Unit-2

2.1 Introduction - Research Design

The most important step after defining the research problem is preparing the design of the
research project, which is popularly known as the ‘research design’. A research design
helps to decide upon issues like what, when, where, how much, by what means etc with
regard to an enquiry or a research study. A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research
purpose with economy in procedure. Infact, research design is the conceptual structure
within which research is conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement
and analysis of data (Selltiz et al, 1962). Thus, research design provides an outline of
what the researcher is going to do in terms of framing the hypothesis, its operational
implications and the final data analysis. Specifically, the research design highlights decisions
which include:
i. The nature of the study
ii. The purpose of the study
iii. The location where the study would be conducted
iv. The nature of data required
v. From where the required data can be collected
vi. What time period the study would cover
vii. The type of sample design that would be used
viii. The techniques of data collection that would be used
ix. The methods of data analysis that would be adopted and
x. The manner in which the report would be prepared
In view of the stated research design decisions, the overall research design may be divided into
the following (Kothari 1988):

a. The sampling design that deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for
the selected study;
b. The observational design that relates to the conditions under which the observations are
to be made;
c. The statistical design that concerns with the question of how many items are to be
observed, and how the information and data gathered are to be analysed; and
d. The operational design that deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified
in the sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out.

2.1.1 Features o f Research Design:

The important features of Research Design may be outlined as follows:

i. It constitutes a plan that identifies the types and sources of information required for the
research problem;
ii. It constitutes a strategy that specifies the methods of data collection and analysis which
would be adopted; and
iii. It also specifies the time period of research and monetary budget involved in conducting
the study, which comprise the two major constraints of undertaking any research
2.1.2Concepts Relating To Research Design:
Some of the important concepts relating to Research Design are discussed below:
Dependent and Independent Variables:
A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different
quantitative values like height, weight, income etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable
in the strictest sense of the term. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be
quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute(s) considered. The phenomena
that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as
‘continuous variables’. But all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be
expressed only in integer values are called ‘non-continuous variables’. In statistical terms,
they are also known as ‘discrete variables’. For example, age is a continuous variable,
whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one
variable depend upon the changes in other variable or variables, it is known as a
dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the
dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory or exogenous variables.
For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while
price is the independent variable. And, if more variables determine demand, like income and
price of the substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to
the price of original commodity. In other words, demand is a dependent variable which is
determined by the independent variables like price of the original commodity, income and
price of substitutes.

2.2. Extraneous Variables:

The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but
affect the dependent variables, are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume
that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a relationship between children’s
school performance and their self-confidence, in which case the latter is an independent
variable and the former, a dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also
influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the
purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous
variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable(s) on the dependent variable is
technically called the ‘experimental error’. Therefore, a research study should always be
framed in such a manner that the influence of extraneous variables on the dependent
variable/s is completely controlled, and the influence of independent variable/s is clearly
evident.

2.2.1 Control:
One of the most important features of a good research design is to minimize the effect of
extraneous variable(s). Technically, the term ‘control’ is used when a researcher designs the
study in such a manner that it minimizes the effects of extraneous variables. The term
‘control’ is used in experimental research to reflect the restrain in experimental conditions.

2.2.2 Confounded Relationship:

The relationship between the dependent and independent variables is said to be confounded
by an extraneous variable, when the dependent variable is not free from its effects.

2.3 Research Hypothesis:

When a prediction or a hypothesized relationship is tested by adopting scientific methods, it
is known as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a predictive statement which
relates to a dependent variable and an independent variable. Generally, a research hypothesis
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must consist of at least one dependent variable and one independent variable. Whereas, the
relationships that are assumed but not to be tested are predictive statements that are not to
be objectively verified, thus are not classified as research hypotheses.

2.3.1 Experimental and Non-experimental Hypothesis Testing Research:

When the objective of a research is to test a research hypothesis, it is known as
hypothesis-testing research. Such research may be in the nature of experimental design or
non-experimental design. The research in which the independent variable is manipulated is
known as ‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’, whereas the research in which the
independent variable is not manipulated is termed as ‘non-experimental hypothesis-testing
research’. For example, assume that a researcher wants to examine whether family income
influences the school attendance of a group of students, by calculating the coefficient of
correlation between the two variables. Such an example is known as a non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research, because the independent variable - family income is not
manipulated here. Again assume that the researcher randomly selects 150 students from a
group of students who pay their school fees regularly and then classifies them into two sub-
groups by randomly including 75 in Group A, whose parents have regular earning, and 75 in
Group B, whose parents do not have regular earning. Assume that at the end of the study,
the researcher conducts a test on each group in order to examine the effects of regular
earnings of the parents on the school attendance of the student. Such a study is an example of
experimental hypothesis-testing research, because in this particular study the independent
variable regular earnings of the parents have been manipulated.

2.3.2 Experimental and Control Groups:

When a group is exposed to usual conditions in an experimental hypothesis-testing research,
it is known as ‘control group’. On the other hand, when the group is exposed to certain new
or special condition, it is known as an ‘experimental group’. In the afore-mentioned
example, Group A can be called as control group and Group B as experimental group. If
both the groups, A and B are exposed to some special feature, then both the groups may
be called as ‘experimental groups’. A research design may include only the experimental
group or both the experimental and control groups together.

2.3.3 Treatments
Treatments refer to the different conditions to which the experimental and control groups
are subject to. In the example considered, the two treatments are the parents with regular
earnings and those with no regular earnings. Likewise, if a research study attempts to
examine through an experiment the comparative effect of three different types of fertilizers
on the yield of rice crop, then the three types of fertilizers would be treated as the three
treatments.

2.3.4 Experiment
Experiment refers to the process of verifying the truth of a statistical hypothesis relating
to a given research problem. For instance, an experiment may be conducted to examine the
yield of a certain new variety of rice crop developed. Further, Experiments may be
categorized into two types, namely, ‘absolute experiment’ and ‘comparative experiment’. If a
researcher wishes to determine the impact of a chemical fertilizer on the yield of a
particular variety of rice crop, then it is known as absolute experiment. Meanwhile, if the
researcher wishes to determine the impact of chemical fertilizer as compared to the impact
of bio-fertilizer, then the experiment is known as a comparative experiment.

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2.3.5 Experimental Unit(s)
Experimental units refer to the pre-determined plots, characteristics or the blocks, to which
different treatments are applied. It is worth mentioning here that such experimental units
must be selected with great caution.

2.4 Types o f Research Design

There are different types of research designs. They may be broadly categorized as:
(1) Exploratory Research Design;
(2) Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design; and
(3) Hypothesis-Testing Research Design.

2.4.1 Exploratory Research Design

The Exploratory Research Design is known as formulative research design. The main
objective of using such a research design is to formulate a research problem for an in-depth
or more precise investigation, or for developing a working hypothesis from an operational
aspect. The major purpose of such studies is the discovery of ideas and insights. Therefore,
such a research design suitable for such a study should be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different dimensions of the problem under study. The in-built
flexibility in research design is required as the initial research problem would be
transformed into a more precise one in the exploratory study, which in turn may
necessitate changes in the research procedure for collecting relevant data. Usually, the
following three methods are considered in the context of a research design for such studies.
They are (a) a survey of related literature; (b) experience survey; and (c) analysis of ‘insight-
stimulating’ instances.

2.4.2 Descriptive and Diagnostic Research Design:

A Descriptive Research Design is concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual or a group. Meanwhile, a diagnostic research design determines the
frequency with which a variable occurs or its relationship with another variable. In other
words, the study analyzing whether a certain variable is associated with another
comprises a diagnostic research study. On the other hand, a study that is concerned with
specific predictions or with the narration of facts and characteristics related to an individual,
group or situation, are instances of descriptive research studies. Generally, most of the
social research design falls under this category. As a research design, both the descriptive
and diagnostic studies share common requirements, hence they are grouped together.
However, the procedure to be used and the research design need to be planned carefully.
The research design must also make appropriate provision for protection against bias and
thus maximize reliability, with due regard to the completion of the research study in an
economical manner. The research design in such studies should be rigid and not flexible.
Besides, it must also focus attention on the following:

(1) Formulation of the objectives of the study,

(2) Proper designing of the methods of data collection,
(3) Sample selection,
(4) Data collection,
(5) Processing and analysis of the collected data, and
(6) Reporting the findings

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2.5 Hypothesis-Testing Research Design
Hypothesis-Testing Research Designs are those in which the researcher tests the hypothesis
of causal relationship between two or more variables. These studies require procedures that
would not only decrease bias and enhance reliability, but also facilitate deriving
inferences about the causality. Generally, experiments satisfy such requirements. Hence,
when research design is discussed in such studies, it often refers to the design of experiments.

2.6 Importance o f Research Design

The need for a research design arises out of the fact that it facilitates the smooth conduct of
the various stages of research. It contributes to making research as efficient as possible, thus
yielding the maximum information with minimum effort, time and expenditure. A
research design helps to plan in advance, the methods to be employed for collecting the
relevant data and the techniques to be adopted for their analysis. This would help in pursuing
the objectives of the research in the best possible manner, provided the available staff, time
and money are given. Hence, the research design should be prepared with utmost care,
so as to avoid any error that may disturb the entire project. Thus, research design plays a
crucial role in attaining the reliability of the results obtained, which forms the strong
foundation of the entire process of the research work.

Despite its significance, the purpose of a well-planned design is not realized at times.
This is because it is not given the importance that it deserves. As a consequence, many
researchers are not able to achieve the purpose for which the research designs are formulated,
due to which they end up arriving at misleading conclusions. Therefore, faulty designing of
the research project tends to render the research exercise meaningless. This makes it
imperative that an efficient and suitable research design must be planned before
commencing the process of research. The research design helps the researcher to organize
his/her ideas in a proper form, which in turn facilitates him/her to identify the inadequacies
and faults in them. The research design is also discussed with other experts for their
comments and critical evaluation, without which it would be difficult for any critic to
provide a comprehensive review and comments on the proposed study.

2.7 Characteristics o f a Good Research Design

A good research design often possesses the qualities of being flexible, suitable, efficient,
economical and so on. Generally, a research design which minimizes bias and maximizes the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good design (Kothari 1988). A
research design which does not allow even the smallest experimental error is said to be
the best design for investigation. Further, a research design that yields maximum information
and provides an opportunity of viewing the various dimensions of a research problem is
considered to be the most appropriate and efficient design. Thus, the question of a good
design relates to the purpose or objective and nature of the research problem studied. While a
research design may be good, it may not be equally suitable to all studies. In other words, it
may be lacking in one aspect or the other in the case of some other research problems.
Therefore, no single research design can be applied to all types of research problems.

A research design suitable for a specific research problem would usually involve the
following considerations:

(1) The methods of gathering the information;

(2) The skills and availability of the researcher and his/her staff, if any;
(3) The objectives of the research problem being studied;
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 (4) The nature of the research problem being studied; and
(5) The available monetary support and duration of time for the research work.

2.8 Case Study Research:

The method of exploring and analyzing the life or functioning of a social or economic
unit, such as a person, a family, a community, an institution, a firm or an industry is called
case study method. The objective of case study method is to examine the factors that cause
the behavioural patterns of a given unit and its relationship with the environment. The
data for a study are always gathered with the purpose of tracing the natural history of a
social or economic unit, and its relationship with the social or economic factors, besides
the forces involved in its environment. Thus, a researcher conducting a study using the
case study method attempts to understand the complexity of factors that are operative
within a social or economic unit as an integrated totality. Burgess (Kothari, 1988) described
the special significance of the case study in understanding the complex behaviour and
situations in specific detail. In the context of social research, he called such data as social
microscope.

Business research can be classified on the basis of technique (e.g., experiments, surveys, or
observation studies) or purpose. Classifying business research on the basis of its purpose, it
can be broken into three categories:

A. Exploratory studies are conducted to classify the nature of problems. It is not

intended to provide conclusive evidence from which a particular course of action can
be determined. Exploratory research merely crystallizes the problem and identifies
information needed; subsequent research is usually required.

B. Descriptive research is conducted to discover and determine the characteristics of a

population. It seeks to determine the answers to the questions “who,” “what,”
“when,” “where,” and “how.” It does not tell us “why.” Although it is impossible to
completely eliminate error, this type of research should be conducted as accurately as
possible because, unlike exploratory research, the evidence it provides will be used to
determine a course of action.

C. Causal research attempts to identify cause-and-effect relationships between

variables. It usually follows exploratory and descriptive research and, therefore, the
researchers are quite knowledgeable about the subject. Causal research attempts to
establish that when we do one thing (e.g., increase advertising), another will follow
(e.g., increased sales).

Before inferring causality, the researcher should:

1. Establish the appropriate causal order or sequence of events.

2. Measure the concomitant variation (the occurrence of the two phenomena or events
varying together) between the presumed cause and the presumed effect.
3. Recognize the presence or absence of alternative plausible explanations or
causal factors; there may be a “plurality of causes” for the observed effect.

Even after these three criteria have been established, the researcher can never be certain
that the causal explanation is adequate.

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Influences of Uncertainty on the Type of Research
Uncertainty of the research problem influences the type of research to be conducted. The
more certain and defined the problem is, the more the researcher will move from exploratory
to descriptive to causal research.

2.8 Sample Design

A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a given population (Kothari,
1988). Sample constitutes a certain portion of the population or universe. Sampling design
refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher adopts for selecting items for the
sample from the population or universe. A sample design helps to decide the number of
items to be included in the sample, i.e., the size of the sample. The sample design should be
determined prior to data collection. There are different kinds of sample designs which a
researcher can choose. Some of them are relatively more precise and easier to adopt than the
others. A researcher should prepare or select a sample design, which must be reliable and
suitable for the research study proposed to be undertaken.
2.8.1 Steps in Sampling Design:
A researcher should take into consideration the following aspects while developing a sample
design:
1) Type of Universe:
The first step involved in developing sample design is to clearly define the number of cases,
technically known as the universe. A universe may be finite or infinite. In a finite universe
the number of items is certain, whereas in the case of an infinite universe the number of items
is infinite (i.e., there is no idea about the total number of items). For example, while the
population of a city or the number of workers in a factory comprise finite universes, the
number of stars in the sky, or throwing of a dice represent infinite universe.
2) Sampling Unit:
Prior to selecting a sample, decision has to be made about the sampling unit. A sampling unit
may be a geographical area like a state, district, village, etc., or a social unit like a family,
religious community, school, etc., or it may also be an individual. At times, the researcher
would have to choose one or more of such units for his/her study.
3) Source List:
Source list is also known as the ‘sampling frame’, from which the sample is to be selected.
The source list consists of names of all the items of a universe. The researcher has to prepare
a source list when it is not available. The source list must be reliable, comprehensive,
correct, and appropriate. It is important that the source list should be as representative of the
population as possible.
4) Size of Sample:
Size of the sample refers to the number of items to be chosen from the universe to form a
sample. For a researcher, this constitutes a major problem. The size of sample must be
optimum. An optimum sample may be defined as the one that satisfies the requirements of
representativeness, flexibility, efficiency, and reliability. While deciding the size of sample,
a researcher should determine the desired precision and the acceptable confidence level for
the estimate. The size of the population variance should be considered, because in the case of
a larger variance generally a larger sample is required. The size of the population should be
considered, as it also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest in a research study
should also be considered, while deciding the sample size. Besides, costs or budgetary
constraint also plays a crucial role in deciding the sample size.
5) Parameters of Interest:
The specific population parameters of interest should also be considered while determining
the sample design. For example, the researcher may want to make an estimate of the
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proportion of persons with certain characteristic in the population, or may be interested in
knowing some average regarding the population. The population may also consist of
important sub-groups about whom the researcher would like to make estimates. All such
factors have strong impact on the sample design the researcher selects.
6) Budgetary Constraint:
From the practical point of view, cost considerations exercise a major influence on the
decisions related to not only the sample size, but also on the type of sample selected. Thus,
budgetary constraint could also lead to the adoption of a non-probability sample design.
7) Sampling Procedure:
Finally, the researcher should decide the type of sample or the technique to be adopted for
selecting the items for a sample. This technique or procedure itself may represent the sample
design. There are different sample designs from which a researcher should select one for
his/her study. It is clear that the researcher should select that design which, for a given
sample size and budget constraint, involves a smaller error.

2.9 Criteria for Selecting a Sampling Procedure:

Basically, two costs are involved in a sampling analysis, which govern the selection of a
sampling procedure. They are:
1) The cost of data collection, and
2) The cost of drawing incorrect inference from the selected data.
There are two causes of incorrect inferences, namely systematic bias and sampling error.
Systematic bias arises out of errors in the sampling procedure. They cannot be reduced or
eliminated by increasing the sample size. Utmost, the causes of these errors can be identified
and corrected. Generally, a systematic bias arises out of one or more of the following factors:
a. Inappropriate sampling frame, b. Defective measuring device, c. Non-respondents,
d. Indeterminacy principle, and e. Natural bias in the reporting of data.
Sampling error refers to the random variations in the sample estimates around the true
population parameters. Because they occur randomly and likely to be equally in either
direction, they are of compensatory type, the expected value of which errors tend to be equal
to zero. Sampling error tends to decrease with the increase in the size of the sample. It also
becomes smaller in magnitude when the population is homogenous.
Sampling error can be computed for a given sample size and design. The measurement of
sampling error is known as ‘precision of the sampling plan’. When the sample size is
increased, the precision can be improved. However, increasing the sample size has its own
limitations. The large sized sample not only increases the cost of data collection, but also
increases the systematic bias. Thus, an effective way of increasing the precision is generally
to choose a better sampling design, which has smaller sampling error for a given sample size
at a specified cost. In practice, however, researchers generally prefer a less precise design
owing to the ease in adopting the same, in addition to the fact that systematic bias can be
controlled better way in such designs.
In sum, while selecting the sample, a researcher should ensure that the procedure adopted
involves a relatively smaller sampling error and helps to control systematic bias.

2.10 Characteristics of a Good Sample Design:

The following are the characteristic features of a good sample design:
a. The sample design should yield a truly representative sample; b. The sample design should
be such that it results in small sampling error; c. The sample design should be viable in the
context of budgetary constraints of the research study; d. The sample design should be such
that the systematic bias can be controlled; and e. The sample must be such that the results of

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the sample study would be applicable, in general, to the universe at a reasonable level of
confidence.

2.11 Different Types of Sample Designs:

Sample designs may be classified into different categories based on two factors, namely, the
representation basis and the element selection technique. Under the representation basis, the
sample may be classified as:
1. Probability (or random) sampling
2. Non-probability (non-random) sampling
Probability sampling is based on random selection while the non-probability sampling is
based on ‘non-random’ selection of samples.
1. Probability Sampling:
Probability sampling is also known as ‘random sampling’. Under this sampling design,
every item of the universe has an equal chance of being included in the sample. In a way, it is
a lottery method under which individual units are selected from the whole group, not
deliberately, but by using some mechanical process. Therefore only a chance would
determine whether an item or the other would be included in the sample or not. The results
obtained from probability or random sampling would be assured in terms of probability. That
is, the researcher can measure the errors of estimation or the significance of results obtained
from the random sample. This is the superiority of random sampling design over the
deliberate sampling design. Random sampling satisfies the law of statistical regularity,
according to which if on an average the sample chosen is random, then it would have the
same composition and characteristics of the universe. This is the reason why the random
sampling method is considered the best technique of choosing a representative sample.
The following are the implications of the random sampling:
(i) It provides each element in the population an equal probable chance of being chosen in
the sample, with all choices being independent of one another and
(ii) It offers each possible sample combination an equal probable opportunity of being
selected.
Method of Selecting a Random Sample:
The process of selecting a random sample involves writing the name of each element of a
finite population on a slip of paper and putting them into a box or a bag. Then they have to
be thoroughly mixed and then the required number of slips for the sample can be picked one
after the other without replacement. While doing this, it has to be ensured that in successive
drawings each of the remaining elements of the population has an equal chance of being
chosen. This method results in the same probability for each possible sample.
Complex Random Sampling Designs
Under restricted sampling technique, the probability sampling may result in complex random
sampling designs. Such designs are known as mixed sampling designs. Many of such
designs may represent a combination of non-probability and probability sampling procedures
in choosing a sample. Some of the prominent complex random sampling designs are as
follows:
(i) Simple random sampling
This is the easiest method of sampling. In this technique every item get an opportunity of
being selected. This technique is applied through taking lots or Random Number Tables.

(ii) Systematic Sampling

In some cases, the best way of sampling is to select every first item on a list. Sampling of
this kind is called as systematic sampling. An element of randomness is introduced in this
type of sampling by using random numbers to select the unit with which to start. For
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example, if a 10 per cent sample is required out of 100 items, the first item would be selected
randomly from the first low of item and thereafter every 10th item. In this kind of sampling,
only the first unit is selected randomly, while rest of the units of the sample is chosen at fixed
intervals.

(iii) Stratified Sampling

When a population from which a sample is to be selected does not comprise a homogeneous
group, stratified sampling technique is generally employed for obtaining a representative
sample. Under stratified sampling, the population is divided into many sub-populations in
such a manner that they are individually more homogeneous than the rest of the total
population. Then, items are selected from each stratum to form a sample. As each stratum is
more homogeneous than the remaining total population, the researcher is able to obtain a
more precise estimate for each stratum and by estimating each of the component parts more
accurately; he/she is able to obtain a better estimate of the whole. In sum, stratified sampling
method yields more reliable and detailed information.

(iv) Cluster Sampling

When the total area of research interest is large, a convenient way in which a sample can be
selected is to divide the area into a number of smaller non-overlapping areas and then
randomly selecting a number of such smaller areas. In the process, the ultimate sample
would consist of all the units in these small areas or clusters. Thus in cluster sampling, the
total population is sub-divided into numerous relatively smaller subdivisions, which in
themselves constitute clusters of still smaller units. And then, some of such clusters are
randomly chosen for inclusion in the overall sample.

(v) Area Sampling

When clusters are in the form of some geographic subdivisions, then cluster sampling is
termed as area sampling. That is, when the primary sampling unit represents a cluster of
units based on geographic area, the cluster designs are distinguished as area sampling. The
merits and demerits of cluster sampling are equally applicable to area sampling.

(vi) Multi-Stage Sampling

A further development of the principle of cluster sampling is multi-stage sampling. When
the researcher desires to investigate the working efficiency of nationalized banks in India and
a sample of few 40 banks is required for this purpose, the first stage would be to select large
primary sampling unit like the states in the country. Next, certain districts may be selected
and all banks interviewed in the chosen districts. This represents a two-stage sampling
design, with the ultimate sampling units being clusters of districts.
On the other hand, if instead of taking census of all banks within the selected districts, the
researcher chooses certain towns and interviews all banks in it, this would represent three-
stage sampling design. Again, if instead of taking a census of all banks within the selected
towns, the researcher randomly selects sample banks from each selected town, then it
represents a case of using a four-stage sampling plan. Thus, if the researcher selects
randomly at all stages, then it is called as multi-stage random sampling design.

(vii) Sampling with Probability Proportional to Size

When the case of cluster sampling units does not have exactly or approximately the same
number of elements, it is better for the researcher to adopt a random selection process, where
the probability of inclusion of each cluster in the sample tends to be proportional to the size
of the cluster. For this, the number of elements in each cluster has to be listed, irrespective of
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the method used for ordering it. Then the researcher should systematically pick the required
number of elements from the cumulative totals. The actual numbers thus chosen would not
however reflect the individual elements, but would indicate as to which cluster and how
many from them are to be chosen by using simple random sampling or systematic sampling.
The outcome of such sampling is equivalent to that of simple random sample. The method is
also less cumbersome and is also relatively less expensive.

2. Non-Probability Sampling
Non-probability sampling is the sampling procedure that does not afford any basis for
estimating the probability that each item in the population would have an equal chance of
being included in the sample. Non-probability sampling is also known as deliberate
sampling, judgment sampling and purposive sampling. Under this type of sampling, the
items for the sample are deliberately chosen by the researcher; and his/her choice concerning
the choice of items remains supreme. In other words, under non-probability sampling the
researchers select a particular unit of the universe for forming a sample on the basis that the
small number that is thus selected out of a huge one would be typical or representative of the
whole population. For example, to study the economic conditions of people living in a state,
a few towns or village may be purposively selected for an intensive study based on the
principle that they are representative of the entire state. In such a case, the judgment of the
researcher of the study assumes prime importance in this sampling design.

(1) Judgement Sampling

It is used when a specific number of respondents are in the best position to provide the
desired information. The results of this method cannot be generalized because responses from
a set of respondents who are conveniently available are considered. This method is useful
only in those cases where desired information can only be obtained from a very specific
section of respondents. However, the validity of the sample results depends on the judgment
of the investigator in choosing the sample.

(2) Convenience Sampling

In this sampling units to be included in the sample are selected at the convenience of the
investigator. This method is easy for collecting data on a particular issue but samples may not
truly represent the population and hence precautions should be taken in drawing inferences
about a population characteristic based on convenient samples.

(3) Quota Sampling

Quota sampling is also an example of non-probability sampling. Under this sampling, the
researchers simply assume quotas to be filled from different strata, with certain restrictions
imposed on how they should be selected. This type of sampling is very convenient and is
relatively less expensive. However, the samples selected using this method certainly do not
satisfy the characteristics of random samples. They are essentially judgment samples and
inferences drawn based on that, would not be amenable to statistical treatment in a formal
way.

(4) Snowball sampling

This is a type of convenient sampling technique, where initially a few items are selected as
samples, and as the study proceeds, required sample numbers are added according to
convenience.
***

11