Design of Mechanical Elements

(DOME)
MENG 375
Instructor Dr. Raguraman Kannan
Rkannan@uob.edu.bh

Screws, Fasteners, and the Design of

Nonpermanent Joints
Chapter Outline
 Reasons for Non-permanent Fasteners

— Field assembly
— Disassembly
— Maintenance
— Adjustment
 Thread Standards and Definitions
— Pitch – distance between
adjacent threads.
Reciprocal of threads per
inch
— Major diameter – largest
diameter of thread
— Minor diameter –
smallest diameter of
thread
— Pitch diameter –
theoretical diameter Fig. 8–1
between major and
minor diameters, where
tooth and gap are same
width
 Standardization
• The American National (Unified) thread standard defines
basic thread geometry for uniformity and interchangeability
• American National (Unified) thread
• UN normal thread
• UNR greater root radius for fatigue applications
• Metric thread
• M series (normal thread)
• MJ series (greater root radius)
Most common Type of threads

The most common threads are:

• ISO Thread (metric)
• Whitworth Thread
• Trapezoidal Thread
• Knuckle Thread
• Buttress Thread
• Pipe Thread
 Standardization
• Coarse series UNC
• General assembly
• Frequent disassembly
• Not good for vibrations
• The “normal” thread to specify
• Fine series UNF
• Good for vibrations
• Good for adjustments
• Automotive and aircraft
• Extra Fine series UNEF
• Good for shock and large vibrations
• High grade alloy
• Instrumentation
• Aircraft
Standardization
Diameters and Areas for Metric Threads
 Diameters and Areas for Unified Screw Threads
Table 8–2
Threaded Fasteners
 Tensile Stress Area

• The tensile stress area, At , is the area of an unthreaded rod

with the same tensile strength as a threaded rod.
• It is the effective area of a threaded rod to be used for stress
calculations.
• The diameter of this unthreaded rod is the average of the
pitch diameter and the minor diameter of the threaded rod.
 Square and Acme Threads

— Square and ACME threads are used when the threads are intended
to transmit power

Fig. 8–3

Table 8-3 Preferred Pitches for ACME Threads

 Mechanics of Power Screws

— Power screw
◦ Used to change angular motion into
linear motion
◦ Usually transmits power
◦ Examples include vises, presses,
jacks, lead screw on lathe

Fig. 8–4
 Mechanics of Power Screws

— Find expression for torque required to

raise or lower a load
— Unroll one turn of a thread
— Treat thread as inclined plane
— Do force analysis

Fig. 8–5

Fig. 8–6
 Mechanics of Power Screws

— For raising the load

— For lowering the load

Fig. 8–6
 Mechanics of Power Screws

— Eliminate N and solve for P to raise and lower the load

— Divide numerator and denominator by cosl and use relation

tanl = l/p dm
 Raising and Lowering Torque

— Noting that the torque is the product of the force and the mean
radius,
 Self-locking Condition

— If the lowering torque is negative, the load will lower itself by

causing the screw to spin without any external effort.
— If the lowering torque is positive, the screw is self-locking.
— Self-locking condition is p f dm > l
— Noting that l / p dm = tan l, the self-locking condition can be
seen to only involve the coefficient of friction and the lead
angle.
 Power Screw Efficiency

— The torque needed to raise the load with no friction losses can
be found from Eq. (8–1) with f = 0.

— The efficiency of the power screw is therefore

 Power Screws with ACME Threads

— If ACME threads are used instead of

square threads, the thread angle creates a
wedging action.
— The friction components are increased.
— The torque necessary to raise a load (or
tighten a screw) is found by dividing the
friction terms in Eq. (8–1) by cosa.

Fig. 8–7
 Collar Friction

— An additional component of
torque is often needed to
account for the friction
between a collar and the load.
— Assuming the load is
concentrated at the mean
collar diameter dc

Fig. 8–7
 Stresses in Body of Power Screws

— Maximum nominal shear stress in torsion of the screw body

— Axial stress in screw body

 Stresses in Threads of Power Screws

— Bearing stress in threads,

where nt is number of
engaged threads
 Stresses in Threads of Power Screws

— Bending stress at root of thread,

Fig. 8–8
 Stresses in Threads of Power Screws

— Transverse shear stress at center of root

of thread,

Fig. 8–8
 Stresses in Threads of Power Screws

— Consider stress element at the top of the root “plane”

— Obtain von Mises stress from Eq. (5–14),

 Thread Deformation in Screw-Nut Combination

— Power screw thread is in compression, causing elastic shortening

of screw thread pitch.
— Engaging nut is in tension, causing elastic lengthening of the nut
thread pitch.
— Consequently, the engaged threads cannot share the load equally.
— Experiments indicate the first thread carries 38% of the load, the
second thread 25%, and the third thread 18%. The seventh
thread is free of load.
— To find the largest stress in the first thread of a screw-nut
combination, use 0.38F in place of F, and set nt = 1.
 Example 8-1

Fig. 8–4
Example 8-1

Fig. 8–3a
Example 8-1
Example 8-1
Example 8-1
Example 8-1
Example 8-1
Example 8-1
Power Screw Safe Bearing Pressure
Power Screw Friction Coefficients
 Head Type of Bolts
— Hexagon head bolt
◦ Usually uses nut
◦ Heavy duty
— Hexagon head cap screw
◦ Thinner head Fig. 8–9
◦ Often used as screw (in
threaded hole, without nut)
— Socket head cap screw
◦ Usually more precision
applications
◦ Access from the top
— Machine screws
◦ Usually smaller sizes
◦ Slot or philips head common
◦ Threaded all the way

Fig. 8–10
Machine Screws

Fig. 8–11
 Hexagon-Head Bolt

— Hexagon-head bolts are one of the most common for engineering

applications
— Standard dimensions are included in Table A–29
— W is usually about 1.5 times nominal diameter
— Bolt length L is measured from below the head
 Threaded Lengths

English

Metric
 Nuts

— See Appendix A–31 for typical specifications

— First three threads of nut carry majority of load
— Localized plastic strain in the first thread is likely, so nuts should
not be re-used in critical applications.

End view Washer-faced, Chamfered both Washer-faced, Chamfered

regular sides, regular jam nut both sides,
jam nut
Fig. 8–12
 Tension Loaded Bolted Joint

— Grip length l includes

everything being compressed
by bolt preload, including
washers
— Washer under head prevents
burrs at the hole from
gouging into the fillet under
the bolt head

Fig. 8–13
 Pressure Vessel Head

— Hex-head cap screw in

tapped hole used to fasten
cylinder head to cylinder
body
— Note O-ring seal, not
affecting the stiffness of the
members within the grip
— Only part of the threaded
length of the bolt contributes
to the effective grip l

Fig. 8–14
 Effective Grip Length for Tapped Holes

— For screw in tapped hole,

effective grip length is
 Bolted Joint Stiffnesses

— During bolt preload

◦ bolt is stretched
◦ members in grip are
compressed
— When external load P is
applied
◦ Bolt stretches further
◦ Members in grip Fig. 8–13
uncompress some
— Joint can be modeled as a
soft bolt spring in parallel
with a stiff member spring
 Bolt Stiffness

— Axially loaded rod,

partly threaded and
partly unthreaded
— Consider each portion as
a spring
— Combine as two springs
in series
Procedure to Find Bolt Stiffness
Procedure to Find Bolt Stiffness
Procedure to Find Bolt Stiffness
 Member Stiffness

— Stress distribution spreads from face of

bolt head and nut
— Model as a cone with top cut off
— Called a frustum
 Member Stiffness

— Model compressed members as if they are frusta spreading

from the bolt head and nut to the midpoint of the grip
— Each frustum has a half-apex angle of a
— Find stiffness for frustum in compression

Fig. 8–15
Member Stiffness
 Member Stiffness

— With typical value of a = 30º,

— Use Eq. (8–20) to find stiffness for each frustum

— Combine all frusta as springs in series

Fig. 8–15b
 Member Stiffness for Common Material in Grip

— If the grip consists of any number of members all of the same

material, two identical frusta can be added in series. The entire
joint can be handled with one equation,

— dw is the washer face diameter

— Using standard washer face diameter of 1.5d, and with a = 30º,
 Finite Element Approach to Member Stiffness

— For the special case of common material within the grip, a finite
element model agrees with the frustum model

Fig. 8–16
 Finite Element Approach to Member Stiffness

— Exponential curve-fit of finite element results can be used for

case of common material within the grip
 Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17
Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17
 Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17b
Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17b
Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17b
Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17b
 Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17b
Example 8-2

Fig. 8–17a
 Bolt Materials

— Grades specify material, heat treatment, strengths

◦ Table 8–9 for SAE grades
◦ Table 8–10 for ASTM designations
◦ Table 8–11 for metric property class
— Grades should be marked on head of bolt
 Bolt Materials

— Proof load is the maximum load that

a bolt can withstand without
acquiring a permanent set
— Proof strength is the quotient of proof
load and tensile-stress area
◦ Corresponds to proportional limit
◦ Slightly lower than yield strength
◦ Typically used for static strength of
bolt
— Good bolt materials have stress-strain
curve that continues to rise to fracture

Fig. 8–18
 SAE Specifications for Steel Bolts
Table 8–9
 ASTM Specification for Steel Bolts
Table 8–10
Metric Mechanical-Property Classes for Steel Bolts

Table 8–11
 Bolt Specification

Threads per inch Material grade

Thread series

¼-20 x ¾ in UNC-2 Grade 5 Hex head bolt

Nominal diameter length Class fit Head type

Metric Pitch

M12 x 1.75 ISO 4.8 Hex head bolt

Nominal diameter
Material class
Tension Loaded Bolted Joints
 Tension Loaded Bolted Joints

— During bolt preload

◦ bolt is stretched
◦ members in grip are compressed
— When external load P is applied
◦ Bolt stretches an additional
amount d
◦ Members in grip uncompress same
amount d Fig. 8–13
 Stiffness Constant
— Since P = Pb + Pm,

— C is defined as the stiffness constant of the joint

— C indicates the proportion of external load P that the bolt will

carry. A good design target is around 0.2.
 Bolt and Member Loads

— The resultant bolt load is

— The resultant load on the members is

— These results are only valid if the load on the members remains
negative, indicating the members stay in compression.
 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
— Best way to measure bolt preload is by relating measured bolt
elongation and calculated stiffness
— Usually, measuring bolt elongation is not practical
— Measuring applied torque is common, using a torque wrench
— Need to find relation between applied torque and bolt preload
 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension
— From the power screw equations, Eqs. (8–5) and (8–6), we get

— Applying tanl = l/pdm,

— Assuming a washer face diameter of 1.5d, the collar diameter is

dc = (d + 1.5d)/2 = 1.25d, giving
 Relating Bolt Torque to Bolt Tension

— Define term in brackets as torque coefficient K

 Typical Values for Torque Coefficient K

— Some recommended values for K for various bolt finishes is

given in Table 8–15
— Use K = 0.2 for other cases
 Distribution of Preload vs Torque

— Measured preloads for 20 tests at same torque have considerable

variation
◦ Mean value of 34.3 kN
◦ Standard deviation of 4.91
Table 8–13
 Distribution of Preload vs Torque

— Same test with lubricated bolts

◦ Mean value of 34.18 kN (unlubricated 34.3 kN)
◦ Standard deviation of 2.88 kN (unlubricated 4.91 kN)
Table 8–14

— Lubrication made little change to average preload vs torque

— Lubrication significantly reduces the standard deviation of
preload vs torque
Example 8-3
Example 8-3
Example 8-3
Tension Loaded Bolted Joints: Static Factors of Safety

Axial Stress:

Yielding Factor of Safety:

Load Factor:

Joint Separation Factor:

Recommended Preload
Example 8-4

Fig. 8–19
Example 8-4
Example 8-4
Example 8-4
Example 8-4
 Gasketed Joints

— For a full gasket compressed between members of a bolted

joint, the gasket pressure p is found by dividing the force in the
member by the gasket area per bolt.

— The force in the member, including a load factor n,

— Thus the gasket pressure is

 Gasketed Joints

— Uniformity of pressure on the gasket is important

— Adjacent bolts should no more than six nominal diameters apart
on the bolt circle
— For wrench clearance, bolts should be at least three diameters
apart
— This gives a rough rule for bolt spacing around a bolt circle of
diameter Db
 Fatigue Loading of Tension Joints

— Fatigue methods of Ch. 6 are directly applicable

— Distribution of typical bolt failures is
◦ 15% under the head
◦ 20% at the end of the thread
◦ 65% in the thread at the nut face
— Fatigue stress-concentration factors for threads and fillet are
given in Table 8–16
 Endurance Strength for Bolts
— Bolts are standardized, so endurance strengths are known by
experimentation, including all modifiers. See Table 8–17.
— Fatigue stress-concentration factor Kf is also included as a
reducer of the endurance strength, so it should not be applied to
the bolt stresses.
— Ch. 6 methods can be used for cut threads.
 Fatigue Stresses
— With an external load on a per bolt basis fluctuating between Pmin
and Pmax,
 Typical Fatigue Load Line for Bolts
— Typical load line starts from constant preload, then increases
with a constant slope

Fig. 8–20
 Typical Fatigue Load Line for Bolts
— Equation of load line:

— Equation of Goodman line:

— Solving (a) and (b) for intersection point,

Fig. 8–20
 Fatigue Factor of Safety

— Fatigue factor of safety based on Goodman line and constant

preload load line,

— Other failure curves can be used, following the same approach.

 Repeated Load Special Case
— Bolted joints often experience repeated load, where external load
fluctuates between 0 and Pmax
— Setting Pmin = 0 in Eqs. (8-35) and (8-36),

— With constant preload load line,

— Load line has slope of unity for repeated load case

 Repeated Load Special Case
— Intersect load line equation with failure curves to get
intersection coordinate Sa
— Divide Sa by sa to get fatigue factor of safety for repeated load
case for each failure curve.
Load line:

Goodman:

Gerber:

ASME-elliptic:
 Repeated Load Special Case
— Fatigue factor of safety equations for repeated loading, constant
preload load line, with various failure curves:
Goodman:

Gerber:

ASME-elliptic:
 Further Reductions for Goodman

— For convenience, sa and si can be substituted into any of the

fatigue factor of safety equations.
— Doing so for the Goodman criteria in Eq. (8–45),

— If there is no preload, C = 1 and Fi = 0, resulting in

— Preload is beneficial for resisting fatigue when nf / nf0 is greater

than unity. This puts an upper bound on the preload,
 Yield Check with Fatigue Stresses

— As always, static yielding must be checked.

— In fatigue loading situations, since sa and sm are already
calculated, it may be convenient to check yielding with

— This is equivalent to the yielding factor of safety from Eq. (8–28).

Example 8-5

Fig. 8–21
Example 8-5
Example 8-5
Example 8-5
Example 8-5

Fig. 8–22
Example 8-5

Fig. 8–22
Example 8-5

Fig. 8–22
Example 8-5
Example 8-5
 Bolted and Riveted Joints Loaded in Shear

— Shear loaded joints are

handled the same for
rivets, bolts, and pins
— Several failure modes are
possible
(a) Joint loaded in shear
(b) Bending of bolt or
members
(c) Shear of bolt
(d) Tensile failure of
members
(e) Bearing stress on bolt
or members
(f) Shear tear-out
(g) Tensile tear-out
Fig. 8–23
 Failure by Bending

— Bending moment is approximately M = Ft / 2, where t is the

grip length, i.e. the total thickness of the connected parts.
— Bending stress is determined by regular mechanics of materials
approach, where I/c is for the weakest member or for the
bolt(s).
 Failure by Shear of Bolt

— Simple direct shear

— Use the total cross sectional area of bolts that are carrying the
load.
— For bolts, determine whether the shear is across the nominal
area or across threaded area. Use area based on nominal
diameter or minor diameter, as appropriate.
 Failure by Tensile Rupture of Member

— Simple tensile failure

— Use the smallest net area of the member, with holes removed
 Failure by Bearing Stress

— Failure by crushing known as bearing stress

— Bolt or member with lowest strength will crush first
— Load distribution on cylindrical surface is non-trivial
— Customary to assume uniform distribution over projected
contact area, A = td
— t is the thickness of the thinnest plate and d is the bolt diameter
 Failure by Shear-out or Tear-out

— Edge shear-out or tear-out is avoided by spacing bolts at least

1.5 diameters away from the edge
 Example 8-6

Fig. 8–24
 Example 8-6

Fig. 8–24
Example 8-6
Example 8-6
 Example 8-6

Fig. 8–25
Example 8-6
 Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
— Eccentric loading is when the load does not pass along a line of
symmetry of the fasteners.
— Requires finding moment about centroid of bolt pattern
— Centroid location

Fig. 8–27a
 Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading

(a) Example of eccentric

loading
(b) Free body diagram
(c) Close up of bolt pattern

Fig. 8–27
 Shear Joints with Eccentric Loading
— Primary Shear

— Secondary Shear, due to moment

load around centroid
Example 8-7

Fig. 8–28
Example 8-7

Fig. 8–28
 Example 8-7

Fig. 8–29
Example 8-7
Example 8-7
Example 8-7
Example 8-7