Module 2: Understanding Diodes

Diode is one of the applications of the pn junction. Its ability to conduct current in one direction
is essential to the operation of many types of circuits.

Diode
A SC device with a single pn junction that conducts current in one direction.
Anode as p region and cathode as n region.
Diode Operation
Diode is a 2-terminal SC device formed by p and n type SC materials separated by pn junction.
Using Voltage makes diodes conduct current in one direction by blocking the other. Biasing is application
of DC-Voltage to diodes to make it conduct or block current.
Forward Bias (FB)
Condition that allows current through the pn junction. By external V where
(-) side is connected to n region of diode and (+) side to p region. Bias Voltage,
V-bias, must be greater than barrier potential.
In Figure 2.2, Dc-Vs is connected across a diode in direction to produce forward bias.
External V is the V-bias. The forward current limiter is the Resistor as R-limit.
Figure 2.3 shows what happens when a diode is forward-biased. Like charges
repel, so (-) side of bias-Vs push away free electrons which are majority carriers in n
region to pn junction. (-) side provides continuous current flow. Vs-Bias provide
enough energy to free electrons to overcome the barrier potential of depletion region
and to move across into p region. Holes in the p region are filled by free electrons that
lose energy crossing the depletion region.
Unlike Charges attract (+ to -, vice verse), (+) side of Vs-Bias attracts valence electrons to the left end of
p region. Valence electrons move from one hole to the other towards the left (Figure 2.3), holes which are
majority carriers in the p region move to right towards pn junction.
Effect of Forward Bias on Depletion Region
In n region during forward bias, more electrons flow to the
depletion region and (-) Cations are reduced. In the p region, more
holes effectively flow to the depletion region and (-) Anions are
reduced. Reduction in Cations and Anions during Forward Bias causes depletion region to narrow (Figure
2.4).
Effect of Barrier Potential during Forward Bias
Applying forward bias, free electrons are provided with enough energy from Vs-Bias to
overcome barrier potential and cross the depletion region. Barrier potential is equal to electrons energy
needed to pass the depletion region. Electrons that overcome depletion region lose energy equal to barrier
potential. Energy loss in Voltage drop across the pn junction is equal to barrier potential, silicon has
V-drop of 0.7V.

Reverse Bias (RB)

Condition that prevents current through diodes. Reverse bias is gained by
putting external voltage (+) side to n region and (-) side to p region. Vs-DC is connected
across a diode in direction to produce reverse bias(Fig 2.5). Vs-Bias is external voltage.
The R-limit is not important because there is no current. Depletion region is wider than forward bias or in
equilibrium.
In Fig. 2.6. Unlike charge attracts, (+) side of Vs-bias pulls the free
electrons (majority carriers in n region) from the pn junction. Additional (+)
cations created as electrons pass toward the (+) of Vs-Bias, resulting in wider
depletion region and depletion of majority carriers.
Reverse Current
Few minority free electrons in the p region are “pushed”
to the pn junction by (-)V-bias. They combine with minority holes
in n region if they reach depletion region as valence electrons and
flow to (+)V-Bias, creating small hole current. (Fig 2.7).
Conduction band in the p region is at a higher energy level than
the conduction band in the n region, so the minority electrons easily pass through the depletion region due
to requiring no additional energy.
 Reverse Breakdown (R-B)
Reverse current is neglected due to its relatively small size. But, if External Reverse-bias Voltage
is increased to a limit called Breakdown Voltage, the reverse current drastically decreases.
Free minority electrons, with energy from high V-reversebias, go to the p region and collide with
atoms with enough energy to know valence electrons out, which become conduction electrons. Newly
created Conduction Electrons have high energy and can repeat the process, resulting in more conduction
electrons. As high energy electrons go to depletion regions, they gain enough energy to pass to n regions
instead of combining with holes. Conduction electron multiplication is the avalanche effect. If current is
not limited, reverse current can increase, resulting in heating that permanently damages the diode. Most
diodes are not reverse breakdown biased, but limited current by adding resistors prevent damage to the
diode.

Voltage-Current(V-I) Characteristic of Diode

Forward bias conducts current through diodes and reverse prevents current as long as the reverse-bias
voltage is not equal or greater than the breakdown voltage.

V-I Characteristic for Forward Bias) FB

In Fig. 2.8, V-I characteristic curve of the FB diode.
Forward Voltage (𝑉𝐹) increases to the right along the x-axis, and
forward current (𝐼𝐹) increases upward along the y-axis. As 𝑉𝐹
reaches approximately 0.7 V across the pn junction at the knee
curve, the forward current (𝐼𝐹) only increases very little. After this
point 𝐼𝐹 increases rapidly while 𝑉𝐹 is nearly constant at 0.7 V. s the
three points A, B, and C. Point A is the zero bias condition. Point B is where the 𝑉𝐹 is less than the barrier
potential of 0.7 V and the 𝐼𝐹 increases very little. Point C is where the 𝑉𝐹 approximately equals the barrier
potential and the 𝐼𝐹 significantly increases.

Dynamic Resistance
In Fig 2.9, the expanded view of the graph of the V-I
characteristic curve of a forward-biased diode illustrates
dynamic resistance. The resistance of the forward-biased diode
is not constant over the entire curve because the resistance
changes along the V-I curve. That resistance is called dynamic
or ac resistance. Internal resistance is designated by lowercase
italic r with a prime. The dynamic resistance of a diode is
designated r’-d .The resistance is greatest below the knee of the
curve because the voltage increases significantly but the current increases very little (r.d = ΔV-F/ΔI-F).
The resistance begins to decrease and becomes smallest above the knee of the curve because there is a
significant increase in current for a given change in voltage. In summary it is just the derivative of the
changes in Voltage and Current in Forward Bias

V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias (RB)

In Fig 2.10, V-I characteristic curve of RB Diode.
Reverse Voltage (𝑉𝑅) increases to the left in x-axis, and Reverse
Current (𝐼𝑅) increases downward along the y-axis. Reverse
Current is very little, about microamp (μA) or nanoamp (nA),
until the 𝑉𝑅 across the diode reaches approximately the
breakdown value (𝑉𝐵𝑅) at the knee of the curve. At 𝑉𝐵𝑅 the 𝑉𝑅
remains at approximately 𝑉𝐵𝑅, but 𝐼𝑅 increases rapidly, which can lead to overheating and damage if
current is not limited. The 𝑉𝐵𝑅 the diode depends on the doping level. It is typically 𝑉𝐵𝑅 greater than 50V
for the rectifier diode. Some special diode has 𝑉𝐵𝑅 of only 5V.
 Complete V-I Characteristic Curve
In Fig 2.11 is the combination of Curves which is the complete V-I Characteristic curve for a
diode

Bias Connections
Forward-Bias Connection

In Fig 2.12, (+) Terminal of source is connected to anode through

a current-limiting resistor, and the (-) Terminal is connected to cathode.
𝐼𝐹 is from cathode to anode. 𝑉𝐹 drop due to the barrier potential from (+)
at the anode to (-) at the cathode.

Reverse-Bias Connection
In Fig 2.13, (-) and (+) terminals of sources are connected in
reverse. (+) to cathode and (-) to anode. Resistor in fig is not necessarily
reversed biased. The 𝐼𝑅 is very small and close to zero. The entire 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
appears across the diode.
Diode Approximations
Ideal Diode Model

It is represented like a simple switch. As shown in Fig 2.14, it is ideally like a closed switch or a
switch that is on when the diode is forward-biased.

As shown in Fig 2.15, it is ideally like an open switch or a switch that is off when
reversed-biased. This model is the least accurate approximation.
In the ideal diode model, the barrier potential, the forward dynamic resistance, and the reverse
current are all neglected.

In Fig 2.16, the ideal V-I characteristics curve graphically depicts the ideal diode operation. The
diode is assumed to have a zero voltage across it as the barrier potential and the forward dynamic
resistance are neglected when forward-biased as indicated by the portion of the curve on the positive
vertical
𝑉𝐹 = 0 𝑉
𝐼𝐹 is determined by the Bias Voltage (𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆) and the limiting resistor using Ohm’s Law.
 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

In Fig 2.16, 𝐼𝐹 is assumed to be zero as it is neglected in ideal diode

𝐼𝑅 = 0 𝐴
𝑉𝑅 is equal to 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
This model is used in troubleshooting or figuring out the operation of a circuit that is not
concerned with exact values of voltage or current.

Practical Diode Model

It includes the barrier potential. As shown in Fig 2.17, it is equivalent to a closed switch in series
with a small equivalent voltage source (𝑉𝐹) equal to barrier Potential (0.7 V) with the positive side toward
the anode when the diode is forward-biased. Equivalent Voltage source represents the barrier potential
that must be exceeded by the bias voltage before the diode wil bias and is not an active source of voltage.
Voltage Drop of 0.7 V appears across the diode when biased.

As shown in Fig 2.18, it is equivalent to an open switch or a switch that is off when
reversed-biased like the ideal diode model. Barrier potential does not affect reverse bias.

In Fig 2.19, the ideal V-I characteristics curve graphically for a practical diode model. The diode
is assumed to have a voltage across it as the barrier potential is included and dynamic resistance is
neglected, when forward-biased as indicated by the portion of the curve to the right of the origin
𝑉𝐹 = 0. 7 𝑉
𝐼𝐹 is determined as follows by 1st applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to Fig 1.17

𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆 − 𝑉𝐹 − 𝑉𝑅 =0
𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

(states that the algebraic sum of all the voltage drops around any closed loop in a circuit is equal
to zero.)
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐹𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇
𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

Substitution and Solving for 𝐼𝐹,

𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
𝐼𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇

The diode is assumed to have zero reverse current, as indicated by the portion of the curve on the
negative horizontal axis.
 𝐼𝑅 = 0 𝐴
𝑉𝑅 = 𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆
This model is used in troubleshooting in lower-voltage circuits and design basic diode circuits.
The 0.7 V drop across the diode is significant and should not taken into account

Complete Diode Model

It included the barrier potential, the small forward dynamic resistance (𝑟𝑑), and the internal
reverse resistance (𝑟𝑅), 𝑟𝑅 is taken into consideration because it gives a path for the 𝐼𝑅, which is included
in this diode model. It has the most accurate approximations.

In Fig 2.20, it is equivalent to a closed switch or switch is on that in series with the equivalent
barrier potential Voltage (𝑉𝐵) and small forward 𝑟𝑑 when the diode is forward-biased.

In Fig 2.21, it is equivalent as an open switch or a switch that is off in parallel with the large
internal reverse resistance when reversed-biased. The barrier potential does not affect reverse bias.

In Fig 2.22 is the characteristic curve of this model. Diode is assumed to have a voltage across it
when forward-biased since the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included. Since
the barrier potential and the forward dynamic resistance are included. This voltage (𝑉𝐹) consists of the
barrier potential voltage plus the small voltage drop across the dynamic resistance, as indicated by the
portion of the curve to the right of the origin. The curve slopes because the voltage drop due to dynamic
resistance increases as the current increases.

For Complete model of silicon diode, the following formulas apply:

𝑉𝐹 = 0. 7 𝑉 + 𝐼𝐹𝑟'𝑑
𝑉𝐵𝐼𝐴𝑆− 0.7 𝑉
𝐸𝑞 2. 3: 𝐼𝐹 = 𝑅𝐿𝐼𝑀𝐼𝑇−𝑟'𝑑

The reverse current is taken into consideration with the parallel resistance and is indicated by the
portion of the curve to the left of the origin.
The complete diode model is unnecessary to use because it involves complicated calculations.
This model is generally suited to design problems using a computer for simulation.

Bias - Imposing voltage to a circuit

Electric Circuits - The interconnection of various Electrical Circuit Elements in a prescribed manner to
form a closed path.