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RESPONDING TO THE ENVIRONMENT (HUMANS)

Introduction

 The nervous system (involving nerves) and endocrine system (involving hormones) are two
components that help us respond to the environment
 Stimulus is a detectable change in the external or internal environment

Human nervous system

The need for a nervous system in humans:

 Reaction to stimuli (stimuli can be external and internal)

 Coordination of the various activities of the body

Nervous system

Central nervous system Peripheral nervous system

- Includes the brain and spinal cord - All the nerves outside the central nervous
system

Autonomic nervous system

Somatic nervous system
-parts of the nervous system that control the internal - All parts of the nervous system that enables
environment the body to react to changes in the external
environment

Parasympathetic Sympathetic
nervous system nervous system

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Central nervous system

 The brain and spinal cord are protected by meninges and the Cerebrospinal fluid
 Meninges are membranes that surround and protect the central nervous system
 Cerebrospinal fluid functions acts a shock absorber and prevents dehydration

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

 Includes all nerves outside the brain and spinal cord (cranial and spinal nerves)
 Transmits impulses from the body to the CNS and from the CNS to the body
 PNS forms the somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
 Somatic nervous system – receives information form sensory organs and the brain
 Autonomic nervous system – controls involuntary actions

Autonomic nervous system

 Consist of the sympathetic and parasympathetic system

 Sympathetic nervous system – prepare the body for the stress or emergency by increasing the
heart rate and breathing rate
 Parasympathetic nervous system – slows down the body by decreasing the heart rate and
breathing rate
 The sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system work antagonistically
(work against each other)
 Each organ will have nerves both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems and this is called
Double innervation

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Structure and functioning of a nerve

 Nervous tissue is made up of nerve cells called Neurons

 All neurons consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon
 Impulses always travel from the dendrites to the cell body then to the axon

 Myelin sheath – surrounds (insulates) the axons of a neuron in order to accelerate the speed of
transmission of an impulse
 Nucleus – controls all the cell’s functions
 Cell body – consists of the cytoplasm with a nucleus

Sensory neuron Interneuron/connector Motor neuron

(Afferent) neuron (Efferent)

Structure

Function - carry impulses from - carry impulses inside CNS - carry impulses from the CNS to
receptors to CNS from sensory neuron to effectors (muscles and glands)
motor neuron
Polarity (Position Unipolar/bipolar Multipolar Multipolar
of cell body) (Dendrites at each pole) (Many dendrites leaving (Many dendrites leaving the cell
the cell body) body)

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Synapse/synaptic gap

-Synapse is a point where an impulse passes

from the end of one neuron to the dendrite of
the next

-Therefore the neurons never touch each

other.

-The synaptic gap insures impulses can only

travel in one direction and it prevents
continuous stimulation of the neurons

The simple reflex arc

 Reflex action – is a rapid, automatic (involuntary) response to a stimulus received by an organ or

other receptor
 Reflex arc – the path taken by an impulse in bringing about a response to a stimulus during a
reflex action

Dorsal root Dorsal root ganglion

Ventral root

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 Sensory neurons enter the Dorsal root of the spinal nerves, while interneurons are situated in
the spinal cord and motor neurons leave the spinal cord through the Ventral root
 Dorsal root ganglion contains cell bodies of sensory neurons
 White matter consist of myelinated axons of numerous neurons and Grey matter consist of cell
body and dendrites of numerous neurons

Describing a reflex action

 Receptors in the skin

 receive the stimulus
 Stimulus is converted into a nerve impulse
 The impulse travels along the sensory neuron towards the spinal cord
 along the dorsal root of the spinal nerve
 In the spinal cord, the sensory neuron makes synaptic contact with the connector/interneuron
 and then the impulses are transmitted along the motor neuron
 along the ventral root of the spinal nerve to the effector organ/muscle
 which contracts and pulls the hand away
 The reflex action provides a quick response to the stimulus so injury is minimised

Examples of reflex action

 Blinking
 Coughing
 Sneezing
 knee-jerk
 Pulling your hand away from a hot object

Significance of a reflex action

 Helps to protect the body by reacting quickly

 The interneuron makes a short cut not going to the brain/uses a reflex pathway that is
immediately available

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Disorders of the CNS

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) Multiple sclerosis

 An irreversible neuro-degenerative disease  Occurs when the body’s own immune system
that damages the mental and intellectual destroys the myelin sheath.
functioning of the brain  A person with multiple sclerosis has problems
 Usually occurs in older people but is not part with sensation, movement and mental abilities
of normal aging process  Symptoms include muscle weakness, speech
 Symptoms include memory loss, diminished difficulties and visual problems
intellectual capacity and loss of judgment

Injury to the central nervous system

 Injuries to the CNS depend on which part of the brain is damaged

 Injuries can be caused by a direct blow to the brain or spinal cord or by stroke which reduces
blood flow to the brain
o Damage to the cerebrum, sensation will be affected and inability to perform voluntary
movements
o Damage to the cerebellum, will affect balance and equilibrium as well as the
coordination of voluntary movements
o Damage to the medulla oblongata, leads to difficulties in breathing paralysis and death
o Damage to the spinal cord, will affect transmission of impulses from the brain to and
from different parts of the brain
 Drugs also can damage the central nervous system
 Alcohol slows down the transmission of impulses and weakens co-ordination

Receptors

 Receptors are specialized cells that detect a variety of different stimuli and convert them into
nerve impulse
 Sense organs are a concentration of receptors with the same function
 Stimuli detected by receptors;
o Light
o Sound
o Temperature
o Pressure
o Pain
o Chemicals (taste and smell)

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Human eye
 The receptors that detect light stimuli are known as photoreceptors and are concentrated in the
eye
 The front of the eye is covered by a thin membrane called the Conjunctiva
 The conjunctiva also has pain receptors that are stimulated by dust and foreign particles
resulting the blink reflex
 Each eye also has six muscles that make it possible for the eye to move in all directions
 Humans have binocular vision (stereoscopic vision) in which we use two eyes to see and each
eye produces a slightly different image of the same object and allows us to judge distance,
depth and size of an object.

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How light travels in the eye

 Light enters the eye through the cornea which refracts the light
 Light then passes through the aqueous humour and the pupil
 The size of the pupil is adjusted by the iris to regulate the amount of light that enters the eye
 The light then passes through the lens which also refracts the light
 Light then passes through the vitreous humour and reaches the retina
 The retina has the photoreceptors which convert the light stimulus into a nerve impulse
 Nerve impulse travels using the optic nerve to the cerebrum

Pupillary mechanism

 The pupillary mechanism (or pupil reflex) regulates the amount of light entering the eye by
adjusting the size of the pupil.

Bright light Dim light

Radial muscles of the iris relax Radial muscles of the iris contract
Circular muscles of the iris contract Circular muscles of the iris relax
Pupil constricts (gets smaller) Pupil widens (gets bigger)
Less light enters the eye More light enters the eye

+ - + - Less light enters

BRIGHT LIGHT Pupil diameter Circular muscles Radial muscles
decreases contracts Relaxes the eye
(constricts)

-
- + - + More light
Pupil diameter Circular muscles Radial muscles
DIM LIGHT increases (dilates) relaxes Contracts enters the eye

+
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Accommodation

 Accommodation is the adjustment of the shape of the lens to see objects clearly whether they
are far away or close by.

Distant vision (objects further than 6m) Near vision (objects closer than 6m)
Ciliary muscles relax Ciliary muscles contract
Suspensory ligaments tighten (become taut) Suspensory ligaments slacken
Tension on lens increases Tension on the lens decreases
Lens is less convex (flatter) Lens becomes more convex
Light rays are refracted (bent) less Light rays are refracted (bent) more
Light rays are focused onto the retina Light rays are focused onto the retina

- + - + - + A clear image is
NEAR More Suspensory Ciliary Tension in Lens formed on the
(towards) convex ligaments muscles the lens bends retina
slacken contract decreases more light

+ A clear image is
- + - + - formed on the
FAR More Suspensory Ciliary Tension in Lens retina
(away) convex ligaments muscles the lens bends less
tighten relax increases light

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Structural suitability of a lens

 Lens is elastic therefore can change shape to allow for accommodation

 Lens is transparent to allow light rays to pass through
 Lens is biconvex to refract light rays

The nature and treatment of visual defects

Short sightedness/Myopia Long sightedness/Hyperopia

Description Can see near objects clearly Can see objects that are far away
Nature of  Inability of lens to become more flat  Inability of lens to become more convex
defect  Eyeball is longer than normal  Eyeball is shorter than normal
 Lens bends light too much  Lens does not bend light rays enough
 Light falls in front of the retina  Light falls behind the retina
Corrective Glasses with concave lens Glasses with a convex lens
measure
Diagram

 Astigmatism - when the curvature of the lens or cornea is uneven resulting in distorted images.
Corrected with glasses shaped to correct distortion
 Cataracts - when the lens becomes cloudy and opaque. Corrected by surgery to replace the lens
with a synthetic lens.

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Human ear
 The ears are sense organs and contain two types of sensory receptors
 One is sensitive to the stimulus of gravity and the other one is sensitive to sound
 The ear consists of three regions: an External air-filled region; a middle air-filled region and an
inner fluid-filled region.

Outer ear

 Consist of the pinna and an auditory

canal
 The auditory canal contains Cerumen
(wax) and hairs that prevent small
organisms from entering the ear

Middle ear

 Consist of the tympanic membrane,

ossicles, oval window and round window
 Ossicles are the Hammer, Anvil and Stirrup
(H.A.S)
 Ossicles amplify sound vibrations
 The hammer is attached to the tympanic
membrane, the anvil lies between the
hammer and stirrup while the stirrup is
attached to the oval window
 The middle ear is connected to the pharynx
(part of the throat) by the Eustachian tube

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Inner ear

 Vibrations causes pressure waves in the liquid of the perilymph in the inner ear
 Pressure waves cause the sensory cells in the Organ of Corti to brush or bend against the
membranes converting the stimulus into an impulse
 Round window prevents pressure accumulating and echoes

Hearing

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Description of hearing

 The sound waves were directed by the pinna through the auditory canal to the tympanic
membrane/eardrum
 the tympanic membrane vibrates
 The vibrations of the tympanic membrane are transferred to the ossicles in the middle ear
 Ossicles amplify the vibrations
 Vibrations of the ossicles cause the oval window to vibrate
 This set up pressure waves in the cochlea
 This stimulated the Organ of Corti in the cochlea to convert this stimulus into a nerve impulse
 The nerve impulse is then transmitted along the auditory nerve and interpreted in the cerebrum
 Excess pressure in the middle ear is eased through the Eustachian tube
 Excess pressure in the inner ear is eased through the Round window

Balance

 A change in the direction and speed of the body causes the movement of fluid in the semicircular
canals which stimulates the cristae
 A change in the position of the head stimulated the maculae in the utriculus and sacculus
 The stimuli were converted into impulses which were transported along the auditory nerve and
interpreted in the cerebellum
 which then sent impulses to the muscles
 to restore balance and equilibrium

Consequences of a blocked Eustachian tube

Air will not be taken in/released to equalise pressure on both sides of the tympanic membrane.
Tympanic membrane/ossicles may not vibrate freely, this may lead to the tympanic membrane bursting
and therefore could lead to hearing loss deafness/pain

Consequences of an infection in the Eustachian tube

Mucus in the middle ear will lead to the blockage of the Eustachian tube which will not be able to
equalise the pressure in the middle ear resulting in pressure on the tympanic membrane that may cause
the tympanic membrane to burst leading to hearing loss.

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Consequences of fused ossicles

Ossicles will not be able to vibrate and transfer vibrations to the oval window and hearing will be
affected

Structural suitability of the tympanic membrane and oval window

Tympanic membrane has a larger surface area than the oval window. Therefore the incoming sound
waves are concentrated on to a smaller area thus amplifying the sound

Hearing defects

Hearing defect Causes Treatment

Middle ear infection Bacterial infection that disturbs the  Inserting a grommet
functioning of the Eustachian tube  Antibiotics
(blocked by fluid)
Deafness  Injury to parts of the ear  Hearing aids
 Injury to parts of the brain  Cochlear implants
responsible for hearing
 Hardened wax
 Fused ossciles

Grommet

-Allows air to enter the middle ear thereby

taking over the function the Eustachian tube

-Allows excess fluid to drain from middle ear

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