, then the molecules in the
liquid crystal completely untwists and become vertical as shown in the fig.
3.9.1(d). Now the light coming out of the liquid crystal is vertically polarized
and thus blocked by the outer polarization filter. Thus the pixel appears
black. In this way, black and white images or characters are produced.
• By controlling the voltage applied between liquid crystal layers in each pixel,
light can be allowed to pass through outer polarization filter in various
amounts, so that it can possible to produce different grey levels on the LCD
screen.
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• By arranging these small LCD pixels together as a matrix, we can make a
LCD monitor which will produce different sizes of images and characters.
Case 4:
• In order to produce color images a color filter is placed in front of the outer
polarization plate as shown in fig. 3.9.1(e).
• The red, green and blue are the three standard colors filters that are placed
for every three pixels to produce different color images by varying the
intensity of each color.

Fig. 3.9.1 (e)

*Note:
1. Generally the electrodes is made up of Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) which is transparent
material, hence it is simply called glass electrodes plates.
2. LCD display is also known as “twisted nematic LCD display” because of twist and
untwist of molecules in liquid crystal layer.
3.9.2. TFT Monitors
A) Introduction
• A TFT monitor uses thin-film transistor technology in an LCD display. LCD
monitors, also called flat panel displays, are replacing the old-style cathode ray
tubes (CRTs) in both televisions and computer displays.
• The benefit of thin-film transistor technology is the separate, tiny transistor for
each pixel on the display. Because each transistor is so small, the amount of charge
needed to control it is also small.
• This allows the screen to refresh very quickly, as the image is re-painted or
refreshed several times per second.

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B) Working
• TFT is the abbreviation of "Thin Film Transistor", generally refers to thin-film liquid
crystal displays, but actually refers that thin-film transistors (matrix)-can "actively"
control each independent pixel on the screen, which is the origin and called
active matrix TFT.
• The TFT display screen is composed of many pixels that can emit light of any color,
and the purpose can be achieved by controlling each pixel to display the
corresponding color.
• In the TFT display, backlight technology is generally used. In order to accurately
control the color and brightness of each pixel, it is necessary to install a shutter-like
switch after each pixel. When the "shutter" is opened, light can pass through.
• Conversely, light cannot pass through. Of course, technically, it is not as simple as
this. LCD utilizes the characteristics of liquid crystals (become liquid when heated,
and crystallized into solid when cooled).
• Generally, liquid crystals have three forms:
1. Smectic liquid crystal similar to clay
2. Nematic liquid crystal similar to fine matchstick
3. Cholestatic liquid crystal similar to cholesterol
• The liquid crystal display uses filaments, and when the external environment
changes, its molecular structure will also change. Thus, it will have different
physical properties-achieving the purpose of letting light through or blocking light-
which is just like the shutters.
• Each pixel on the display screen needs three similar basic components described
above to control the three colors of red, green, and blue respectively.

Fig. The Arrangement of Molecules in the Nematic, Smectic, and Cholesteric Liquid
Crystal Phases

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• The most commonly used one is the twisted nematic TFT display. There are
grooves on the upper and lower layers. The grooves on the upper layer are
arranged longitudinally and the grooves on the lower layer are arranged
horizontally.
• When no voltage is applied to the liquid crystal in its natural state, the light emitted
from the light-emitting layer of the twisted nematic TFT display will be twisted by
90 degrees after passing through the interlayer, so that it can pass through the
lower layer smoothly.
• When a voltage is applied between the two layers, an electric field is generated. At
this time, the liquid crystals are aligned vertically, so the light will not be twisted,
the result is that the light cannot pass through the lower layer.
3.9.3. LED Monitors
A) Introduction
• An LED screen, or Light Emitting Diode screen, is a flat screen that uses light-
emitting diodes as the video screen. An LED screen can be a small screen or part of
a larger screen.
• LEDs are used to form an LED screen. LED screens are also used on billboards and
store signs. An LED panel consists of several LEDs, while an LED display consists
of several LED panels.

Fig. LED Structure

• The LEDs used to make up LED screens offer several advantages compared to other
light-emitting sources.
• A light-emitting diode is made up of a semiconductor chip surrounded by a
transparent plastic housing. The plastic box allows light to pass through.
• The emission of different colors, including ultraviolet and infrared light, depends
on the semiconductor material used in the diode.

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B) Working
• LED stands for light-emitting diodes which are exactly what a LED TV uses to
illuminate the images displayed on the screen.
• On a LED screen, however, the light-emitting diodes can be placed either behind
the screen or around its edges. LED TVs provide a better picture for two basic
reasons.
• First, LED TVs work with a colour wheel or distinct RGB-coloured lights (red,
green and blue) to produce more realistic and sharper colours.
• Second, light emitting diodes can be dimmed.
• The dimming capability on the back lighting in a LED TV allows the picture to
display with a truer black by darkening the lights and blocking more light from
passing through the panel.
• This capability is not present on edge-lit LED TVs.
• However, edge-lit LED TVs can display a truer white than the fluorescent LED TVs.

Fig. Internal parts of LED Monitor

• With Edge Lighting, LED TVs produce light from a series of diodes arranged
outside the edge of the screen.
• On the other hand, backlit LEDs (better known as Full Array Lighting) has the
light-producing diodes behind the screen.
• Full Array Lighting offers more control over the brightness of the image as these
diodes can be independently controlled.
3.9.4. OLED Monitors
A) Introduction
• OLED (Organic light emitting diodes) Monitors are solid-state devices composed of
thin films of organic molecules that create light with the application of electricity.
• OLEDs can provide brighter, crisper displays on electronic devices and use less
power than conventional light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or liquid crystal
displays (LCDs) used today.

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B) Parts of OLED

• OLED panels consist of six layers. The outside most layers are the seal and the
substrate. These are made out of either plastic or glass. The substrate is the
foundation of the OLED and the seal protects the outside.
• In between those two layers are the cathode and the anode. In the very center are
the two layers of organic molecules, the emissive layer and the conductive layer.
C) Working
• OLEDs work in a similar way to conventional diodes and LEDs, but instead of
using layers of n-type and p-type semiconductors, they use organic molecules to
produce their electrons and holes. A simple OLED is made up of six different
layers.
• On the top and bottom there are layers of protective glass or plastic. The top layer is
called the seal and the bottom layer the substrate.
• In between those layers, there's a negative terminal (sometimes called the cathode)
and a positive terminal (called the anode).

Fig. Holes and Electrons combine and emit light

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• Finally, in between the anode and cathode are two layers made from organic
molecules called the emissive layer (where the light is produced, which is next to
the cathode) and the conductive layer (next to the anode).
Additional Information
How an OLED emits light
• To make an OLED light up, we simply attach a voltage (potential difference) across
the anode and cathode.
• As the electricity starts to flow, the cathode receives electrons from the power
source and the anode loses them (or it "receives holes," if you prefer to look at it that
way).
• Now we have a situation where the added electrons are making the emissive layer
negatively charged (similar to the n-type layer in a junction diode), while the
conductive layer is becoming positively charged (similar to p-type material).
• Positive holes are much more mobile than negative electrons so they jump across
the boundary from the conductive layer to the emissive layer.
• When a hole (a lack of electron) meets an electron, the two things cancel out and
release a brief burst of energy in the form of a particle of light—a photon, in other
words.
• This process is called recombination, and because it's happening many times a
second the OLED produces continuous light for as long as the current keeps
flowing.

3.10 Describe different categories of printers (Impact

and Non-Impact)
• Definition: A printer is defined as an electromechanical output device, which is
used to accept data from computers and make hard copies/ prints of data on
physical means, such as texts and graphics on a paper.
Or
A printer is an output device that prints characters, symbols, and perhaps graphics
on paper.
• The printed output is generally referred to as hardcopy because it is in relatively
permanent form.
• Softcopy refers to temporary images such as those displayed on a monitor.
3.10.1. Classification of Printers
• Printers are categorized according to whether or not the image produced is formed
by physical contact of the print mechanism with the paper.
• Impact printers have contact; nonimpact printers do not.
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• The different types of printers are shown in following diagram.

Fig. Classification of Printers

1. Impact printers
• An impact printer has mechanisms resembling those of a typewriter.
• It forms characters or images by striking a mechanism such as a print hammer or
wheel against an inked ribbon, leaving an image on paper. Impact printers are used
very less now a days.
• Most impact printers are incompatible with printing images or graphics. However,
they cost less and are therefore considered the best for bulk printing.
• Examples: The most common forms of impact printers are:
1. Dot-matrix printers
2. Daisy – Wheel Printers
3. Line Printers
4. Drum Printers
5. Chain Printers
2. Non-impact printers
• Non-impact printers have no hammer to hit the print heads on the ink ribbon.
• In this type of printers, the printer does not strike the carbon or paper but instead it
uses ink spraying, heat process or electrostatic magnetization to produce the
required image on the output media.
• Non-impact printers use efficient mechanisms to produce full-page prints at once.
This is why non-impact printers are sometimes called page printers. There printers
provide better quality of O/P at higher speed.
• These printers are of two types:
1. Ink – jet Printers
2. Laser Printers

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3.11 Describe the working principle of Dot Matrix Printer

a) Constructional Details
• Dot matrix printers use an inked ribbon to create characters on a page.
• A rubber – coated roller called a platen (just like that on a type writer) serves as a
backing for the paper rolled around it.
• The ribbon is positioned close to the surface of the paper (see Fig. 3.11(a)).
• The main image formation part of a Dot – Matrix printer is the “Print head”.
• A 9-pin print head is shown in the Fig. 3.11(b).

Fig. 3.11(a): Print head of a dot-matrix printer

• On the print head of Dot – Matrix printer, there is a series (or matrix) of small print
– pin mechanisms.
• A print – pin mechanism is a combination of a permanent magnet, an
electromagnet, spring and print pins as shown in fig. 3.11(b).

Fig. 3.11(b) : Print-pin mechanism of a dot-matrix printer

• Print head is available in 9–pin, 18–pin and 24–pin models. 9–pin models have one
column of nine pins (see fig. 3.11(c)); 18–pin models have two columns of nine pins
each, while 24-pin models have three columns of eight pins each.
• Dot matrix printers create an image on paper by striking pins against an inked
ribbon.
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• The ink is transferred to the paper as closely shaped dots that form each character
as shown in fig. 3.11(c). The more pins, the better the print quality.

Fig. 3.11(c) : Dot matrix letters formed from dots

• Each dot is generated by an individual metal print wire driven through a solenoid
as shown in the following fig. 3.11(c).
• When an electric pulse reaches the solenoid, it energizes the coil and produces brief
intense magnetic field.
• This field shoots the solenoid print wire against the page. After the pulse passes, the
solenoids magnetic field collapses.
• A spring pulls the wire back to rest position. Solenoids and print wires are very
small assemblies.
b) Working Principle

1. PC sends a series of ASCII code to the printer through serial or parallel cable, it
also sends some printer movement which controls the position of the print head
and print carriage.
2. The ASCII code received by printer are stored inside a buffer.
3. Then processor select a particular dot pattern for the ASCII code received from PC,
dot pattern store in ROM.
4. According to dot pattern information processor sends the signal to the print head.
5. Based on this information print head fire different pins on the print head.
6. Processor also control movement of print head and platen to move paper.
7. The print head contains 9, 18 or 24 wires, to fire against the ribbon and paper.

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8. The current from processor energized electromagnet, which create a magnetic field
that repels a magnet on the end of the pin, causing pin to move towards the paper.
9. The moving pin strikes a ribbon that is coated with ink which transfer ink to the
paper on other side of the ribbon.

3.12 Describe the working principle of inkjet printer

• An inkjet printer is a non-impact type printer. It works similar to a dot-matrix
printer. The difference is that, instead of using hammers that hit the paper through
the ribbons, ink jet printers use print heads that have a series of tiny nozzles that
spray out ink droplets.
• Two different technologies are used to control the flow of ink through the nozzles.
1. Thermal technology (popular and is used with HP cannon and other printers).
2. Piezo electric technology (proprietary of Epson)
1. Thermal Inkjet Printing
• The construction of a thermal inkjet nozzle is shown in the Fig. 3.12(a). It consists of
a thin film resistor placed at the back of the nozzle. This resistor acts as the heating
element.

Fig. 3.12(a): A thermal inkjet nozzle

• When the resistor located near the nozzle is heated by an electric current, it also
heats up a thin layer of ink located over it.
• This heating causes the ink to boil forming a bubble of vapor. As the vapor bubble
expands, it pushes a drop of ink through the nozzle and forces it on the paper.
• The volume of ejected ink droplet is about one millionth that of a drop of water
from a typical eye dropper.
• The resistor then cools and the vapor bubble collapses.
• The resultant suction created pulls fresh ink from the attached reservoir.
• The printer head is then moves to the next position and the process is repeated
again. The entire process is illustrated in fig. 3.4 (b).

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Fig. 3.12(b): Process of thermal inkjet printing

2. Piezo Electric Inkjet Printing

Fig. 3.12(c): Piezo-electric inkjet printing

• It is Epson’s inkjet technology. This type of printer has Piezo electric crystals in the
individual nozzles. Piezo electric crystals are the crystals that react to an electric
current by changing their shapes.
• Whenever a dot is required, a current is applied to the Piezo electric element; the
element flexes and in doing so forces a drop of ink out of the nozzle as shown in
Fig. 3.12 (c).
*Note:
1. One of the traditional problems with thermal inkjet printers is that they can only
use inks that are able to withstand high temperatures without changing their
properties. This limits the selection of usable inks.
2. Piezo inkjet printers can use many types of ink that thermal printers cannot.
3. In addition, the high temperatures of thermal printers tend to wear out the nozzles
faster than on Piezo printers.

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3.13 Describe the working principle of Laser printer

3.13.1. Introduction
• Laser printers are becoming very popular as a high – end printer because of its
exceptionally clear and sharp images. Almost all Laser Printers have various built –
in fonts and also drawing, graphs, charts etc. can be printed very easily and quickly
using these printers.
• These printers provide very fast output up to 16 PPM (Pages Per Minute) without
producing any noise associated with the impact Dot matrix printers. These printers
can produce images with 300 to 1200 DPI or more resolution. This higher resolution
allows Laser printers to produce very clear good quality images.

Fig. 3.13(a) : Laser printer

• These printers are very complex precision devices, but the basic idea behind them is
simple. It works based on the principle of “Xerography (or) Electro photography”.
Xerography (or) Electro photography is nothing but the technology used in Xerox
machines.
3.13.2. Constructional details

Fig. 3.13 (b): Functional block diagram of a laser printer

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• Fig. 3.13 (b) shows the internal components of a Laser Printer.
• Initially a cylindrical photosensitive drum inside the Laser Printer is given an even
electrostatic charge all over its surface. A Laser beam focused to a tiny spot scans
across the cylindrical drum from left to right.
• The Laser beam is switched on and off according to the image to be printed on the
paper, as it scans the drum surface.
• The drum is coated with a special photoconductive layer, which makes the drum to
lose its charge from those areas wherever the Laser beam strikes.
• The area which are exposed by the Laser beam, attract a black colored toner to the
drum’s surface, which is then transferred to the paper to form the image.
• This sheet of paper is later passed through a fuser roller assembly to melt the toner
and permanently fuse the image onto the paper.
3.13.3. Working Principle
• Laser printer is a non-impact type printer. It is based on Xerox technology. There
are typically seven steps involved in the laser printing process. They are clearly
illustrated below.
Step 1: Creating the Raster Image

Fig. 3.13 (c): Creating the raster image

• When we provide the print command to the computer, it encodes the data to be
printed using a special page description language. Some commonly used page
description languages are:
1. Printer Command Language (PCL)
2. Adobe Postscript Language
3. XML Page Specification Language
• The computer sends the encoded information to the printer. This information is
received by the printer controller.

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Study of Input and Output Devices 3-35
• The printer controller reads the data, arranges the page according to specifications
and then orders the “Raster Image Processor (RIP)” embedded within the printer
to convert it into a bitmap or raster image. This image is temporarily stored in the
raster memory.
Step 2: Charging the Photoreceptor Drum
• The important part of a laser printer is a photoreceptor drum. It is a revolving
photosensitive drum, which is capable of holding an electrostatic charge when it is
in dark. When it is exposed to light, it loses its charge.
• Using a high voltage corona wire, the drum is either positively or negatively
charged. In the course of this discussion, let us assume that the drum is positively
charged as shown in Fig. 3.13 (c).

Fig. 3.13 (d): Charging the photoreceptor drum

Step 3: Writing an electrostatic image of page on photoreceptor drum
• A laser is aimed at a rotating polygonal mirror (see Fig. 3.13 (d)), which directs the
laser beam through a system of lenses and mirrors onto the photoreceptor.
• The stream of rasterized data held in memory turns the laser on and off to form the
dots on the cylinder.

Fig. 3.13 (e): Creating an electrostatic image on the photoreceptor drum

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 3-36 Study of Input and Output Devices
• The region where photons hit the drum gets discharged creating a net negative
charge on the surface of the drum. Part by part, the entire bitmap or raster image is
etched onto the drum in the form of a negative electrostatic image.
• Imagine a glass windows surface coated with dust. Just as you can ‘draw’ on the
window by wiping off dust from the glass surface with a finger. In the similar way,
here the laser draws an image on the drum by wiping off positive charge.
Step 4: Developing
• Along the photoreceptor drum path a toner developer is placed. As a result, the
surface of the drum is exposed to the toner particles.
• The toner is a dry powder made up of carbon black (or coloring agents) and a
plastic polymer. A high voltage charge is applied to the toner particles to make
them positively charged.
• Since unlike charges attract and like charges repel, the positively charged surface of
the drum doesn’t attract any toner particles. Only the negatively charged
(discharged) region on the drum, which makes up the page image attracts toner
particles to the surface. Thus toner particles get embedded on the drum, right over
the embedded electrostatic image of the page.
Step 5: Transferring the toner particles onto the paper
• Now this toner embedded drum surface comes in contact with negatively charged
paper.
• As the paper surface comes in contact with the drum, only the positively charged
toner particles stick to the paper, creating an exact image of the page.
• Now the paper rolling out has toner particles attached to it.
Step 6: Fusing
• The paper is then passed through a couple of rollers in the fuser assembly where
heat and pressure (up to 200 Celsius) bond the plastic powder to the paper.
• As a result, a printed paper is obtained that is the exact physical copy of the soft
copy on the computer.
• One roller is usually a hollow tube (heat roller) and the other is a rubber backing
roller (pressure roller) as shown in the Fig. 3.13(f).
• A radiant heat lamp is suspended in the center of the hollow tube, and its infrared
energy uniformly heats the roller from the inside. For proper bonding of the toner,
the fuser roller must be uniformly hot. The fusing process is illustrated in Fig.
3.13(e).

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Study of Input and Output Devices 3-37

Fig. 3.13 (f): Fuser assembly

*Note: The fuser accounts for up to 90% of a printer’s power usage.
Step 7: Cleaning
• When the print is complete, an electrically neutral soft plastic blade cleans any
excess toner from the photoreceptor and deposits it into a waste reservoir.
• A discharge lamp removes the remaining charge from the photoreceptor.
*Note:
1. Waste toner cannot be reused for printing because it can be contaminated with dust
and paper fibers.
2. A quality printed image requires pure, clean toner.
3. Reusing contaminated toner can result in splotchy printed areas or poor fusing of
the toner into the paper.

3.14 Know about Multi-Function printer

Fig. Multifunction Printer that can print, scan, copy, and fax
• An MFP (multi-function product/printer/peripheral), multi-functional, all in
one (AIO), or multi-function device (MFD), is an office machine which incorporates
the functionality of multiple devices in one.

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 3-38 Study of Input and Output Devices
• Multifunction printers provide several features in addition to printing.
• A typical MFP may act as a combination of some or all of the following devices:
o Email,
o Fax,
o Photocopier,
o Printer and
o Scanner.
• MFP's do so much more than copy and print documents.
• A true multifunction printer also scans, emails, faxes, and can even browse the
internet and print straight from the display panel, similar to a computer.
• Most multifunction printers also include finishing options such as stapling, folding,
booklet making, and hole punching.

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4 Introduction to
networking basics & topologies

OBJECTIVES

4.1 Understand the Overview of Networking.

4.2 State the Need for Networking.

4.3 Classification of Networks – LAN, MAN, WAN

4.4 List the Hardware and Software Components of Computer Network

4.5 Overview of Network Topologies.

4.6 Understand the basic Network Topologies such as Bus, Ring and Star and

Complex topologies like Mesh and Hybrid Topologies.

4.7 Various Network Communication Standards.

4.8 OSI Reference Model.

4.9 TCP/IP Reference Model.

 4-2 Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies

4.0 Introduction Microsoft

to Networks
Word and Network Topologies

• We are living in a connected world. Information is being produced, exchanged, and

traced across the globe in real time. It's possible as almost everyone and everything
in the digital world is interconnected through one way or the other.

Fig.4.0(a) Interconnection forming a social network

• A group of two or more similar things or people interconnected with each other is
called network.

• Some of the examples of network in our everyday life includes:

❖ Social network
❖ Mobile network
❖ Network of computers
❖ Airlines, railway, banks, hospitals networks

• Human communication is a process that involves people communicating with each

other. This communication involves four components: the sender of the information,
the receiver of the information, the language, and the medium through which
communication is established.

• A similar process is also followed in communication between two computers. When

two or more computers communicate with each other, a communication process is
agreed upon, and the medium through which the information is transferred consists
of cables, satellites, microwaves, broadcast radio and infra-red.

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Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies 4-3

4.0.1. Computer networking

• Networking is a concept of connecting multiple computers so that resources like
printers’ files etc. can be shared.
• A system of interconnected computers and computerized peripherals such as
printers is called computer network.
• This interconnection among computers facilitates information sharing among them.
• Computers may connect to each other by either wired or wireless media.

• To setup a network, you need to concentrate on the following points :

❖ The hardware and software components to be used in the network.
❖ The communication standards such as OSI or TCP/IP reference models.
❖ The different types network topologies to be used in designing the layout
of the network.
4.0.2. Objectives of Computer Networking
• Some of the common objectives of computer networking are:
1. To provide sharing of geographically distant resources such as information,
database etc. Resource sharing is perhaps the most common objective for
providing networks within the constraints of cost and reliability of
transmission links.
2. To provide communication among users. Network users geographically far
apart from each other can converse in an interactive session or send messages
to each other.
3. To increase the reliability of processing capacity through backup and
redundancy.
4. To provide centralized management and allocation of resources.
5. To provide distribution processing in which a task is divided among multiple
computers. Instead of a single large machine being responsible for all aspects
of a process each separate computer handles a subtask.
6. Faster problem solving: multiple computers working on parts of a problem
concurrently often can solve the problem faster than a single machine working
alone.

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4.0.3. Network Topologies
Microsoft Word
• The physical topology of LAN refers to the way in which the stations are physically
interconnected.
• Topology is also defined as, the manner in which nodes are geometrically arranged
and connected is known as the topology of the network.
• Physical topology of a local area network should have the following desirable
features.
✓ The topology should be flexible to accommodate changes in physical
locations of the stations, increase in the number of stations and increase in
the LAN geographic coverage.
✓ The cost of physical media and installation should be minimum.
✓ The network should not have any single point of complete failures.
• Network topology refers to the physical layout of the network. Each topology has its
own strengths and weaknesses.
• Four types of topologies are commonly used in the network. They are bus, star, ring
and mesh topology.

4.1 Understand the Overview of Networking.

• A network is a communication system which provides interconnection between two
or more stations.
• The fundamental principle of computer networking is to connect computers to each
other.
• Computer networking provides communication tools to allow computer to share
information.
• Computers are connected in a network to share files, folders, applications and
resources like scanner, web-cams, printers etc.
• The connection between computers can be done via copper wires, fiber optics,
microwave or communication satellite.
• A computer network is an interconnection of two or more computers that are able to
exchange information’s.
• Two computers are said to be inter connected if they are capable of exchanging
information.
• A computer network is a collection of devices that can store and manipulate
electronic data and is interconnected in such a way that network users can store,
retrieve and share information.

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4.2 State the Need for Networking.

The following are the important uses, need and benefits of a computer network.
1. File sharing
• The major advantage of a computer network is that it allows file sharing and remote
file access. A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can
easily see files present on another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.
2. Hardware/Resources sharing
• Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard drives etc.
Without computer networks, device sharing is not possible.
3. Application sharing
• Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to implement
client/server applications.
4. Inexpensive Set-Up
• Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction in
memory requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses.
5. User communication
• Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups and video
conferencing etc.
6. Network gaming
• A lot of network games are available, which allow multi-users to play from
different locations.
7. Voice over IP (VoIP)
• Voice over Internet Protocol (IP) is a revolutionary change in telecommunication
which allows to send telephone calls (voice data) using standard Internet Protocol
(IP) rather than by traditional PSTN.

4.3 Classification of Networks – LAN, MAN, WAN

• Generally, networks are distinguished based on their geographical span.
• The Network allows computers to connect and communicate with different
computers via any medium.
• There are various types of computer networks ranging from network of handheld
devices (like mobile phones or tablets) connected through Wi-Fi or Bluetooth within
a single room to the millions of computers spread across the globe.
• Some are connected wireless while others are connected through wires.
• Based on the geographical area covered and data transfer rate, computer networks
are broadly categorized as:

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1. LAN (Local Area Network)
Microsoft Word
2. MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
3. WAN (Wide Area Network)

Fig. Classification of Networks

4.3.1. Local Area Network (LAN)
• It is a network that connects computers, mobile phones, tablet, mouse, printer, etc.,
placed at a limited distance.
• The geographical area covered by a LAN can range from a single room, a floor, an
office having one or more buildings in the same premise, laboratory, a school,
college, or university campus.
• The connectivity is done by means of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics, or Wi-Fi.
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is shown in Fig. (a)

Fig. (a) LAN or Local Area Network

• LAN is comparatively secure as only authentic users in the network can access other
computers or shared resources.
• Users can print documents using a connected printer, upload/download documents
and software to and from the local server.

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Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies 4-7
• Such LANs provide the short-range communication with the high-speed data
transfer rates.
• These types of networks can be extended up to 1 km. Data transfer in LAN is quite
high, and usually varies from 10 Mbps (called Ethernet) to 1000 Mbps (called
Gigabit Ethernet), where Mbps stands for Megabits per second.
• Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other devices connect with
each other through cables in a local area network or LAN.
(A) Advantages
1. Inexpensive transmission media.
2. It can simplify the physical association of a device to the media.
3. It is used to high data transmission rates.
4. Each connected device has the potential to interact with another device on the
network.
5. It allows file locking.
6. It provides full proof of the security system against illegal access to data.
(B) Disadvantages
1. LAN software needed a memory area in each of the mainframe used on the
network. This decreases the memory space available for the user’s program.
2. Some security system should be executed if it is essential to protect private
data.
3. Some control on the part of the customer is lost.
4. Some current application programs will not run in a network environment.
4.3.2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
• Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is an extended form of LAN which covers a
larger geographical area like a city or a town.
• Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps, but it is considerably less as
compared to LAN.
• Cable TV network or cable based broadband internet services are examples of
MAN.
• This kind of network can be extended up to 30-40 km.
• Sometimes, many LANs are connected together to form MAN, as shown in Fig.
• It can be in form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM or FDDI. Metro Ethernet is a service
which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to expand their Local Area
Networks.
• Example: MAN can help on organization to connect all of its offices in a city.
• Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics.

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 4-8 Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies
• MAN is working in between Local Area Network and Wide Area Network.
Microsoft Word

(OR)

Fig. Metropolitan Area Network

(A) Advantages
1. It is less expensive than WAN
2. It is used to send a local e-mail.
3. It has high speed than WAN
4. It provides high security.
5. It covers a large area than LAN
6. It provides centralized data storage.
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Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies 4-9
7. It enables you to connect many fast LANs together.
8. It utilizes the advantages of both LAN and WAN to provide an efficient network.
9. There is less implementation cost than LAN and WAN because it required fewer
resources than WAN and LAN.
10. It provides common sharing of resources like printer etc.
(B) Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to manage when we have large network.
2. For its installation we need skilled or experts and also required a network
administrator. They all increase the overall installation and management costs.
3. Ir requires larger cable than LAN.
4. It is difficult to make a system secure or safe from hackers and unauthorized users.
5. The main disadvantage of MANs is the cost of cutting-edge technology employed.
6. Technical staff required.
4.3.3. Wide Area Network (WAN)
• Wide Area Network connects computers and other LANs and MANs, which are
spread across different geographical locations of a country or in different countries
or continents.
• A WAN could be formed by connecting a LAN to other LANs via wired/wireless
media.
• Large business, educational and government organizations connect their different
branches in different locations across the world through WAN.
• The Internet is the largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones
and millions of LANs from different continents.

Fig. Wide Area Network

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 4-10 Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies
(A) Advantages
Microsoft Word
1. Covers a large geographical area.
2. Increase efficiency.
3. Easy of communication.
4. Share information over the large area.
5. Message can be sent very quickly to anyone else on the network.
6. It supports the global market and global business.
7. Centralized IT infrastructure.
8. Boost your privacy.
(B) Disadvantages
1. It is slow in speed.
2. It is complected and complex.
3. It is difficult to maintain the network.
4. It is very costly because we have to pay every time for transferring data.
5. Very much dependent on the third party because it is a public network.
6. WAN is not secure and means not reliable.
7. Security and Maintenance problem.
8. Require high-performance device.
Comparison LAN MAN WAN

1. Full Name Local Area Network Metropolitan Wide Area

Area Network Network

2. Meaning A network that It covers It spans large

connects a group of relatively large locality & countries
computers in a small region such cities, together. e.g.
geographical area as towns Internet

3. Ownership of Private Private or Public Private or Public

Network (VPN)
4. Communicatio Coaxial cable Coaxial cables, PSTN or satellite
n medium PSTN, optical links
fibre, cables,
wireless
5. Bandwidth Low Moderate High

6. Design and Easy Difficult Difficult

Maintenance
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Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies 4-11

7. Propagation Short Moderate Long

Delay

8. Equipment NIC, Switch, Hub Modem, Router Microwave, Radio

Used Transmitter &
Receiver
9. Range(Approx) 1 to 10 km 10 to 100 km Beyond 100 km

10. Speed High Moderate Low

11. Used for College, School, Small towns, City State, Country,
Hospital Continent

4.4 List the Hardware and Software Components of Computer

Network
• Computer network components comprise both physical parts as well as the
software required for installing computer networks, both at organizations and at
home.
• The hardware components are the server, client, peer, transmission medium, and
connecting devices.
• The software components are operating system and protocols.
• The following figure shows a network along with its components

Fig. Computer Network Components

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1. Hardware Components
Microsoft Word
A. Servers
• Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of the
network.
• The network operating system is typically installed in the server and so they
give user accesses to the network resources.
• Servers can be of various kinds: File Servers, Database Servers, Print Servers etc.
B. Clients
• Clients are computers that request and receive service from the servers to access
and use the network resources.
C. Peers
• Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other peers in
a workgroup network.
D. Transmission Media
• Transmission media are the channels through which data is transferred from
one device to another in a network.
• Transmission media may be guided media like coaxial cable, fibre optic cables
etc or maybe unguided media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
E. Connecting Devices
• Connecting devices act as middleware between networks or computers, by
binding the network media together. Some of the common connecting devices
are:
✓ Routers
✓ Bridges
✓ Hubs
✓ Repeaters
✓ Gateways
✓ Switches
2. Software Components
a) Networking Operating System
• Network Operating Systems is typically installed in the server and facilitate
workstations in a network to share files, database, applications, printers etc.
b) Protocol Suite
• A protocol is a rule or guideline followed by each computer for data
communication. Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid down for
computer networks.
• The two popular protocol suites are
1. OSI Model (Open System Interconnections)
2. TCP / IP Model

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4.5 Overview of Network Topologies.

• The term network topology defines the geographic arrangement of computer
networking devices.
• The term topology means the way in which the various nodes or computers of a
network are linked together.
• Two or more devices connect to a link and two or more links form a topology.
• Topology determines the data paths that may be used between any pair of devices
of the network.
• With a well-defined and planned-out network topology, an organization can more
easily locate faults and fix issues, improving its data transfer efficiency.
• Network topology diagrams are shown with devices depicted as network nodes and
the connections between them as lines. The type of network topology differs
depending on how the network needs to be arranged.
• There are six types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology,
Tree Topology, Star Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

Fig. Classification of Topologies

4.5.1. Selection Criteria for Topology
• While making a selection of a particular topology we consider the relative status of
different devices that are to be linked.
• The following factors are considered while selecting a topology:
1. Cost
2. Reliability
3. Scalability
4. Bandwidth capacity
5. Ease of installation
6. Ease of troubleshooting
7. Delay involved in routing information from one node to another.

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4.6 Understand the basic

Microsoft Network Topologies such as Bus, Ring
Word
and Star and Complex topologies like Mesh and Hybrid
Topologies.
4.6.1. Bus Topology
• In a bus topology, there is a single communication line or cable shared by all the
nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) in the network by drop lines and
taps.

Fig. Bus Topology

• Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.
• The data is sent in only one direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the
terminator removes the data from the line.
• It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not
affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all
other devices stop functioning.
• In this topology, a single backbone wire called bus is shared among the nodes,
which makes it cheaper and easier to maintain. Both ring and bus topologies are
considered to be less secure and less reliable.
(A) Advantages
1. Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.
2. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
3. Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
4. Cost is less as only one main cable is required and least amount of cable is
required to connect computers.
5. Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using a connector.
(B) Disadvantages
1. Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
2. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
3. The speed of the bus is slow when heavy traffic.
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4.6.2. Star Topology

• In star topology each communicating device is connected to a central node, which is
a networking device like a hub or a switch, as shown in Fig.

Fig. Star Topology

• Every communication between nodes, takes place through only the hub.
• Data travels from the sender to central hub and then to the receiver.
• Star topology is considered very effective, efficient and fast as each device is directly
connected with the central device.
• Although disturbance in one device will not affect the rest of the network, any
failure in a central networking device may lead to the failure of complete network.
(A) Advantages
1. Easy to install and wire.
2. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices.
3. Failure of one node does not affect the network functioning.
4. Expansion is easier. New node can be easily added by using a connector.
(B) Disadvantages
1. Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
2. If the central hub is failed the nodes attached to it are all disabled.
3. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
4. It requires long length of cable.
4.6.3. Ring Topology
• In ring topology each node connected to two neighboring computers and the nodes
connected with each other thus forms a ring.
• Data accepted from one node transmitted to another.
• Signal amplified at each node before being passed.

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• The link in a ring topology is unidirectional. Thus, data can be transmitted in one
MicrosoftorWord
direction only (clockwise counterclockwise).
• Failure of any node results in failure of the whole ring.
• Ring is an active network. Termination is not required.

Fig. Ring Topology

(A) Advantages
1. Easy to install and reconfigure.
2. Fault identification is easy.
3. A signal can travel long distance because each device in a ring can acts as a
repeater.
(B) Disadvantages
1. It is a unidirectional.
2. If anyone device fails in the ring topology the entire network fails.
3. Time delay of the signal is more.
Aspect Bus Topology Ring Topology Star Topology

1. Structure All computers or All computers or All computers or

nodes are connected nodes are nodes are connected
to a single central connected in a loop to central host
cable (backbone) directly
2. Host existence Depends on network Depends on Yes
needs network needs
3. Connection It has no connection Yes No
between between the nodes

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Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies 4-17
nodes
4. Host failure Network can still run Network will fail Network will fail

5. Node failure Network can still run Network will fail Network can still
run

6. Ease of Difficult. Need to Depends on Depends on the

troubleshootin search for the backbone. host.
g problematic node one
by one
7. Ease of adding Easy Difficult Average
or removing
nodes

4.6.4. Mesh Topology

Fig. Mesh Topology

• In this networking topology, each communicating device is connected with every
other device in the network as shown in figure.
• Such a network can handle large amounts of traffic since multiple nodes can
transmit data simultaneously.
• Also, such networks are more reliable in the sense that even if a node gets down, it
does not cause any break in the transmission of data between other nodes.
• This topology is also more secure as compared to other topologies because each
cable between two nodes carries different data.
• However, wiring is complex and cabling cost is high in creating such networks and
there are many redundant or unutilized connections.
• If suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a mesh topology,
then a total number of dedicated links required to connect them is N (N-1) /2.
• In Fig. there are 5 devices connected to each other, hence a total number of links
required is (5x4)/2 = 10.

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(A) Advantages
Microsoft Word
1. Communication is very fast between the nodes.
2. It is robust.
3. The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among
the devices through dedicated channels or links.
4. Provides security and privacy.
(B) Disadvantages
1. Installation and configuration are difficult.
2. The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less
number of devices.
3. The cost of maintenance is high.

4.6.5. Hybrid network

Fig. Hybrid Topology

• The hybrid network topology is any combination of two or more topologies.
• Example: If in an organization one department is using bus topology , another
using ring topology and third one using star topology the connecting topology or
the combination of all these topology is called Hybrid Topology .
• Internet is the best example of largest hybrid topology.
• A hybrid topology is always produced when two different basic network topologies
are connected.
(A) Advantages
1. This topology is very flexible.
2. The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.

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Introduction to Networking Basics & Topologies 4-19
(B) Disadvantages
1. It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
2. Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
3. The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling
and network devices.

Additional Information
Tree Network
• Tree topology is a combination of bus topology and star topology.
• In bus topology, different nodes are connected to a single cable while in a star
topology, all nodes are connected to a central hub.
• Tree topology is made by connecting various star topologies via central bus
backbone cable.
• It is used for expansion of the network.

Fig. Tree Topology

(A) Advantages of a Tree Topology
1. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
2. Supported by several hardware and software venders.
(B) Disadvantages of a Tree Topology
1. Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.
2. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.
3. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

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4.7 Various Network Communication

Microsoft Word Standards.
• Networking standards define the set of rules for data communication that are
needed for exchange of information among devices.
• It is important to follow Standards which are created by various Standard
Organization like IEEE, ISO, ANSI etc.

Fig. Data Communication

• During data communication, a number of standards may be used simultaneously at
the different layers.
• The commonly used standards at each layer are as follows
1. Application layer: HTTP, HTML, POP, H.323, IMAP
2. Transport layer: TCP, SPX
3. Network layer: IP, IPX
4. Data link layer: Ethernet IEEE 802.3, X.25, Frame Relay
5. Physical layer: RS-232C (cable), V.92 (modem)

4.8 OSI Reference Model.

4.8.1. 7- Layer OSI Architecture
• Open System Interconnection (OSI) was developed by ISO (International Standard
Organization) in 1983, for sending and receiving of data, between two computers.
• It deals with connecting open system i.e., system that follow a standards are open
for communicating with other systems, irrespective of a manufactures.
• OSI represents a concept of Intel process communication so that any open system
may be able to communicate with another open system.
• The OSI architecture decomposes the communication process into functional layers.
Each layer is responsible for performing special functions. Therefore, OSI
architectures is reference model to all open system inter connections.

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• OSI reference model consists of 7 layers, as shown in Fig. 4.8 (a).

Fig. 4.8.(a) OSI reference model

4.8.2. FUNCTIONS OF EACH LAYER IN OSI ARCHITECTURE

• Data Transmission from Source to Destination Through Different Layers of OSI.

1. Application Layer
• It provides end user for processing of data and supports for services such as e-mail,
file transfer, shared data management, network software services and other types of
distributed information services.
• This layer acts as an interface between end user and network. This layer mainly
allows access to network resources.
2. Presentation Layer
• Presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged between two systems.
• It translates the Application into network format and vice versa. It provides format
and encrypt / decrypt data to be send across a network.

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Microsoft Word

Fig 4.8(b) OSI Architecture

3. Session Layer
• It allows to establish, maintains and disconnect between communicating systems. It
allows the communication between two devices either in simplex or half duplex
mode of transmission. It allows a process to add checkpoints (Synchronization
points) into a stream of data.
4. Transport Layer
• The transport layer is responsible for source to destination (end-to end) delivery of
the entire message. This layer converts data into smaller “segments” for sending
and at the receiving end the segments are converted into original data. This layer is
also responsible for error control and flow control.
5. Network Layer
• This layer converts data segments into packets and at the receiving end, the packets
are converted into data segments. This layer determines paths (routing) for
transmitting data from source to destination.
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6. Data Link Layer
• This layer converts data packets from network layer into frames and at the receiving
end, this layer converts frames into packets.
• The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames. If frames are to be distributed to different
system on the network. The data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the
physical address of the sender (source address) and receiver (destination address) of
the frame.
• Data link layer receives the data to be sent from the network layer, adds header and
trailer to it which is now known as a frame. This frame is then transmitted to the
physical layer.

Fig. 4.8 (c): Role of Data Link Layer

7. Physical Layer
• The physical layer is responsible for transmitting raw bits over a communication
channel.
• It converts frames from the data link layer into bits and at the receiving end, bits
from the physical layer is given to the data link layer.
• For sending raw bits from source to destination, to do this, the source and
destination nodes have to agree on a number of factors such as what voltage
constitute a bit value ‘0’ what voltage constitute a bit value ‘1’, what is the bit
interval, whether the communication is in only one direction or both the directions
simultaneously i.e., simplex, half duplex or full duplex and so on.
• The functions of physical layer are: Signal encoding, Medium, Bit
Synchronization, Transmission Byte, Transmission mode, Multiplexing .

Fig. 4.8.(d): Relation of Physical Link Layer with Communication Channel

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4.9 TCP/IP Reference Model.

Microsoft Word
• The Transmission control protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suite of protocols
forms the basis of the Internet. TCP/IP was developed in early 1970s.
• The TCP / IP is a set of protocols that describes how all transmissions are to be
handled across the internetwork. The TCP / IP has been used to provide effective
delivery of information around the world.
• Layers present in TCP / IP do not match exactly with those in OSI. TCP / IP suit
consists of five layers. The TCP / IP reference model does not have session or
presentation layers.

Fig. 4.9 Layers in TCP / IP and OSI

4.9.1. Function of each layer in TCP/IP

• The IP portion of TCP/IP deals with this layer routes and forward a data gram to
the next hope.
• But it is not responsible for accurate and timely delivery of all data grams to the
destination in a proper sequence.
• Various other protocols are defined in this layer. They are address resolution
protocol.
• The ARP takes IP address of host as input and gives its corresponding physical
address has output.

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Fig.4.9.1: Layers and protocols in TCP/IP

• The RARP takes physical address as input and gives IP address has output. The
ICMP is a error reporting protocol which gives the messages.

4.9.2. TCP/IP reference model

1. Application Layer: It is used to access the network for providing applications such as
DNS, TELNET, FTP, HTTP.
2. Transport Layer: It provides end-to-end data transmission. It also provide flow control
and error control. In TCP / IP, transport layer is represented by two types of protocols.
• Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
• User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Fig.4.9.2(a) Transport Layer Protocols on the Internet

• TCP: It is a reliable connection-oriented protocol i.e., connection must be established
between both ends of a transmission, before they transmit data. TCP is making the
Internet reliable. TCP subdivides the incoming message stream of bytes into manageable
discrete messages and transmits these into network (internet) layer. At destination, the
TCP reassembles the received messages into the original form.

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Fig 4.9.2(b) Relation of Physical Link Layer with Communication Channel

• UDP: It is a unreliable, connection less protocol, widely used for client–server
applications where speed of delivery is more important than accurate delivery. In
multimedia transmissions or voice, transmission speed is a major concern than accurate
delivery of the message.
3. Internet Layer (or) Network Layer: At network layer, the main protocol defined by
TCP / IP is Internet protocol (IP). Internet Layer is concerned with routing of data. The
job of the Internet layer is to deliver I P packets to the destination.
4. Data Link Layer: This Layer converts data packets from network layer into frames and
at the receiving end, this layer converts frames into packets. The data link layer divides
the stream of bits received from the network layer into manageable data units called
frames. If frames are to be distributed to different system on the network.
5. Physical Layer: The physical Layer is responsible for transmitting raw bits over a
communication channel. It converts frames from data link layer into bits. These bits are
sending from source to destination through the communication channel.

Additional Information
Comparison of OSI & TCP/IP Reference Model

S.No OSI Model TCP/IP Model

1 It stands for Open System It stands for Transmission Control

Interconnection. Protocol.

2 OSI model has been developed by It was developed by ARPANET (Advanced

ISO (International Standard Research Project Agency Network).
Organization).

3 It consists of 7 layers. It consists of 4 layers.

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4 In the OSI model, the transport The transport layer does not provide the
layer provides a guarantee for the surety for the delivery of packets. But still,
delivery of the packets. we can say that it is a reliable model.

5 This model is based on a vertical This model is based on a horizontal

approach. approach.

6 In this model, the session and In this model, the session and presentation
presentation layers are separated, layer are not different layers. Both layers
i.e., both the layers are different. are included in the application layer.

7 It is also known as a reference It is an implemented model of an OSI

model through which various model.
networks are built.

8 In this model, the network layer The network layer provides only
provides both connection-oriented connectionless service.
and connectionless service.

9 Protocols in the OSI model are In this model, the protocol cannot be easily
hidden and can be easily replaced replaced.
when the technology changes.

10 It is an independent standard and It consists of standard protocols that lead to

generic protocol used as a the development of an internet. It is a
communication gateway between communication protocol that provides the
the network and the end user. connection among the hosts.

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5
LAN Components & Protocols

OBJECTIVES

5.1 Know about LAN Connectors, wireless network adapter

5.2 Know about Coaxial Cables, Twisted-Pair Cables, Optical Fiber
Cables, and connectors used in Networking.
5.2.1 Know the Preparation of straight and cross cable
5.3 Know about Ethernet
5.4 Explain LAN Devices
5.4.1 Repeaters
5.4.2 Hubs
5.4.3 Switches
5.4.4 Bridges
5.4.5 Gateways
5.4.6 Network Interface Cards (NICs)
5.4.7 Routers
5.4.8 MODEM (56KBPS Internal/External, DSL/ADSL Modems
etc.)
5.4.9 Access Point
5.5 Explain WLANs (Wireless LAN)
5.6 State the need for protocols in computer networks.
5.7 Know about protocols
5.7.1 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
5.7.2 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)
5.7.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
5.7.4 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
5.7.5 Telnet
 5-2 LAN Components and Protocols

5.0 Introduction Microsoft Word

• To communicate data through different transmission media and to configure
networks with different functionality, we require different devices like Modem, Hub,
Switch, Repeater, Router, Gateway, etc. Let us explore them in detail.

5.1 Know about LAN Connectors, wireless network adapter

5.1.1. LAN Connectors
• Connectors are used to connect the guided (wired) transmission media to devices
like the hub, server, workstations etc.
• A LAN port, also known as a network port or network connection, is a socket used
to connect computers, servers, video game consoles, and other devices to the
internet.
• They’re typically located on the back of both computers and network devices and are
used solely to establish a wired, as opposed to a wireless, internet connection.

Fig. LAN Ports

• A LAN port is also known as an Ethernet port. Both terms refer to exactly the same
socket on computers, servers, modems, Wi-Fi routers, switches, and other network
devices.
• The term Ethernet port gets its name from the Ethernet protocol, developed by
the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
• In addition, connectors are distinguished by the kind of electrical interfaces they
support.
• Examples of different types of connectors include:
✓ Connectors for serial interfaces, such as RS-232 and V.35
✓ Ethernet connectors, such as RJ-45 and BNC connectors
✓ Fiber-optic cabling connectors, such as SC and ST connectors
5.1.2. Wireless Network Adapter
• Wireless adapters are electronic devices that allow computers to connect to the
Internet and to other computers without using wires.
• Wireless adapters are also known as Wi-Fi adapters.

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• Most laptops and tablet computers have built-in wireless adapters, but you often
have to install them on desktop computers.
• Wireless adapters come in USB stick form, which must be plugged into a USB port of
a computer or device.
• Wireless adapters may also come in the form of PCI network cards that plug into a
PCI slot on the computer motherboard.

Fig. Wireless Adapter

5.2 Know about Coaxial Cables, Twisted-Pair Cables, Optical

Fiber Cables and connectors used in Networking.
• A transmission medium can be anything that can carry signals or data between the
source (transmitter) and destination (receiver).
• For example, as we switch on a ceiling fan or a light bulb, the electric wire is the
medium that carries electric current from switch to the fan or bulb.
• Two men are talking as shown in Fig. Here the medium is air.

• In data communication, transmission media are the links that carry messages
between two or more communicating devices. Transmission can be classified as
guided or unguided. Fig. 5.2 shows the classification of communication media.

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 5-4 LAN Components and Protocols
• In guided transmission, there is a physical link made of wire or cable through which
data in terms of Microsoft Word
signals are propagated between the nodes. These are usually
metallic cable, fiber-optic cable, etc. They are also known as wired media.
• In unguided transmission, data travels in air in terms of electromagnetic waves using
an antenna. They are also known as wireless media.

Fig. 5.2. Classification of Media

5.2.1. Wired Transmission Media
• Any physical link that can carry data in the form of signals belongs to the category of
wired transmission media.
• Three commonly used guided/wired media for data transmission are,
1. Twisted Pair
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Fiber optic Cable
• Twisted-pair and coaxial cable carry the electric signals whereas the optical fiber
cable carries the light signals.
1. Twisted Pair Cables
• A twisted-pair consists of two copper wires twisted like a DNA helical structure.
Both the copper wires are insulated with plastic covers. Usually, a number of such
pairs are combined together and covered with a protective outer wrapping, as
shown in Fig.

Fig. Twisted pair of cables

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• Each of the twisted pairs act as a single communication link.
• The use of twisted configuration minimizes the effect of electrical interference from
similar pairs close by.
• Twisted pairs are less expensive and most commonly used in telephone lines and
LANs.
• These cables are of two types
1. Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)
2. Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

Fig. UTP Cable and STP Cable

2. Coaxial Cables
• Coaxial cable is another type of data transmission medium. It is better shielded and
has more bandwidth than a twisted pair.
• As shown in Fig.(a) it has a copper wire at the core of the cable which is surrounded
with insulating material.
• The insulator is further surrounded with an outer conductor (usually a copper
mesh). This outer conductor is wrapped in a plastic cover.
• The key to success of coaxial cable is its shielded design that allows the cable's
copper core to transmit data quickly, without interference of environmental factors.
These types of cables are used to carry signals of higher frequencies to a longer
distance.

Fig(a). Structure of Coaxial Cable

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3. Fiber Optic Cables
Microsoft Word

Fig(b). Fiber optic cable

• The optical fiber cable carries data as light, which travels inside a thin fiber of glass
(Fig(b)).
• Optic fiber uses refraction to direct the light through the media. A thin transparent
strand of glass at the centre is covered with a layer of less dense glass called
cladding.
• This whole arrangement is covered with an outer jacket made of PVC or Teflon. Such
types of cables are usually used in backbone networks.
• These cables are of light weight and have higher bandwidth which means higher
data transfer rate. Signals can travel longer distances and electromagnetic noise
cannot affect the cable.
• However, optic fibers are expensive and unidirectional. Two cables are required for
full duplex communication.
4. Connectors used in Networking
• When we are installing a network, you need to have plenty of cable connectors for
connecting patch panels to network switches and servers or computers.

• The types of wiring connectors used depends on the network cable types. There are
different connectors for Ethernet or twisted-pair, coaxial, USB and fiber optic cables.
(a) Ethernet Cable Connectors
• RJ45 connectors are used for CAT6 cables and CAT5e cables. These connectors for
twisted-pair Ethernet cables are similar in appearance to a standard telephone cord
connector.

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LAN Components and Protocols 5-7
• They are wider, however, because they have eight conductors compared to only four
conductors on a telephone jack.

(b) Coaxial Cable Connectors

• BNC connectors are a type of F-series connectors commonly found in households.

• This type of connector for RG59 or RG6 coaxial cable is used for cable television
equipment, broadcast TV antennas and CCTV security camera installations.
• They are easy to connect and disconnect from equipment and provide inexpensive,
stable connections to these communications devices and other cables.
(c) Fiber Optic Cable Connectors

• Fiber optic connectors require different types of connectors from those used with
coax or twisted-pair cables, such as CAT5e. These types of connectors in networking
must align glass fibers with precision to allow for communication.
• If you choose to use optical cable over twisted pair Ethernet, you may need to install
a special adapter in your computer to utilize various fiber optic cable connector
types.

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5.2.1 Know the Preparation

Microsoft Word of straight and cross cable
• Generally, NIC (Network Interface Card) uses pins 1 and 2 to transmit the data and
to receive data, it uses pins 3 and 6. A switch does the opposite of it.
• It receives data on pins 1 and 2 and transmits data from the pin 3 and 6. Based on the
type of end devices, a UTP cable can be made in two ways.
• The first type of cable, known as the straight-through cable, connects two different
types of end devices; such as PC to Switch.
• The second type of cable, known as the cross-over cable, connects two same type of
end devices such as PC to PC or Switch to Switch.
1. Straight-Through Cable
• A straight-through cable is a type of twisted pair cable that is used in local area
networks to connect a computer to a network hub such as a router.
• In this cable, wires are placed in the same position at both ends.
• The wire at pin 1 on one end of the cable connects to pin 1 at the other end of the
cable.
• The wire at pin 2 connects to pin 2 on the other end of the cable; and so on.
• The straight-through cable, connects two different types of end devices; such as PC
to Switch.
• Wire positions of the straight-through cable on both sides.

Side A Side B

Green White Green White

Green Green

Orange White Orange White

Blue Blue

Blue White Blue White

Orange Orange

Brown White Brown White

Brown Brown

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Fig. Straight Through Wiring Guide 568- b

• A straight-through cable is used to connect the following devices.
1. PC to Switch
2. PC to Hub
3. Router to Switch
4. Switch to Server
5. Hub to Server
2. Crossover Cable
• A crossover cable is a type of cable installation that is used for the interconnection of
two similar devices.
• It is enabled by reversing the transmission and receiving pins at both ends, so that
output from one computer becomes input to the other.
• In this cable, transmitting pins of one side connect with the receiving pins of the
other side and vice versa.
• The wire at pin 1 on one end of the cable connects to pin 3 at the other end of the
cable.
• The wire at pin 2 connects to pin 6 on the other end of the cable.
• Remaining wires connect in the same positions at both ends.

Fig. Cross Cable

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• Wire positions of the cross cable on the both sides
Microsoft Word
Side A Side B
Green White Orange White

Green Orange

Green Orange

Orange White Green White

Blue Blue

Blue White Blue White

Orange Green
Brown White Brown White

Brown Brown
• The cross-over cable is used to connect the following devices.
1. Two computers
2. Two hubs
3. A hub to a switch
4. A cable modem to a router
5. Two router interfaces

5.3 Know about Ethernet

• Ethernet is the traditional technology for connecting devices in a wired local area
network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN).
• It enables devices to communicate with each other via a protocol, which is a set of
rules or common network language.

Fig. Ethernet Port

• Mainly there are three types of ethernet cables used in LANs i.e., Coaxial cables,
Twisted Pair cables, and Fiber optic cables.
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• Ethernet describes how network devices format and transmit data so other devices
on the same LAN.
• Ethernet is used for its high speed, security and reliability and it offers a simple user
interface that helps to connect various devices easily, such as switches, routers, and
computers.
• A local area network (LAN) can be created with the help of a single router and a few
Ethernet cables, which enable communication between all linked devices.
• An Ethernet cable is the physical, encased wiring over which the data travels.
• This is because an Ethernet port is included in your laptop in which one end of a
cable is plugged in and connect the other to a router. Ethernet ports are slightly
wider, and they look similar to telephone jacks.
5.3.1. Advantages of Ethernet
1. It is not much costly to form an Ethernet network. As compared to other
systems of connecting computers, it is relatively inexpensive.
2. Ethernet network provides high security for data as it uses firewalls in terms of
data security.
3. Also, the Gigabit network allows the users to transmit data at a speed of 1-
100Gbps.
4. In this network, the quality of the data transfer does maintain.
5. In this network, administration and maintenance are easier.
6. The latest version of gigabit ethernet and wireless ethernet have the potential
to transmit data at the speed of 1-100Gbps.
5.3.2. Disadvantages of Ethernet
1. It needs deterministic service; therefore, it is not considered the best for real-time
applications.
2. The wired Ethernet network restricts you in terms of distances, and it is best for
using in short distances.
3. If you create a wired ethernet network that needs cables, hubs, switches, routers,
they increase the cost of installation.
4. Data needs quick transfer in an interactive application, as well as data is very
small.
5. In ethernet network, any acknowledge is not sent by receiver after accepting a
packet.
6. If you are planning to set up a wireless Ethernet network, it can be difficult if you
have no experience in the network field.
7. Comparing with the wired Ethernet network, wireless network is not more
secure.
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8. The full-duplex data communication mode is not supported by the 100Base-T4
version. Microsoft Word
9. Additionally, finding a problem is very difficult in an Ethernet network (if has),
as it is not easy to determine which node or cable is causing the problem.
5.3.3. IEEE 802.3 Ethernet frame format
• A block of data transmitted on the network is called frame.
• Fig. shows the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet frame format.

Fig. 802.3 Ethernet Frame Format

5.4 Explain LAN Devices

• Network devices, or networking hardware, are physical devices that are required for
communication and interaction between hardware on a computer network.
• Without these network devices data cannot be transmitted from one computer to
another in a LAN or WAN network.
• These devices link up all the local and remote network segments with each other to
make data communication from one segment to another.

Fig. Types of Connecting Devies

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• A computer network with good infrastructure with properly placed and configured
network devices such as routers, switches etc. are helpful in reducing the overall
operational cost, improve the performance, manageability and reliability.
• The following are the Networking Devices.
1. Hub
2. Switch
3. Router
4. Bridge
5. Gateway
6. Modem
7. Repeater
8. Access Point

5.4.1 Repeaters
• Data are carried in the form of signals over the cable. These signals can travel a
specified distance (usually about 100 m). Signals lose their strength beyond this limit
and become weak. In such conditions, original signals need to be regenerated.
• A repeater receives a signal and before it becomes too weak or corrupted,
regenerates the original bit pattern. The repeater then sends the refreshed signal.
• A repeater does not amplify the signal; it regenerates the signal. When it receives a
weakened or corrupted signal, it creates a copy, bit for bit, at the original strength.
• The basic purpose of a repeater is to extend the distance of LAN.
• A repeater does not actually connect two LANs; it connects two segments of the
same LAN.

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(A) Characteristics of Repeater
Microsoft Word
1. Repeater is an electronic device.
2. Repeaters are used to regenerate an existing baseband signal.
3. Repeater is used primarily in a co-axial bus topology.
4. Repeater operates at physical layer of OSI model.
5. Repeater does not accelerate or change the signal. It simply regenerates it.

5.4.2 Hubs
• A hub is a networking device, which is used to connect the two segments of a wired
network.
• In star topology, every computer is directly connected with the hub. In case of any
fault in the hub, the data communication in the network computers stops.
• In an Ethernet (bus)-based network a hub is a central device that is used to connect
all the computers with each other.

Fig. Hub
• A hub has multiple ports such as 4,6, 8, 16 and 24 etc. When data packets are reached
at hub, they are broadcasted to all the computers unlike a switch and only the
destined computer receives the data.
• When you want to connect more than two computers with each other a hub or
switch is required in a local area network. Hubs operate at the physical layer.

5.4.3 Switches
• A network switch performs the same functionality in a network as a hub except a
different that switch does not broadcast the data packets to all the computers in a
network like a hub.
• A network switch has multiple ports like 4, 8, 16 and 24 etc.

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• A switch is a networking device (Figure 10.12) that plays a central role in a Local
Area Network (LAN).
• Like a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple computers or
communicating devices.
• When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data packet
and looks it up in a table to see where to send the packet. Thus, it sends signals to
only selected devices instead of sending to all. It can forward multiple packets at the
same time.
• A switch does not forward the signals which are noisy or corrupted. It drops such
signals and asks the sender to resend it.
• Ethernet switches are common in homes/offices to connect multiple devices thus
creating LANs or to access the Internet.

Do You Know?
• Switch doesn't provide the built-in firewall capabilities like the routers.
• In the telecommunication and packet switched infrastructure switches play an
important role.
• They transmit the data towards its destination based on the IP address. Switches
work at data link layer.

5.4.4 Bridges
• In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as bridges, hubs,
routers, switches, etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a
particular purpose.
• The bridge is a networking device that connects the larger LAN networks with the
group of smaller LAN networks.
• Bridges are used to connect two subnetworks that use interchangeable protocols. It
combines two LANs to form an extended LAN.
• Bridges operate at the data link layer of the OSI model and hence also referred as
Layer 2 switches.
• A bridge receives all the packets or frame from both LAN (segment) A and B.
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• A bridge builds a table of addresses from which it can identify that the packets are
Microsoft
sent from which LAN Word to which LAN.
(or segment)

a) Uses of Bridges
The main uses of bridges are:
• Bridges are used to divide large busy networks into multiple smaller and
interconnected networks to improve performance.
• Bridges also can increase the physical size of a network.
• Bridges are also used to connect a LAN segment through a synchronous modem
relation to another LAN segment at a remote area.
b) Difference between Bridge and Repeater
1. Bridge operates the data link layer while repeater operates at physical layer of OSI
model.
2. Bridge understands the complete frames while repeaters do not understand
complete frames.
3. Bridge will not forward a collision from one segment to another. With repeater,
collision occurs on one segment, repeater causes the same problem to occur on all
other segment.
4. Bridge uses the destination address to determine whether to forward a frame.
Repeater cannot understand the destination address.
5. Bridge performs frame filtering. Repeater cannot perform frame filtering.
6. Bridge and repeater, both are hardware devices used to extend a LAN.

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5.4.5 Gateways
• A computer that sits between different networks or applications. The gateway
converts information, data or other communications from one protocol or format to
another. A router may perform some of the functions of a gateway.
• An Internet gateway can transfer communications between an enterprise network
and the Internet.
• For simple Internet connectivity at homes, the gateway is usually the Internet
Service Provider that provides access to the entire Internet.

Fig. Gateway between a LAN and Internet

• Because enterprises often use protocols on their local-area networks (LANs) that
differ from those of the Internet, a gateway will often act as a protocol converter so
that users can send and receive communications over the Internet.
• A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks
operating with different transmission protocols.
• The most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e.
network layer of the OSI (open systems interconnection) model. However,
depending upon the functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven layers
of OSI model.

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• It acts as the entry exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the
networks shouldMicrosoft Word the gateway. Only the internal traffic between the
pass through
nodes of a LAN does not pass through the gateway.
(A) Features of Gateways
1. Gateway is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that
inflows or outflows from that network.
2. It forms a passage between two different networks operating with different
transmission protocols.
3. A gateway operates as a protocol converter, providing compatibility between the
different protocols used in the two different networks.
4. The feature that differentiates a gateway from other network devices is that it can
operate at any layer of the OSI model.
5. It also stores information about the routing paths of the communicating
networks.
6. When used in enterprise scenario, a gateway node may be supplemented as
proxy server or firewall.
7. A gateway is generally implemented as a node with multiple NICs (network
interface cards) connected to different networks. However, it can also be
configured using software.
8. It uses packet switching technique to transmit data across the networks.

5.4.6 Network Interface Cards (NICs)

Fig. Ethernet NIC

• Ethernet card, also known as Network Interface Card (NIC card in short) is a
network adapter used to set up a wired network.
• It acts as an interface between computer and the network. It is a circuit board
mounted on the motherboard of a computer as shown in Fig.
• The Ethernet cable connects the computer to the network through NIC.

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• Ethernet cards can support data transfer between 10 Mbps and 1 Gbps (1000 Mbps).
• Each NIC has a MAC address, which helps in uniquely identifying the computer on
the network.
• It may enable a wired connection (such as Ethernet) or a wireless connection (such
as Wi-Fi) to a local area network.

5.4.7 Routers
• A router is basically a device or a hardware which is responsible for receiving,
analyzing and forwarding the data packets to other networks.
• A router is a network communication device that is used to connect two or
more logically and physically different networks.
• A router can be used to connect a LAN to LAN, LAN to WAN and LAN to
Internet.
• A router acts as a post office where sorting and distribution of the posts
(packets in case of routers) is done.
• A router works on the basis of an IP address. Every router has built-in
operating system known as IOS.
• A router works on the network layer of the OS model and it routes the data
towards the optimal path.
• Router uses the header information of the packets and forwarding table to
define the best shortest possible path of the data.

Do You Know?
1. A router can be wired or wireless.
2. A wireless router can provide Wi-Fi access to smartphones and other devices.
3. Usually, such routers also contain some ports to provide wired Internet access.
4. These days, home Wi-Fi routers perform the dual task of a router and a
modem/ switch.
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5. These routers connect to incoming broadband lines, from ISP (Internet Service
Provider), andMicrosoft Wordto digital data for computing devices to process.
convert them
6. It is more expensive than the other network devices such as the hub, switch, and
many more.

5.4.8 MODEM (56KBPS Internal/External, DSL/ADSL Modems

etc.)
• Modem stands for ‘MOdulator DEModulator’.
• It refers to a device used for conversion between analog signals and digital bits. We
know computers store and process data in terms of 0s and 1s. However, to transmit
data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet, digital data are
converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it free-space or a physical media)
carries the signal to the receiver.
• There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes.
• The modem at the sender’s end acts as a modulator that converts the digital data into
analog signals.
• The modem at the receiver’s end acts as a demodulator that converts the analog
signals into digital data for the destination node to understand. Figure 10.8 shows
connectivity using a modem.
• The faster types of the modems are used by the internet such as DSL modem and
optical modems.

Fig. Use of modem

• Types of Modems in Data Communication
1. Internal Modem
2. External Modem
3. DSL Modem
4. ADSL Modem
5. ISDN Modem
6. Cable Modem
7. Wireless Modem

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1. Internal Modem
• As the name suggests internal modem is an internal part inside a computer.
• An internal modem is a circuit board that is inserted into an expansion slot on the
motherboard. The internal modem cannot be moved from one computer to another
easily. It is more difficult to set up than other types of modem. It is less expensive
than an external modem. These Dial-ups send and receive signals through the
telephone network. To connect, they require authentication.
• Dial-up is significantly slower than other types of modem connections; the fastest
stated speed for a dial-up modem as of the date of writing is 56.6 Kbps .

Fig. Internal Modem

• The best thing about internal modem is that it operates with the computer’s power
supply and doesn’t need an additional supply to work.
2. External Modem

Fig. External Modem

• The external modem is an external part of the computer.
• The external modem is attached to the system unit as an external device through
telephone lines.
• An external modem is connected to a computer using a serial cable to COM1 and
COM2 ports.
• It requires an external power supply.
• It is easy to set up.
• An external modem is expensive.

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3. DSL Modem
Microsoft Word
• DSL modem allows faster transmission over the standard telephone lines. It is faster
than ISDN.
• There are two types of DSL:
(A) ADSL
• It stands for Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line.
• It uses faster transmission downstream than upstream. It is frequently used for faster
internet services.
• It provides an upload speed of up to Kbps and a download speed of up to 8.1 Mbps.
• It is a technology that allows copper telephone pairs to be used to provide a
broadband connection. It provides ‘always-on’ Internet connection that is
automatically established once the PC and ADSL modem are switched on.
• Always-on means that the ADL broadband sets up a permanent connection to the
internet that lets you access the internet as soon as you switch on the computer and
the modem. You do not need to dial up like when you are using a standard modem
connection. There will be no call charges for internet access but voice calls will be
charged as before.
(B) SDSL
• It stands for Symmetric Digital Subscriber Line. It uses the same transmission rate for
both directions.
• It transfers data at 3 Mbps approximately in both directions.
• DSL can only be used within three miles of a telephone switching station. Its speed
degrades as the distance increases.

Fig. DSL Modem

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5.4.9 Access Point

• A wireless access point (WAP) is a networking device that allows wireless-capable
devices to connect to a wired network.
• An access point is a device that creates a wireless local area network, or WLAN,
usually in an office or large building.
• An access point connects to a wired MODEM, router, switch, or hub via an Ethernet
cable, and projects a WiFi signal to a designated area.

Fig. Access Point

• An WAPs works at the second OSI layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate
either as a bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a
router passing data transmissions from one access point to another.
• Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver)
device used to create a wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate
network devices with a built-in antenna, transmitter and adapter.
• WAPs use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point
between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN.
• Depending on the size of the network, one or more APs might be required to provide
full coverage. Additional APs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to
expand the range of the wireless network.
• Each AP is limited by its transmission range — the distance a client can be from an
AP and still obtain a usable signal and data process speed. The actual distance
depends on the wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental conditions
between the client and the AP. Higher end APs have high-powered antennas,
enabling them to extend how far the wireless signal can travel.
• APs might also provide many ports that can be used to increase the network’s size,
firewall capabilities and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) service.
Therefore, we get APs that are a switch, DHCP server, router and firewall.

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Microsoft Word
Differences among Hub, Switch and Router
Hub Switch Router

• Hub work on Physical • Switch work on Data • Router work on

Layer of OSI Model Link Layer of OSI Network Layer of OSI
Model Model

• Hub is Broadcast • Switch is Multicast • Router is a routing

Device Device device use to create
route for transmitting
data packets

• Hub is use device in • Switch is use to connect • Router is use to

the same network devices in the same connect two or more
network different network.

• Hub sends data in the • Switch sends data in the • Router sends data in
form of binary bits form of frames the form packets

• Hub only works in half • Switch works in full • Router works in full
duplex duplex duplex

• Only one device can • Multiple devices can • Multiple devices can
send data at a time send data at the same send data at the same
time time

• Hub does not store any • Switch store MAC • Router stores IP
mac address or IP Address address
address

• Connects two or more • Connects two or more • Can connect devices or

Ethernet devices LAN devices a LAN and WAN

• Does not perform • Filters packets before • Highly configured to

filtering forwarding them filter and send packets

• Least intelligent, least • More expensive and • More expensive,

expensive and least intelligent intelligent and most
complex complicated

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Differences between Bridge and Switch

Bridge Switch

• Packet forwarding in Bridges is • Packet forwarding in Switches are

performed using the software. Thus performed using ASICS (Application
bridges are software-based. Specific Integrated Circuits). Thus a
switch is hardware-based.

• Method of switching of a Bridge is • Method of switching of a Switch can

store and forward. be store and forward, cut-through, or
fragment-free.

• Bridge has only 2 ports. • Switch can handle many ports.

• Bridge is rarely used. • Switch is frequently used.

• A Bridge is a device that connects two • A Switch is a networking device that

LANs and controls data flow between learns which machine is connected to
them. its port by using the device's IP
Address.

• Bridges divide collision domain into • Switches are used to connect the work
two parts. Bridges can create collision stations or computer systems. If there
domains but not broadcast domains. are 20 workstations connected to a
switch then there will be separate
collision domain for each of the
nodes.

Differences between Router and Bridge

Router Bridge
• Routers operates in network layer of • Bridge operates in data link layer of
OSI Model. OSI Model.

• Router is use to connect the LAN and • Bridge is use to connect two different
WAN. LAN segments.

• Router transmits data in the form of • Bridge transmit data in the form
packets. frames.

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• Router reads the IPMicrosoft

AddressWord
of a • Bridge reads the MAC Address of a
device. device.

• Router has more ports compare to • Bridge has only two ports.
bridge.

• Router uses routing table for sending • Bridge does not use any routing table
data. for sending data.

Differences between Router and Gateway

Router Gateway

• Can only work with similar networks • Can work with dissimilar networks

• Using TCP/IP and UDP protocols • Using different protocols

• Routes data packet from one network • Converts the data packets protocols
to another based on internal routing from one format to another
tables

• Support both static and dynamic • Doesn't support both

routing

• Connect purely dedicated physical • Can connect a physical and virtual

hard-ware device

5.5 Explain WLANs (Wireless LAN)

• Wireless LAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is also called LAWN
(Local Area Wireless Network).
• Wireless LANs (WLANs) are wireless computer networks that use high-frequency
radio waves instead of cables for connecting the devices within a limited area
forming LAN (Local Area Network).
• Users connected by wireless LANs can move around within this limited area such as
home, school, campus, office building, railway platform, etc.
• Most WLANs are based upon the standard IEEE 802.11 standard or WiFi.
• WLAN is one in which a mobile user can connect to a Local Area Network (LAN)
through a wireless connection.
• The IEEE 802.11 group of standards defines the technologies for wireless LANs. For
path sharing, 802.11 standard uses the Ethernet protocol and CSMA/CA (carrier

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LAN Components and Protocols 5-27
sense multiple access with collision avoidance). It also uses an encryption method i.e.
wired equivalent privacy algorithm.
• Wireless LANs provide high speed data communication in small areas such as
building or an office. WLANs allow users to move around in a confined area while
they are still connected to the network.
(A) Components of WLANs
• The components of WLAN architecture as laid down in IEEE 802.11 are −
1. Stations (STA): Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are
connected to the wireless LAN. Each station has a wireless network interface
controller. A station can be of two types
✓ Wireless Access Point (WAP or AP)
✓ Client
2. Basic Service Set (BSS): A basic service set is a group of stations
communicating at the physical layer level. BSS can be of two categories
✓ Infrastructure BSS
✓ Independent BSS
3. Extended Service Set (ESS): It is a set of all connected BSS.
4. Distribution System (DS): It connects access points in ESS.

Fig. Wireless LAN

5.6 State the need for protocols in computer networks.

5.6.1. Protocol
• In communication, Protocol is a set of standard rules that the communicating parties-
the sender, the receiver, and all other intermediate devices need to follow.

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 5-28 LAN Components and Protocols
• We know that the sender and receiver can be parts of different networks, placed at
Microsoft
different geographic Word
locations.
• Besides, the data transfer rates in different networks can vary, requiring data to be
sent in different formats.
5.6.2. Need for Protocols
• We need protocols for different reasons such as flow control, access control,
addressing, etc.
• Flow control is required when the sender and receiver have different speeds of
sending and receiving the data.
• Fig. shows that Computer A is sending data at the speed of 1024 Mbps and computer
B is receiving data at the speed of 512 Mbps.
• In this case, Computer B must be able to inform computer A about the speed
mismatch so that computer A can adjust its data transmission rate. Otherwise some
data will be lost, as shown in Fig.
• Access control is required to decide which nodes in a communication channel will
access the link shared among them at a particular instant of time. Otherwise, the
transmitted data packets will collide if computers are sending data simultaneously
through the same link resulting in the loss or corruption of data.

Fig. Speed mismatch between two computers can result into loss of data

5.7 Know about protocols

• Internet Protocols are a set of rules that governs the communication and exchange of
data over the internet.
• Both the sender and receiver should follow the same protocols in order to
communicate the data. In order to understand it better, let’s take an example of a
language.
• Any language has its own set of vocabulary and grammar which we need to know if
we want to communicate in that language.

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LAN Components and Protocols 5-29
Similarly, over the internet whenever we access a website or exchange some data
with another device then these processes are governed by a set of rules called the
internet protocols.
• Protocols also define:
1. How computers identify one another on a network.
2. The form to which the data should be converted for transit.
3. How to decide whether the data received is for that node or to be forwarded to
another node.
4. Ensuring that all the data have reached the destination without any loss.
5. How to rearrange the packets and process them at the destination. If all the rules
or protocols of a communication network are defined at one place, it becomes
complex to ensure that communicating parties follow the guidelines. In this
section, we will briefly talk about some of the protocols required in
communication.

5.7.1 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

• HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol.
• It is the primary protocol used to access the World Wide Web.
OR
HTTP is the protocol used to access resources, usually web sites, present on the
Internet.
• HTTP uses TCP for transmission of data between the users computer and the web
site. HTTP is a request-response (also called client- server) protocol that runs over
TCP.
• The common use of HTTP is between a web browser (client) and a web server
(server). HTTP facilitates access of hypertext from the World Wide Web by defining
how information are formatted and transmitted, and how the Web servers and
browsers should respond to various commands.
• A web page is written using a markup language like HTML and is stored on a web
server for access via its URL.
• Once a user opens a web browser and types in the URL of the intended web page, a
logical communication link between the user machine (client) and the web server is
created using HTTP.
• For example, whenever we enter the URL http://sbtet.telangana.gov.in in a browser,
it sends HTTP request to the web-server where ncert.nic.in is hosted. The HTTP
response from the web-server fetches and sends the requested Web-page, which is
displayed on your browser.

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*Note:
Microsoft Word
• Hypertext refers to the special format of the text that can contain links to other
texts.
• Whenever a user opens their web browser, the user will indirectly use HTTP as this
is the protocol that is being used to share text, images, and other multimedia files on
the World Wide Web.

5.7.2 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

• HTTPS is an abbreviation of Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure. It is a secure
extension or version of HTTP.
• This protocol is mainly used for providing security to the data sent between a
website and the web browser.
• HTTPS can use authentication and encryption to secure data as it travels between the
client and server.
• HTTPS specifies additional rules for passing data between the application layer and
the transport layer
• It is widely used on the internet and used for secure communications. This protocol
uses the 443 port number for communicating the data.
• This protocol is also called HTTP over SSL because the HTTPS communication
protocols are encrypted using the SSL (Secure Socket Layer).
• By default, it is supported by various web browsers. Those websites which need
login credentials should use the HTTPS protocol for sending the data.
a) Advantages of HTTPS:
Following are the advantages or benefits of a Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure
(HTTPS):
1. The main advantage of HTTPS is that it provides high security to users.
2. Data and information are protected. So, it ensures data protection.
3. SSL technology in HTTPS protects the data from third-party or hackers. And this
technology builds trust for the users who are using it.
4. It helps users by performing banking transactions.
b) Disadvantages of HTTPS:
Following are the disadvantages or limitations of a Hypertext Transfer Protocol
Secure (HTTPS):
1. The big disadvantage of HTTPS is that users need to purchase the SSL certificate.
2. The speed of accessing the website is slow because there are various complexities
in communication.
3. Users need to update all their internal links.

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LAN Components and Protocols 5-31

5.7.3 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
• FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the
files from one host to another.
• It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.
• The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three
components: the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The server
has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer process.

• FTP Provides Two Types of Access:

1. Public
2. Restricted

• In public access mode, we can login to the system with anonymous as user name.
• In restricted access mode, we have to specify user name and password for accessing
the files. Like HTTP, FTP also works on a client-server model.
• When a user requests for a file transfer with another system, FTP sets up a
connection between the two nodes for accessing the file.
• Optionally, the user can authenticate using user ID and password. The user then
specifies the file name and location of the desired file. After that, another connection
sets up and the file transfer happens directly between the two machines.

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5.7.4 Simple MailMicrosoft

Transfer WordProtocol (SMTP)
• SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. SMTP is a set of communication
guidelines that allow software to transmit an electronic mail over the internet is
called Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
• It uses information written on the message header (like an envelope on a letter sent
by post), and is not concerned with the content of the email message.
• Each email header contains email addresses of recipients. The email containing
header and body are entered into a queue of outgoing mails.
• The SMTP sender program takes mails from the outgoing queue and transmits them
to the destination(s).
• When the SMTP sender successfully delivers a particular mail to one or more
destinations, it removes the corresponding receiver’s email address from the mail’s
destination list.
• When that mail is delivered to all the recipients, it is removed from the outgoing
queue.
• The SMTP receiver program accepts each mail that has arrived and places it in the
appropriate user mailbox.

5.7.5 Telnet
• The main task of the internet is to provide services to users. For example, users want
to run different application programs at the remote site and transfers a result to the
local site. This requires a client-server program such as FTP, SMTP. But this would
not allow us to create a specific program for each demand.
• The better solution is to provide a general client-server program that lets the user
access any application program on a remote computer. A popular client-server
program Telnet is used to meet such demands. Telnet is an abbreviation for Terminal
Network.
• Telnet provides a connection to the remote computer in such a way that a local
terminal appears to be at the remote side.
• There are two types of login:
✓ Local Login
✓ Remote Login

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LAN Components and Protocols 5-33
• Local Login: When a user logs into a local computer, then it is known as local login.
• Remote login: When the user wants to access an application program on a remote
computer, then the user must perform remote login.

Do You Know?

Differences between HTTP, FTP and SMPT

Parameter HTTP FTP SMTP
1. Port Number 80 20 and 21 25
2. Type of Band In-band Out-of-band In-band
Transfer
3. State Stateless Maintains state -
4. Number of 1 2 (Data Connection 1
TCP and Control
connections Connection)

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 5-34 LAN Components and Protocols
5. Type of TCP Can use both Persistent for Persistent
Microsoft Word
6. Connections Persistent and Non- Control connection.
persistent
Non-persistent for
Data Connection
7. Type of Pull Protocol - Push Protocol
Protocol (Mainly) (Primarily)

8. Type of Transfer files Transfer directly Transfers mails via

Transfer between Web server between Mail Servers
and Web client computers

Differences between Telnet and FTP

Telnet FTP
• TELNET stands for • FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol.
TELecommunication NETwork.

• TELNET is also used for chat • FTP is used for downloading the files.
operation.

• The Port number in which TELNET is • The Port number in which FTP is work
work is 23. is 20 and 21.

• TELNET uses only one connection. • FTP establish two connections, one is
for control command and another is for
data transfer.

• Remote Login is necessary in TELNET. • Remote Login does not necessary in

FTP.

• It does not provide high security, it • It provides high security than TELNET.
provides only general security.

• It is used for remote login for a system. • It is used for transferring the files from
one system to another system.

• It is a connection-oriented protocol. • It is also a connection-oriented

protocol.

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6 Network Addressing
And Management

OBJECTIVES

6.1 Introduction to Network Addressing.

6.2 Know about TCP/IP Addressing Scheme.

6.2.1 Components of IP Address.

6.2.2 IP Address Classes.

6.2.3 Classify the Internet Protocol addressing IPv4

6.2.4 Explain classful addressing and classless addressing in IPv4.

6.2.5 Know about IP Subnetting

6.2.6 State the need for IPv6.

6.2.7 Describe Internet protocol version-6 (IPv6) addressing.

6.3 Know about Wi-fi networking standards and encryption types.

6.4 Understand the Overview of Network Management.

6.5 Understand the Model of ISO Network Management

6.6 Understand the Network Monitoring and Troubleshooting.

6.7 Networking troubleshooting tools

6.8 Learn about Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP).

6.9 Explain how SNMP works.

6.10 Know about Remote Monitoring (RMON).

 6-2 Network Addressing and Management

6.1 Introduction to Network

Microsoft Word Addressing.
• When the computers wish to communicate with one another, they need to know the
address of each other. Each computer has its own address.
• The addresses can be of different types, such as physical addresses or logical
address.
• In an internet employing the TCP/IP protocols, four levels of addresses are used by
the computers:
1. Physical address
2. Logical address (IP)
3. Port address and
4. Specific address
• The Fig. 6.1(a) shows the classification of addresses.

Fig. 6.1(a) Classification of Addresses in TCP/IP

• Each of these addresses is associated with a specific layer of TCP/IP
architecture as demonstaed in Fig.6.1(b).

Fig. 6.1(b) TCP/IP layers and associated addresses

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Network Addressing and Management 6-3
1. MAC Address (Physical Address)
• The packets from source to destination hosts pass through physical networks.
• At the physical level the IP address is not useful but the hosts and routers are
recognized by their MAC addresses..
• A MAC address is a local address. It is unique locally but it is not unique
universally.
2. Logical Addresses (IP Addresses)
• Logical addresses are required to facilitate universal communications in which
different types of physical networks can be involved.
• The logical address is also called as the IP (Internet Protocol) address. Each
computer connected to the Internet should be identified uniquely. The identifier
used for this purpose is called as the Internet address or IP address.
• The hosts and routers on the Internet have unique IP addresses. The current
version of IP (Internet Protocol) is IPv4 whereas the advanced version is IPv6.
• The IPv4 address is a 32-bit address and it is used for defining the connection of a
host or router to the Internet. Thus an IP address is an address of the interface.
3. Port Address :
• The modern computers are designed to run multiple processes on it
simultaneously.
• The main objective of internet is the process to process communication. For this
purpose it is necessary to lable or name the processes.
• Thus the processes need addresses. The lable assigned to a process is called as a
port address. It is a 16 bit address.
4. Specific addresses
• Some applications have user friendly addresses.
• Example: If specific addresses are the e-mail addresses or the MSBTE Resource
Locators(URL).

6.2 Know about TCP/IP Addressing Scheme.

• TCP/IP uses a 32 bit addressing scheme to identify the devices on a network.
• These 32 bits are divided into four octets, of eight bits each. Each of these four
octets is represented in a decimal form, and separated by a dot.
• Example 1: 192.168.100.1 is an IP address.
• This format of representing IP address is called the dotted decimal format.
• The octets in an IP address can take a decimal value from 0 to 255 because the
largest decimal value that can be represented by eight binary bits is 255(11111111
in binary).
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 6-4 Network Addressing and Management

Microsoft Word

Fig. IP Addressing
• Example 2: For example, the 32 bit binary address
11000110.10101100.1010100.0001010 represents the IP address 198.172.168.10.
• The addressing provided by a network layer protocol to a device is called its
network address.
• 198.172.168.10 is the network address of a device.
• This is different from the MAC address which is the hardware address of the
NIC or the device (routers or switch).
• The network addresses in a TCP/IP network are also known as IP addresses.
• Therefore, 198.172.168.10 is also known as the IP address.

6.2.1 Components of IP Address.

a) IP Address
• The IP address is unique and universal. That means each IP address defines only
one connection to the Internet.
• At any given time, no two devices connected to the Internet can have the same IP
address.
• But if a device is connected to the Internet via two connections through two
different networks, then it can have two different IP addresses.
• An IP address is analogous to a street address or telephone number in that it is
used to uniquely identify an entity.
• The source and destination IP addresses are 32 bit long. IP addresses are
normally expressed in two ways.
1. Binary notation
2. Dotted-Decimal notation

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Fig(a). Binary and Decimal Notation

b) Components of IP Address
• An IP address consists of two parts:
1. Network Part
2. Host Part
• The network ID identifies network the host is connected to. The host ID identifies
the host in the network.
• The fundamental division of the bits of an IP address is into a network ID and
host ID.
• Here, the network ID is 8 bits long and the host ID is 24 bits in length.

Fig. Class A IP Address

• Network Identifier (Network ID): A certain number of bits, starting from the left-
most bit, is used to identify the network where the host or other network
interface is located. This is also sometimes called the network prefix or even just
the prefix.
• This is the address of the network itself, and is used by other networks to identify
this network.
• Host Identifier (Host ID): The remainder of the bits is used to identify the host
on the network. This is the address of the device with in the network.
*Note:
1. Network ID: Represents the number of networks.
2. Host ID: Represents the number of hosts.

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6.2.2 IP Address Classes.

Microsoft Word
• The most widely used network address is an IP address. It uniquely identifies a
node in an IP network.
• An IP address is a 32-bit long numeric address represented in a form of dot-
decimal notation where each byte is written in a decimal form separated by a
period.
• Example 196.32.216.9 is an IP address where 196 represents first 8 bits, 32 next 8
bits and so on. The first three bytes of an IP address represents the network and the
last byte specifies the host in the network.
• An IP address is further divided into sub classes.

Fig. IP Address sub-classes

1. Class A
• IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large
number of hosts.
• The network ID is 8 bits long.
• The host ID is 24 bits long.
• The first bit of the first octet is always set to 0 (zero).
• Thus the first octet ranges from 1 - 127, i.e. 00000001(1) – 01111111(127)

• The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to o (Zero).
• The remaining 7 bits in first octet is used to determine network ID.

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Network Addressing and Management 6-7
• The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the host in any network.
• The default subnet mask for class A is 255.0.0.0.
• Therefore, class A has a total of:
✓ Total number of networks = 2⁷= 126
✓ Total number of hosts = 224 – 2 = 16777214
2. Class B
• IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from
medium-sized to large-sized networks.
• The network ID is 16 bits long and the host ID is 16 bits long.
• An IP address which belongs to class B has the first two bits in the first octet set to
10, i.e. 10000000(128) – 10111111(191)

• The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10.
• The remaining 14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is
used to determine the host in any network.
• The default sub-net mask for class B is 255.255.0.0.
• Class B has a total of:
✓ Total number of networks = 214 = 16384
✓ Total number of hosts = 216 – 2 = 65534
• Class B networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.0.0 and have 128-191 as their
first octet.
• The address 172.16.52.63 is a class B address. Its first octet is 172, which is between
128 and 191, inclusive.
3. Class C
• IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small- sized networks.
✓ The network ID is 24 bits long.
✓ The host ID is 8 bits long.
• The first octet of Class C IP address has its first 3 bits set to 110, i.e.
11000000(192) – 11011111(223)
• The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110.

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Microsoft Word

• The remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used
to determine the host in any network.
• The default sub-net mask for class C is 255.255.255.x.
• The Class C has a total of:
✓ Total number of networks address= 221 = 20,97,152
✓ Total number of hosts address= 28 – 2 = 254
• Class C networks use a default subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 and have 192-223 as
their first octet. The address 192.168.123.132 is a class C address.
• Its first octet is 192, which is between 192 and 223, inclusive.
4. Class D

• An IP address in Class D is designated for multicast addresses. It doesn’t have

subnetting.
• The first octet’s higher order bits are always 1110, while the remaining bits decide
the host ID in any network.
5. Class E
• An IP address is utilized in Class E for future usage or for research and
development. It doesn’t have any subnetting.
• The first octet’s higher order bits are always 1111, while the remaining bits decide
the host ID in any network.
Class 1st octet of IP Default Network / Number of Maximum
address Subnet Mask Host networks nodes in a
network
A 1-126 255.0.0.0 N.H.H.H 126 16,777,214
B 128-191 255.255.0.0 N.N.H.H 16,384 65,534
C 192-223 255.255.255.0 N.N.N.H 2,097,152 254
D 224-239 - - - -
E 240-254 - - - -

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6.2.3 Classify the Internet Protocol addressing IPv4

• A 32 bit IPv4 address consists of two parts. The first part is called as net id i.e.
network identification which identifies a network on the Internet and the second
part is called as the host id which identifies a host on that network.
• Fig.(a) shows the IPv4 address format. Note that the net id and host id are of
variable lengths depending on the class of address.

Fig.(a). IPv4 Address Format

• Note that class D and E addresses are not divided into net id and host id:
• IPv4 has 5 different classes of IP address that includes Class A, Class B, Class C,
Class D, and Class E.

Fig. Types of IPv4

Class Higher NET ID HOST ID Number of Number of Range
bits bits bits Networks Hosts per
Network
A 0 8 24 2^7 2^24 0.0.0.0 to
127.255.255.255
B 10 16 16 2^14 2^16 128.0.0.0 to
191.255.255.255
C 110 24 8 2^21 2^8 192.0.0.0 to
223.255.255.255

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D 1110 Not Not Not Not 224.0.0.0 to
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Defined Defined Defined Defined 239.255.255.255

E 1111 Not Not Not Not 240.0.0.0 to

Defined Defined Defined Defined 255.255.255.255

Additional Information
Example - 1: Find the class of each address.
a) 00000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b) 11000001 10000011 00011011 111111
c) 14.23.120.8
d) 252.5.15.111
Solution:
a) The first bit is 0. This is a class A address.
b) The first 2 bits are 1; the third bit is 0. This is a class C address.
c) The first byte is 14 (between 0 and 127); the class is A.
d) The first byte is 252 (between 240 and 255); the class is E.
Example - 2: For the address 24.46.8.95 identify the type of network and find the network
address.
Solution:
• Examine the first byte. Its value is 24 i.e. it is between 0 and 127. So it is a class A
network.
• So only the first byte defines the Net id. So we can find the network address by
replacing the host id with 0s.
• The process of obtaining the network address is shown in Fig.

• So the network address is 24.0.0.0.

Example - 3: For the address 132.7.21.84 find the type of network and the network address.
Solution:
• Examine the first byte. It is 132 i.e. between 128 and 192. So it is a class B network.
• So the first two bytes define the net id. Replace the host id with 0's to get the network
address as shown in Fig.
• So the network address is 132.7.0.0.
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Example - 4: Find the class of the network if the address is 221.46.75.64.

Solution:
• The first byte is 221 i.e. between 192 and 255. So this is a class C network.
• The net id and host id are as shown in Fig.

• What is the difference between net id and network address?

Ans: The network address is different from. a net id. A network address has both net
id and host id, with 0s for the host id.
• Where to use the network address?
Ans: The network address is used to route the packets to the desired location.
IPv4 Header format

Fig. IPv4 Header Format

1. Version: Version no. of Internet Protocol used (e.g. IPv4).
2. HL: Internet Header Length; Length of entire IP header.
3. DSCP: Differentiated Services Code Point; this is Type of Service.
4. Total Length: Length of entire IP Packet (including IP header and IP Payload).
5. Identification: If IP packet is fragmented during the transmission, all the fragments
contain same identification number. to identify original IP packet they belong to.
6. Flags: As required by the network resources, if IP Packet is too large to handle, these
‘flags’ tells if they can be fragmented or not.

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7. Fragment Offset: This offset tells the exact position of the fragment in the original
IP Packet. Microsoft Word

8. Time to Live: every packet is sent with some TTL value set, which tells the network
how many routers (hops) this packet can cross.
9. Protocol: Tells the Network layer at the destination host, to which Protocol this
packet belongs to, i.e. the next level Protocol. For example protocol number of ICMP
is 1, TCP is 6 and UDP is 17.
10. Header Checksum: This field is used to keep checksum value of entire header
which is then used to check if the packet is received error-free.
11. Source Address: 32-bit address of the Sender (or source) of the packet.
12. Destination Address: 32-bit address of the Receiver (or destination) of the packet.

6.2.4 Explain classful addressing and classless

addressing in IPv4.
• An IPv4 address is a 32-bit address that uniquely and universally defines the
connection of a device (for example, a computer or a router) to the Internet.
• IPv4 addresses are unique because of each address defines one and only one,
connection to the Internet. Two devices on the Internet can never have the same
address at the same time.
• The IPv4 addresses are universal because, the addressing system must be
accepted by any host that wants to be connected to the Internet.
• IPv4 addresses can be divided into two types based on their classes
1. Classful addressing
2. Classless addressing

1. Classful Addressing
• IPv4 addressing used the concept of classes. This architecture is called classful
addressing.
• In classful addressing, the address space is divided into five classes: A,B,C,D and
E . Each class occupies some part of the address space.
• Notation of IPv4 address: We can find the class of an address, there are two
notations of IP address are used.
1. Binary notation
2. Dotted-decimal notation

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Fig:(1)

Fig:(2)
(i) Binary notation: In binary notation, the IP address is displayed as 32 bits. Each
octet is often referred to as byte. So it is common to hear an IP address referred to as 32
bits address or a 4 byte address.

(ii) Decimal Notation : To make the IP address more compact and easier to read,
Internet addresses are usually written in decimal form with a decimal point (dot)
separating the bytes.

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 6-14 Network Addressing and Management
• Parts of IP Address: The IP address is of 3 parts namely:
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1. Class 2. Network number 3. Host number

• Classes of IP Address: The IP address space is divided into five classes. They
are:
1. Class A 2. Class B 3. Class C
4.Class D 5. Class E
• Each class occupies some part of the address space:
1. Class A Address: It is designed for large organizations with a large number
of attached hosts or routers.
2. Class B Address: These were designed for mid size organizations with tens
of thousands of attached hosts or routers.
3. Class C Address: These were designed for small organizations with a small
number of attached hosts or routers.
4. Class D Address: It were designed for multi casting. Each address in this
class is used to define one group of hosts on the Internet.
5. Class E Address: It is reserved for future use; only a few were used
resulting in another waste of addresses.
• In class D and class E many addresses were wasted. That is In c1assful
addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted.
Example - 1: Change the following IPv4 addresses from binary notation to dotted-
decimal notation.
a) 10000001 00001011 00001011 11101111
b) 11000001 10000011
Solution:
We replace each group of 8 bits with its equivalent decimal number and add dots for
separation.
a) 129.11.11.239
b) 193.131.27.255
Example - 2: Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to
binary notation.
a) 111.56.45.78
b) 221.34.7.82
Solution:
We replace each decimal number with its binary equivalent.

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Network Addressing and Management 6-15
a) 01101111 00111000 00101101 01001110
b) 11011101 00100010 00000111 01010010
2. Classless Addressing
• In c1assful addressing, a large part of the available addresses were wasted. To
overcome address depletion and give more organizations access to the Internet,
classless addressing was designed and implemented. In this scheme, there are no
classes, but the addresses are still granted in blocks.
• In classless addressing, when an entity, small or large, needs to be connected to
the Internet, it is granted a block (range) of addresses. The size of the block (the
number of addresses) varies based on the nature and size of the entity.
(a) Address Blocks
• Address block is defined as the range of addresses.
• In the classless addressing, when an entity wants to get connected to the internet,
a block (range) of addresses is granted to it.
• The size of this block i.e. number of addresses depends on the size of the entity
as well as its nature.
• That means for a small entity such as a household only one or two addresses will
be given whereas for a larger entity like an organization, thousands of addresses
can be allotted.
(b) Restrictions
• Some of the restriction on classless address blocks have been imposed by the
internet authorities in order to simplify the process of address handling.
1. The addresses in a block should be continuous, i.e. serial in manner.
2. The total number of addresses in a block has to be equal to some power of 2.
3. The first address should be evenly divisible by the number of addresses.
Example: Fig. shows a block of addresses, in both binary and dotted-decimal notation,
granted to a small business that needs 16 addresses.

Fig. A block of16 addresses granted to a small organization

We can see that the restrictions are applied to this block.
• The addresses are contiguous.

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 6-16 Network Addressing and Management
• The number of addresses is a power of 2 (16 = 24 ) , and the first address is divisible
Microsoft Word
by 16.
• The first address, when converted to a decimal number, is 3,440,387,360, which
when divided by 16 results in 215,024,210.

6.2.5 Know about IP Subnetting

• All the hosts in a network must have the same network number. This property of IP
addressing causes problem as the network grows up. Also, the internet is running
out of 32-bit IPv4 addresses.
• To overcome this problem, a concept known as subnets is used. Subnets divide one
network into multiple smaller networks for internal use, but still acts like a single
network to the outside world.
• Note: Not every network environment requires subnets. For example, if your
company's network has 254 or less hosts and the network is in one building only,
there's no reason to subnet it. But if your company's network wants to expand into
multiple locations, the network administrator needs to look at a couple of options by
using subnetting.
• Subnets have some advantages over one large network :
• Smaller networks are easier to manage and troubleshoot, even though there are
more pieces.
• Network traffic overall is reduced and performance may improve because most
traffic is local to its location's subnet.
• Network security can be applied more easily at the interconnections between the
subnets. Subnetting allows you to save money by reducing requirement for IP
range.
• In subnetting, we borrow some bits from the host id and add it to the network id.
This allows us to have more networks than using the default subnet mask.
• We have to specify how many bits we want to borrow by changing how many bit 0
to bit 1 in the subnet mask.
• The number of borrowed bits is depended on how many networks we need.
a) Definition of default mask:
• A network mask or default mask in classful addressing is defined as a 32-bit number
obtained by setting all the "n" leftmost bits to 1s and all the (32-n) rightmost bits to 0.
b) Default Masks for Different Classes:
• We know that the value of n is different for different classes. Therefore, their default
masks also will be different.
• The default masks for class A, B and C addresses are as shown in Fig.

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Network Addressing and Management 6-17

• The masks for classes A, B, and C are shown in Table. The concept does not apply to
classes D and E.

Example - 1: How many subnets and hosts-per-subnet you can create if the IP address
is 4.0.0.0 and a subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 ?
Solution:
• The IP address is 4.0.0.0 belongs to class A and its default subnet mask is 255.0.0.0.
• Therefore, if we use a subnet mask of 255.255.255.0, it means we borrowed 16 bits
(to convert from 0 to 1) as shown below:

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 6-18 Network Addressing and Management
Example - 2: How many subnets and hosts-per-subnet you can create if the IP address
Microsoft Word
is 130.0.0.0 and a subnet mask is 255.255.128.0?
Solution:
• The IP address is 130.0.0.0 belongs to class B and its default subnet mask is
255.255.0.0.
• Therefore, if we use a subnet mask of 255.255.128.0, it means we borrowed 1 bit as
shown below.

Example - 3: What is the maximum number of hosts it can handle if a subnet mask is
255.255.240.0 ?
Solution:
• The default subnet mask of class B is 255.255.0.0.
• Therefore, if we use a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0, it means we borrowed 4 bit
from host id as shown below.

Example - 4: What is subnet mask if IP address of a host is 198.240.111.120 and only 4

networks are allowed to create ?
Solution:
• The IP address is 198.240.111.120 belongs to class C and its default subnet mask is
255.255.255.0.
• Therefore, to create 4 subnets, we require to borrow 2 bits (i.e. 22 = 4 networks) as
shown below.

6.2.6 State the need for IPv6.

• IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the sixth revision to the Internet Protocol and
the successor to IPv4.
• It functions similarly to IPv4 in that it provides the unique IP addresses necessary
for Internet-enabled devices to communicate. However, it does have one significant
difference: it utilizes a 128-bit IP address.
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Network Addressing and Management 6-19
• The primary function of IPv6 is to allow for more unique TCP/IP address
identifiers to be created, now that we’ve run out of the 4.3 billion created with IPv4.
• This is one of the main reasons why IPv6 is such an important innovation for the
Internet of Things (IoT). Internet-connected products are becoming increasingly
popular, and while IPv4 addresses couldn’t meet the demand for IoT products,
IPv6 gives IoT products a platform to operate on for a very long time.
• There are dozens of reasons why IPv6 is superior to IPv4 (and why this new
internet protocol is important for companies to understand), but we’re zeroing in
on IPv6 for IoT. Let’s take a look at three of the distinct advantages it offers.

6.2.7 Describe Internet protocol version-6 (IPv6)

addressing.
A) Types of IPv6 Address
1. Unicast addresses: It identifies a unique node on a network and usually refers to
a single sender or a single receiver.
2. Multicast addresses: It represents a group of IP devices and can only be used as
the destination of a datagram.
3. Anycast addresses: It is assigned to a set of interfaces that typically belong to
different nodes.
B) Advantages of IPv6
1. Reliability
2. Faster Speeds: IPv6 supports multicast rather than broadcast in IPv4.This feature
allows bandwidth-intensive packet flows (like multimedia streams) to be sent to
multiple destinations all at once.
3. Stronger Security: IP Security, which provides confidentiality, and data integrity,
is embedded into IPv6.
4. Routing efficiency
5. Most importantly it’s the final solution for growing nodes in Global-network.
C) Disadvantages of IPv6
1. Conversion: Due to widespread present usage of IPv4 it will take a long period to
completely shift to IPv6.
2. Communication: IPv4 and IPv6 machines cannot communicate directly with each
other. They need an intermediate technology to make that possible.
a) IPv6 Header Format
• An IPv6 address is 4 times larger than IPv4, but surprisingly, the header of an
IPv6 address is only 2 times larger than that of IPv4.

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• IPv6 headers have one Fixed Header and zero or more Optional (Extension)
Headers. Microsoft Word
• All the necessary information that is essential for a router is kept in the Fixed
Header.
• The Extension Header contains optional information that helps routers to
understand how to handle a packet or flow.

Fig. IPv6 Header Format

• IPv6 fixed header is 40 bytes long and contains the following information.
• Version (4-bits): It represents the version of Internet Protocol, i.e. 0110.
• Traffic Class (8-bits): These 8 bits are divided into two parts. The most significant
6 bits are used for Type of Service to let the Router Known what services should be
provided to this packet.
• Flow Label (20-bits): This label is used to maintain the sequential flow of the
packets belonging to a communication. The source labels the sequence to help the
router identify that a particular packet belongs to a specific flow of information
• Payload Length (16-bits): This field is used to tell the routers how much
information a particular packet contains in its payload. Payload is composed of
Extension Headers and Upper Layer data. With 16 bits, up to 65535 bytes can be
indicated.
• Next Header (8-bits): This field is used to indicate either the type of Extension
Header, or if the Extension Header is not present then it indicates the Upper Layer
PDU.
• Hop Limit (8-bits): This field is used to stop packet to loop in the network
infinitely. This is same as TTL in IPv4. The value of Hop Limit field is decremented
by 1 as it passes a link.
• Source Address (128-bits): This field indicates the address of originator of the
packet.
• Destination Address (128-bits): This field provides the address of intended
recipient of the packet.

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Network Addressing and Management 6-21

b) Differences between IPv4 and IPv6.

S.No IPv4 IPv6
1 IPv4 addresses are 32 bit length. IPv6 addresses are 128 bit length.
2 IPv4 addresses are binary IPv6 addresses are binary
numbers represented in decimals. numbers represented
in hexadecimals.
3 IPSec support is only optional. Inbuilt IPSec support.
4 Fragmentation is done by sender and Fragmentation is done only by
forwarding routers. sender.
5 No packet flow identification. Packet flow identification is available
within the header using the Flow
Label field.
6 Checksum field is available in IPv4 No checksum field in IPv6 header.
header
7 Options fields are available in IPv4 No option fields, but IPv6 Extension
header. headers are available.
8 Address Resolution Protocol Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is
(ARP) is available to map IPv4 replaced with a function of Neighbor
addresses to MAC addresses. Discovery Protocol (NDP).
9 Manual configuration (Static) of IPv4 Auto-configuration of addresses is
addresses or DHCP (Dynamic available.
configuration) is required to
configure IPv4 addresses.

6.3 Know about Wi-fi networking standards and

encryption types.
6.3.1. Wi- Fi Networking Standards
• Wireless networks provide incredible ease of access, but due to their nature, they
are also very unsecure. They can easily be accessed by third parties and are prone
to breaches. To tackle the risk of breaches in the Wi-Fi network, various encryption
methods are used.
• The encryption is set up on the wireless router being used to transmit Wi-Fi signals.
Encryption methods use resources from the devices connected as well as the
network itself.
• Encryption methods are also available with different features and security levels.
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Microsoft Word

• Following are the Wi-Fi networking standards:

✓ 802.11 a
✓ 802.11 b
✓ 802.11 g
✓ 802.11 n
✓ 802.11 ac

IEEE Maximum Transmission

Standard Frequency Speed Range

802.11a 5 GHz 54 Mbps 25 to 75 feet indoors; range

can be affected by building
materials

802.11b 2.4 GHz 11 Mbps Up to 150 feet indoors; range

can be affected by building
materials

802.11g 2.4 GHz 54 Mbps Up to 150 feet indoors; range

can be affected by building
materials

802.11n 2.4 GHz and 5 Up to 600 175+ feet indoors; range can
GHz Mbps be affected by building
materials

802.11ac 5GHz Up to 1Gbps 115+ feet indoors; range can

be affected by building
materials

• Wi-Fi standards are the most widely used network standards, found across the
globe in homes, offices, and public places.
• They enable laptops, smartphones, and smart devices to connect to the Internet no
matter where they are- offices, homes, coffee shops, hotels, or airports.

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Network Addressing and Management 6-23
• WiFi standards are networking standards that govern protocols for implementing
wireless local area networks (WLAN).
• These standards fall under the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers’s
(IEEE’s) 802.11 protocol family. Wi-Fi standards are the most commonly used
networking standards for connecting devices in a wireless network.
6.3.2. Wi-Fi Encryption Types
• Wireless network encryption is the process of encoding data transmitted over
wireless networks.
• In the simplest form, encryption is the process of scrambling data signals
transmitted between devices to prevent unauthorized devices from intercepting the
data.
• There are two types of encryption in widespread use today
✓ Symmetric encryption
✓ Asymmetric encryption.
• The name derives from whether or not the same key is used for encryption and
decryption.
1. Symmetric encryption
• In symmetric encryption the same key is used for encryption and decryption. It is
therefore critical that a secure method is considered to transfer the key between
sender and recipient.

Fig: Symmetric encryption – Using the same key for encryption and decryption
2. Asymmetric Encryption
• Asymmetric encryption uses the notion of a key pair: a different key is used for the
encryption and decryption process. One of the keys is typically known as the
private key and the other is known as the public key.
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 6-24 Network Addressing and Management
• The private key is kept secret by the owner and the public key is either shared
Microsoft
amongst authorised Word or made available to the public at large.
recipients

Fig: Asymmetric encryption – Using a different key for the encryption and
decryption process
• Data encrypted with the recipient’s public key can only be decrypted with the
corresponding private key. Data can therefore be transferred without the risk of
unauthorized or unlawful access to the data.

6.4 Understand the Overview of Network Management.

• Network management is the process that helps you know the working state of
your network. It also enables you to fix various discovered or undiscovered
network problems.
• With increasing complexity, there was a need to broaden the meaning of network
management. Although it started with focusing mainly on finding errors, today’s
process involves various components. For successful network management, you
need to implement some version of these components
1. Configuration Management
2. Fault management
3. Performance management
4. Security management
5. Network administration

6.5 Understand the Model of ISO Network Management

• The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines the types of
network management applications that reside on the NMS.

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• Just as the seven-layer OSI model defines function but not implementation for
data communications, the ISO network management model defines five areas of
network management without specifying specific implementations. Those five
areas are as follows:
1. Fault management
• Fault management is concerned with the detection, isolation, and correction of
any and all non-normal network conditions. The architecture consists of event
collectors and event producers. Collectors consist of NMS and Syslog servers.
Producers are SNMP agents, RMON probes, etc.
2. Configuration management
• Configuration management is concerned with network configuration
consistency, change control, and documentation. Granular detail on items such
as descriptions on interfaces, IP address control, DHCP and DNS controls, and
other policies and procedures are covered. The end results are higher network
availability and reduced network operation cost.
3. Accounting management
• Accounting management targets the regulation of network resources. Network
utilization and actions can be tracked on a per-user basis, and the costs for those
resources can be allocated as well.
4. Performance management
• Performance management is the management of network response time, quality,
and consistency for all services. Baselining and trending lead to SLAs with
network “customers.” Performance management is closely related to network
capacity planning.
5. Security management
• Security management is concerned with the application of security policies
regarding network resources. The distribution of security policies, tracking of
security-related events, and accounting of access to network resources are

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 6-26 Network Addressing and Management
included topics. The intentions are to prevent network sabotage, whether
intentional or Microsoft
otherwise.Word
• Each of these specifications is meant to be a framework for necessary network
management components, not a specification of those components. There are
many Cisco (and other) products that fit into one or more of these five
categories. The ISO network management model provides a reasonable checklist
that can help you identify areas of network management that may be lacking in
an enterprise.

6.6 Understand the Network Monitoring and

Troubleshooting.
6.6.1. Network Monitoring
• Network monitoring tracks the health of a network across its hardware and software
layers. Engineers use network monitoring to prevent and troubleshoot network
outages and failures.
• In this article, we’ll describe how network monitoring works, its primary use cases,
the typical challenges related to effective network monitoring, and the main features
to look for in a network monitoring tool.
• Networks enable the transfer of information between two systems, including
between two computers or applications.
• The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model breaks down several functions that
computer systems rely on to send and receive data. In order for data to be sent across
a network, it will pass through each component of the OSI, utilizing different
protocols, beginning at the physical layer and ending at the application layer.
• Network monitoring provides visibility into the various components that make up a
network, ensuring that engineers can troubleshoot network issues at any layer in
which they occur.
6.6.2. Network Troubleshooting
• Network troubleshooting refers to the combined measures and processes used to
identify, locate, and resolve network problems located anywhere along a network,
from WAN to LAN.
• It's a logical process that network engineers or IT professionals use to resolve
network problems and improve network performance.
• Essentially, to fix network issues, you need to troubleshoot them. When
troubleshooting a network, many IT pros will use a network troubleshooting
software or various network troubleshooting tools to help with the process.
• These network troubleshooting tools range from simple command line based
troubleshooting utilities to more comprehensive and robust solutions that allows for

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Network Addressing and Management 6-27
a systematic, efficient and proactive approach to network troubleshooting, e.g.
ManageEngine OpManager.

6.7 Networking troubleshooting tools

• Some of the basic network troubleshooting tools are as follows:
1. Ping: The ICMP ping tool is a basic network troubleshooting tool that lets you assess
if a device is reachable on the network. It reports on errors such as packet loss,
round-trip-time, etc.
2. Tracert/ Trace Route: Tracert (Windows) or traceroute (Linux) is a network
diagnostic and troubleshooting tool to view the route and measure transit delays of
data packets in a network. It displays the number of hops between the source and
destination devices based on the hop limit concept, modifying the Time To Live
(TTL) values.
3. Protocol Analyzer: A Protocol Analyzer is a tool (hardware or software) used to
capture and analyze signals and data traffic over a communication channel.
4. LAN Cable Testers: The most frequent hardware-related cause of network
problems involves bad cabling and connectors. Several specialized, handheld devices
designed for testing the various types of data communication cabling are available.
Testers can be used to check for broken cables, data cabling testers are designed to
perform a number of different types of tests on twisted-pair and coaxial cables.

Fig. Cable Tester

5. Crimper: The wire crimper is the tool which helps to attach the media connectors to
end of the cables. It is possible to use any 1 types of wire crimper to attach with the
RJ-45 connectors on UTP- unshielded twisted pair cable at the instance

Fig. Crimper

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 6-28 Network Addressing and Management

6.8 Learn about Simple

Microsoft Word Network Management Protocol
(SNMP).
• Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a network protocol that is native
to IP networks and compatible with most network devices.
• SNMP monitoring provides a standardized way for network engineers and admins
to gather information about networking equipment, and helps ensure that a
company’s network is running smoothly.
• Many network monitoring tools rely on SNMP to gain visibility into network
infrastructure, such as routers, switches, and firewalls.
• SNMP was developed in 1988 as a utility to be standardized across all networking
equipment.
• Major network appliance vendors-built SNMP support into their devices so network
engineers had a uniform way to gather information from their devices, independent
of the vendor they purchased their equipment from. Today, few additional protocols
have been as widely adopted as SNMP.

6.9 Explain how SNMP works.

• SNMP monitoring can be used to collect information from your entire fleet of
network devices.
• SNMP relies on a client-server application model, where a software server
component (the SNMP Manager) collects information by querying a software client
component (the SNMP Agent), which runs on a network device.
• You can also configure the SNMP Agent to send information to the manager without
being queried. The SNMP Agent comes pre-installed on most network devices. To
start collecting device information, you would enable SNMP on the device, and
configure an SNMP Manager to begin communicating with the device.
• In order to effectively monitor network activity, SNMP relies on an architecture
consisting of the following:
1. Managed Devices: From printers and workstations to resources like routers and
switches, there are many devices within an organization’s network that have to
be managed and monitored. Managed devices can be configured with SNMP
nodes that allow them to interface with other network components.
2. Agent: Overall SNMP management relies on a system of local device information
being collected and transmitted. This happens via agents, programs that are tied
to local devices with the purpose of collecting, storing, and signaling the
presence of data from these environments.

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Network Addressing and Management 6-29
3. Network Management Station: This is the base that is shared between agents and
SNMP managers, and it provides the memory and processing functionality to
fuel network management.
• Together, these components gather information to bring back to the network
requester.

6.10 Know about Remote Monitoring (RMON).

• Remote Monitoring (RMON) is a standard specification that facilitates the
monitoring of network operational activities through the use of remote devices.
• RMON assists network administrators (NA) with efficient network infrastructure
control and management.
• RMON was initially developed to address the issue of remote site and local area
network (LAN) segment management from a centralized location.
• The RMON standard specifies a group of functions and statistics that may be
exchanged between RMON compatible network probes and console managers.
• RMON performs extensive network-fault detection and provides performance-
tuning data to NA.
• RMON collects nine information types, including bytes sent, packets sent, packets
dropped and statistics by host.
• RMON uses certain network devices, such as servers, and contains network
management applications that serve as clients.
• RMON controls the network by using its servers and applications simultaneously.

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Model Question Papers 0-i

BOARD DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS

DCME III SEMESTER, CS 404
Computer Hardware & Networking MID EXAM - I
TIME: 1 HOUR MAX. MARKS: 20

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 0-ii Model Question Papers

BOARD DIPLOMA
Microsoft Word EXAMINATIONS
DCME III SEMESTER, CS 404
Computer Hardware & Networking MID EXAM - II
TIME: 1 HOUR MAX. MARKS: 20

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Model Question Papers 0-iii

BOARD DIPLOMA EXAMINATIONS, (C – 21)

DCME III SEMESTER, CS-404
Computer Hardware & Networking SEMESTER END EXAM (SEE)
TIME: 2 HOURS MAX. MARKS: 40

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 0-iv Model Question Papers

Microsoft Word

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