RESEARCH DESIGN

 A research design is the arrangement of

conditions for collection and analysis of
data in a manner that aims to combine
relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.

 Research design is the conceptual structure

within which the research is conducted;
constitutes for the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
 Once research project is identified and
defined clearly, the next stage is to
design the research.

Essence of research design:

 Selection of research approach

 Design of sampling plan
 Design of experiment
 Design of questionnaire
 1.Selection of Research Approach

• Research approach - 2 types:

exploratory & conclusive research
for survey based researches.

• Based on requirements of study,

the researcher should decide about
the type of study to be conducted.
•The modeling research should be used to
find the best result through a model which
consists of an objective function and a set
of constraints.

•The algorithmic research should be used

to find the optimal or near optimal
solution using either exact algorithm or
heuristic, respectively.
 2. Design of Experiment

•A study involves different response variables,

each may be affected by many factors.

•To test the effect of these factors, a suitable

experiment to be designed such that the
necessary data for testing the significance of
the effects of the factors on the response
variable are collected & the inferences of the
test are highly reliable.
•Two main steps of designing the
experiment

a)Identify the response variable of the study

b)For each response variable repeat the

following steps:

 Identify the factors affecting the response

variable.
Decide on the type of each of the factors (a
factor may be either fixed factor or random
factor)

Fix the no. of levels (treatments) of each

factor.

Form the skeleton of the experiment

Write the model of the experiment &

define its components.
 3. Design of Sampling Plan

• Sampling plan mechanism by which the

sampling units of study are selected from the
sampling frame of the population.

• In turn affects cost & time to conduct the

study, & reliability of inferences of the
study.
•Should be selected with utmost care.
•Sampling plan – probability sampling plans &
non-probability sampling plans.

• probability sampling plans : simple random

sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random
sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling
etc.

•Non-probability sampling plans: convenience

sampling, judgment sampling, quota sampling,
snowball sampling etc.
 4. Design of Questionnaire

Data – primary or secondary data

The data which is collected for the first

time by direct observation – primary data.

The data which is obtained from existing

records, publications etc. – secondary data
Different methods of primary data
collection – personal interview, telephone
interview, and mail survey.

The success of survey methods depends on

the strength of questionnaire used.

Questionnaire – set of well-formulated

questions to probe & obtain responses from
the respondents.
Generalized steps of designing questionnaire:

i. Identification of research issues &

finalization of the set of hypotheses.
ii. For each issue, formulation of a set of
questions & then deciding about the contents
& format of each question.
iii. Arrangement of questions in questionnaire in
appropriate sequence.
iv. Pre-testing questionnaire
v. Review of questions for improvements.
Research Design :

a. sampling design which deals with the

method of selecting items to be observed
for the given study.

a. observational design which relates to the

conditions under which the observations
are to be made.
c) statistical design which concerns with
the question of how many items are to
be observed and how the information
and data gathered are to be analyzed.

d) operational design which deals with

the techniques by which the procedures
specified in the sampling, statistical
and observational designs can be
carried out.
 NEED FOR RESEARCH DESIGN

facilitates the smooth sailing of the various

research operations, thereby making research
as efficient as possible yielding maximal
information with minimal expenditure of
effort, time and money.
stands for advance planning of the methods
to be adopted for collecting the relevant data
and the techniques to be used in their analysis.
 FEATURES OF A GOOD DESIGN

A good design is often characterized by

adjectives like flexible, appropriate, efficient,
economical and so on.

The design which minimizes bias and

maximizes the reliability of the data collected
and analyzed is considered a good design.
The design which gives the smallest
experimental error is supposed to be the best
design in many investigations.

Similarly, a design which yields maximal

information and provides an opportunity for
considering many different aspects of a
problem is considered most appropriate and
efficient design in respect of many research
problems
 Thus, the question of good design is related
to the purpose or objective of the research
problem and also with the nature of the
problem to be studied.
A design may be quite suitable in one case,
but may be found wanting in one respect or
the other in the context of some other research
problem.
One single design cannot serve the purpose
of all types of research problems.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
RELATING TO RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Dependent and independent

variables: A concept which can take on
different quantitative
values is called a variable. As such the
concepts like weight, height, income are
all examples of variables.
Phenomena which can take on quantitatively
different values even in decimal points are
called ‘continuous variables’.

If they can only be expressed in integer

values, they are non-continuous variables or
in statistical language ‘discrete variables’.
Age is an example of continuous variable, but
the number of children is an example of non-
continuous variable.
If one variable depends upon or is a
consequence of the other variable, it is
termed as a dependent variable, and the
variable that is antecedent to the
dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable.

•if we say that height depends upon age,

then height is a dependent variable and
age is an independent variable.
2. Extraneous variable: Independent
variables that are not related to the purpose
of the study, but may affect the dependent
variable are termed as extraneous variables.

Suppose the researcher wants to test the

hypothesis that there is a relationship
between children’s gains in social studies
achievement and their self-concepts.
In this case self-concept is an independent
variable and social studies achievement is a
dependent variable. Intelligence may as well
affect the social studies achievement, but
since it is not related to the purpose of the
study undertaken by the researcher, it will be
termed as an extraneous variable.
•Whatever effect is noticed on dependent
variable as a result of extraneous variable(s)
is technically described as an ‘experimental
error’.

•A study must always be so designed that

the effect upon the dependent variable is
attributed entirely to the independent
variable(s), and not to some extraneous
variable or variables.
3. Control: One important characteristic of
a good research design is to minimize the
influence or effect of extraneous variable(s).
The technical term ‘control’ is used when
we design the study minimizing the effects
of extraneous independent variables.

•In experimental researches, the term

‘control’ is used to refer to restrain
experimental conditions.
4. Confounded relationship: When the
dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the
relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be
confounded by an extraneous variable(s).
5. Research hypothesis: When a prediction
or a hypothesized relationship is to be tested
by scientific methods, it is termed as
research hypothesis.

•The research hypothesis is a predictive

statement that relates an independent
variable to a dependent variable.
•Usually a research hypothesis must
contain, at least, one independent and one
dependent variable.

•Predictive statements which are not to be

objectively verified or the relationships that
are assumed but not to be tested, are not
termed research hypotheses.
6. Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research: When the
purpose of research is to test a research
hypothesis, it is termed as hypothesis-testing
research. It can be of the experimental design
or of the non-experimental design.

•Research in which the independent variable is

manipulated is termed ‘experimental
hypothesis-testing research’ & a research in
which an independent variable is not
manipulated is called ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research

7. Experimental and control groups: In an

experimental hypothesis-testing research when
a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is
termed a ‘control group’, but when the group
is exposed to some novel or special condition,
it is termed an ‘experimental group’.
8. Treatments: The different conditions
under which experimental and control
groups are put are usually referred to as
‘treatments’.

9.Experiment: The process of examining

the truth of a statistical hypothesis, relating
to some
research problem, is known as an
experiment.
•For example, we can conduct an experiment
to examine the usefulness of a certain newly
developed drug.

•Experiments can be of two types, absolute

experiment and comparative experiment.

• If we want to determine the impact of a

fertilizer on the yield of a crop, it is a case of
absolute experiment; but if we want to
determine the impact of one fertilizer as
compared to the impact of some other
fertilizer, our experiment then will be termed
as a comparative experiment.

10. Experimental unit(s): The pre-

determined plots or the blocks, where
different treatments are
used, are known as experimental units
 DIFFERENT RESEARCH DESIGNS

(1)Research design in case of exploratory

research studies;

(2) research design in case of descriptive

and diagnostic research studies, and

(3)research design in case of hypothesis-

testing research studies.
1. Research design in case of exploratory
research studies: Exploratory research
studies are also termed as formulative
research studies. The main purpose is
that of formulating a problem for more
precise investigation or of developing the
working hypotheses from an operational
point of view. The major emphasis is on
the discovery of ideas and insights.
The research design appropriate for such
studies must be flexible enough to provide
opportunity for considering different aspects of
a problem under study.

Inbuilt flexibility in research design is needed

because the research problem, broadly defined
initially, is transformed into one with more
precise meaning in exploratory studies, which
fact may necessitate changes in the research
procedure for gathering relevant data
3 methods:

(a)the survey of concerning literature;

(b) the experience survey and

(c) the analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’

examples
a. The survey of concerning literature
happens to be the most simple and fruitful
method of formulating precisely the
research problem or developing hypothesis.

•Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may

be reviewed and their usefulness be
evaluated as a basis for further research.
In this way the researcher should review and
build upon the work already done by others,
but in cases where hypotheses have not yet
been formulated, his task is to review the
available material for deriving the relevant
hypotheses from it.

b. Experience survey means the survey of

people who have had practical experience
with the problem to be studied.
•The object of such a survey is to obtain
insight into the relationships between
variables and new ideas relating to the
research problem.

• For such a survey people who are

competent and can contribute new ideas may
be carefully selected as respondents to ensure
a representation of different types of
experience (- interview)
c. Analysis of ‘insight-stimulating’ examples
is also a fruitful method for suggesting
hypotheses for research. It is particularly
suitable in areas where there is little
experience to serve as a guide.

•This method consists of the intensive study

of selected instances of the phenomenon in
which one is interested.
•For this purpose the existing records, if any,
may be examined, the unstructured
interviewing may take place, or some other
approach may be adopted.

•Attitude of the investigator, the intensity of

the study and the ability of the researcher to
draw together diverse information into a
unified interpretation are the main features
which make this method an appropriate
procedure for evoking insights.
2. Research design in case of descriptive
and diagnostic research studies: Descriptive
research studies are those studies which are
concerned with describing the characteristics
of a particular individual, or of a group,
whereas diagnostic research studies determine
the frequency with which something occurs or
its association with something else.
•The studies concerning whether certain
variables are associated are examples of
diagnostic research studies.

•The research design must make enough

provision for protection against bias and must
maximize reliability, with due concern for the
economical completion of the research study.

•The design in such studies must be rigid & not

flexible & must focus attention on the
following:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the
study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what
techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will
be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data
be found and with what time period should
the data be related?)
(e) Processing and analyzing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
•In a descriptive/diagnostic study the first step
is to specify the objectives with sufficient
precision to ensure that the data collected are
relevant.
•If this is not done carefully, the study may not
provide the desired information.

Then comes the question of selecting the

methods by which the data are to be obtained
(methods: observation, questionnaires,
interviewing, examination of records, etc.).
•In most of the descriptive/diagnostic
studies the researcher takes out sample(s)
and then wishes to make statements about
the population on the basis of the sample
analysis or analyses.

•Sampling designs are also used - samples

may yield accurate information with a
minimum amount of research effort
•To obtain data free from errors introduced by
those responsible for collecting them, it is
necessary to supervise closely the staff of field
workers as they collect and record information.

•As data are collected, they should be

examined for completeness, comprehensibility,
consistency and reliability.”
•The data collected must be processed and
analysed. This includes steps like coding the
interview replies, observations, etc.; tabulating
the data; and performing several statistical
computations.

•Reporting the findings - task of

communicating the findings to others and the
researcher must do it in an efficient manner.
•Thus, the research design in case of
descriptive/diagnostic studies is a
comparative design throwing light on all
points narrated above and must be prepared
keeping in view the objective(s) of the study
and the resources available.

• it must ensure the minimization of bias and

maximization of reliability of the evidence
collected.
3. Research design in case of hypothesis-
testing research studies: Hypothesis-testing
research studies (generally known as
experimental studies) are those where the
researcher tests the hypotheses of causal
relationships between variables.

•Such studies require procedures that will

not only reduce bias and increase reliability,
but will permit drawing inferences about
causality.
 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
R. A. Fisher, a British statistician and
professor, has enumerated three principles
of experimental designs:

(1)the Principle of Replication;

(2)the Principle of Randomization; and
(3)the Principle of Local Control.
 Principle of Replication - the experiment
should be repeated more than once. Thus,
each treatment is applied in many
experimental units instead of one. By doing
so the statistical accuracy of the experiments
is increased.
 The Principle of Randomization provides
protection, when we conduct an experiment,
against the effect of extraneous factors by
randomization.

•In other words, this principle indicates that

we should design or plan the experiment in
such a way that the variations caused by
extraneous factors can all be combined
under the general heading of “chance.”
•The Principle of Local Control is another
important principle of experimental designs.

•Under it the extraneous factor, the known

source of variability, is made to vary
deliberately over as wide a range as
necessary and this needs to be done in such
a way that the variability it causes can be
measured and hence eliminated from the
experimental error.
•This means that we should plan the
experiment in a manner that we can perform
a two-way analysis of variance, in which the
total variability of the data is divided into
three components attributed to treatments
(varieties of rice in our case), the extraneous
factor (soil fertility in our case) and
experimental error.
•In other words, according to the principle
of local control, we first divide the field into
several homogeneous parts, known as
blocks, and then each such block is divided
into parts equal to the number of treatments.
Then the treatments are randomly assigned
to these parts of a block.
 Important Experimental Designs

•Experimental design refers to the

framework or structure of an experiment
and as such there are several experimental
designs.
•We can classify experimental designs into
two broad categories, informal
experimental designs and formal
experimental designs.
• Informal experimental designs are that
normally use a less sophisticated form of
analysis based on differences in magnitudes,
whereas formal experimental designs offer
relatively more control and use precise
statistical procedures for analysis.
Important experiment designs are as
follows:

(a)Informal experimental designs:

(i) Before-and-after without control design.

(ii) After-only with control design.

(iii) Before-and-after with control design.

(b) Formal experimental designs:

(i) Completely randomized design (C.R.

Design).

(ii) Randomized block design (R.B.

Design).

(iii) Latin square design (L.S. Design).

(iv) Factorial designs.

1.Before-and-after without control design:

• In such a design a single test group or area

is selected and the dependent variable is
measured before the introduction of the
treatment.

• The treatment is then introduced and the

dependent variable is measured again after
the treatment has been introduced. The
effect of the treatment would be equal to
the level of the phenomenon after the
treatment minus the level of the
phenomenon before the treatment.

•The main difficulty of such a design is that

with the passage of time considerable
extraneous variations may be there in its
treatment effect.
2. After-only with control design:
In this design two groups or areas (test area
and control area) are selected and the
treatment is introduced into the test area only.

•The dependent variable is then measured in

both the areas at the same time. Treatment
impact is assessed by subtracting the value of
the dependent variable in the control area
from its value in the test area.
•The basic assumption in such a design is that
the two areas are identical with respect to
their behaviour towards the phenomenon
considered. If this assumption is not true,
there is the possibility of extraneous variation
entering into the treatment effect.

•data can be collected in such a design

without the introduction of problems with the
passage of time. In this respect the design is
superior to before-and-after without control
3. Before-and-after with control design:

• In this design two areas are selected and the

dependent variable is measured in both the
areas for an identical time-period before the
treatment.

• The treatment is then introduced into the

test area only, and the dependent variable is
measured in both for an identical time-period
after the introduction of the treatment.
•The treatment effect is determined by
subtracting the change in the dependent
variable in the control area from the change in
the dependent variable in test area.

•This design is superior to the above two

designs for the simple reason that it avoids
extraneous variation resulting both from the
passage of time and from non-comparability of
the test and control areas. But at times, due to
lack of historical data, time or a comparable
4. Completely randomized design (C.R.
design):

•Involves only two principles, the principle

of replication and the principle of
randomization of experimental designs.
•It is the simplest possible design and its
procedure of analysis is also easier.
•The essential characteristic of the design is
that subjects are randomly assigned to
experimental treatments (or vice-versa).
Eg. - if we have 10 subjects and if we wish to test 5
under treatment A and 5 under treatment B, the
randomization process gives every possible group
of 5 subjects selected from a set of 10 an equal
opportunity of being assigned to treatment A and
treatment B.
One-way analysis of variance is used to analyse
such a design. Even unequal replications can also
work in this design. It provides maximum number
of degrees of freedom to the error. Such a design is
generally used when experimental areas happen to
be homogeneous.
2 forms of C R Design

(i) Two-group simple randomized design:

In a two-group simple randomized design,
first of all the population is defined and then
from the population a sample is selected
randomly.

•Further, requirement of this design is that

items, after being selected randomly from the
population, be randomly assigned to the
experimental and control groups (Such
random assignment of items to two groups is
technically described as principle of
randomization).

•Thus, this design yields two groups as

representatives of the population.
•Since in the sample randomized design the
elements constituting the sample are randomly
drawn from the same population and randomly
assigned to the experimental and control groups, it
becomes possible to draw conclusions on the basis
of samples applicable for the population.

•The two groups (experimental and control) of such

a design are given different treatments of the
independent variable. This design of experiment is
quite common in research studies concerning
behavioural sciences.
•The merit of such a design is that it is
simple and randomizes the differences
among the sample items. But the limitation
of it is that the individual differences
among those conducting the treatments are
not eliminated, i.e., it does not control the
extraneous variable and as such the result
of the experiment may not depict a correct
picture.
(ii) Random replications design:

•The limitation of the two-group randomized

design is usually eliminated within the random
replications design., in the above design, the
differences on the dependent variable were
ignored, i.e., the extraneous variable was not
controlled. But in a random replications
design, the effect of such differences are
minimised by providing a number of
repetitions for each treatment.
•Each repetition is technically called a
‘replication’.

•Random replication design serves two

purposes, it provides controls for the
differential effects of the extraneous
independent variables and secondly, it
randomizes any individual differences
among those conducting the treatments.
From the diagram it is clear that there are two populations in
the replication design. The sample is taken randomly from the
population available for study and is randomly assigned to,
say, 4 experimental and 4 control groups. Similarly, sample is
taken randomly from the population available to conduct
experiments (because of the 8 groups 8 such individuals be
selected) and the 8 individuals so selected should be randomly
assigned to the 8 groups. Generally, equal number of items are
put in each group so that the size of the group is not likely to
affect the result of the study. Variables relating to both
population characteristics are assumed to be randomly
distributed among the two groups. Thus, this random
replication design is, in fact, an extension of the two-group
simple randomized design.
5. Randomized block design (R.B. design)

is an improvement over the C.R. design. In

the R.B. design the principle of local control
can be applied along with the other two
principles of experimental designs.

In the R.B. design, subjects are first divided

into groups, known as blocks, such that
within each group the subjects are relatively
homogeneous in respect to some selected
variable.
•The variable selected for grouping the
subjects is one that is believed to be related
to the measures to be obtained in respect of
the dependent variable.

•The number of subjects in a given block

would be equal to the number of treatments
and one subject in each block would be
randomly assigned to each treatment.

.
•In general, blocks are the levels at which
we hold the extraneous factor fixed, so that
its contribution to the total variability of
data can be measured. The main feature of
the R.B. design is that in this each treatment
appears the same number of times in each
block.
•If each student separately randomized the
order in which he or she took the four tests
(by using random numbers or some similar
device), we refer to the design of this
experiment as a R.B. design.

•The purpose of this randomization is to take

care of such possible extraneous factors (say
as fatigue) or perhaps the experience gained
from repeatedly taking the test.
6. Latin square design (L.S. design)

is an experimental design very frequently

used in agricultural research. The conditions
under which agricultural investigations are
carried out are different from those in other
studies for nature plays an important role in
agriculture.
•For eg., an experiment has to be made
through which the effects of five different
varieties of fertilizers on the yield of a
certain crop, say wheat, it to be judged.

•In such a case the varying fertility of the

soil in different blocks in which the
experiment has to be performed must be
taken into consideration; otherwise the
results obtained may not be very dependable
because the output happens to be the
effect not only of fertilizers, but it may also
be the effect of fertility of soil. Similarly,
there may be impact of varying seeds on the
yield. To overcome such difficulties, the
L.S. design is used when there are two
major extraneous factors such as the varying
soil fertility and varying seeds.
• the treatments in a L.S. design are so
allocated among the plots that no treatment
occurs more than once in any one row or any
one column. The two blocking factors may
be represented through rows and columns
(one through rows and the other through
columns).
•The merit of this experimental design is that
it enables differences in fertility gradients in
the field to be eliminated in comparison to the
effects of different varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of the crop.
•But this design suffers from one limitation,
and it is that although each row and each
column represents equally all fertilizer
varieties, there may be considerable difference
in the row and column means both up &across
the field.
•This, means that in L.S. design we must
assume that there is no interaction between
treatments and blocking factors. This defect
can, however, be removed by taking the
means of rows and columns equal to the
field mean by adjusting the results.

•Another limitation of this design is that it

requires number of rows, columns and
treatments to be equal.
7. Factorial designs:

Factorial designs are used in experiments

where the effects of varying more than one
factor are to be determined.
-important in several economic and social
phenomena where usually a large number of
factors affect a particular problem.
-Factorial designs - two types:
(i) simple factorial designs and (ii) complex
factorial designs.
(i)Simple factorial designs: This considers the
effects of varying two factors on the
dependent variable.

• -Also termed as a ‘two-factor-factorial

design’, whereas complex factorial design
is known as ‘multifactor- factorial design.’
The extraneous variable to be controlled
by heterogeneity is called the control
variable and the independent variable,
which is manipulated, is called the
experimental variable.

•So two treatments of the experimental

variable and two levels of the control
variable. As such there are four cells into
which the sample is divided. Each of the
four combinations would provide one
•Subjects are assigned at random to
each treatment in the same manner as
in a randomized group design. The
means for different cells may be
obtained along with the means for
different rows and columns.
•Means of different cells represent the mean scores for
the dependent variable and the column means in the
given design are termed the main effect for treatments
without taking into account any differential effect that is
due to the level of the control variable.

Similarly, the row means in the said design are termed

the main effects for levels without regard to treatment.
Thus, through this design we can study the main effects
of treatments as well as the main effects of levels.
•An additional merit of this design is that
one can examine the interaction between
treatments and levels, through which one
may say whether the treatment and levels
are independent of each other or they are
not so.
(ii) Complex factorial designs:

•Experiments with more than two factors at

a time involve the use of complex factorial
designs.

•A design which considers three or more

independent variables simultaneously is
called a complex factorial design.
•In case of three factors with one
experimental variable having two
treatments and two control variables, each
one of which having two levels, the design
used will be termed 2 × 2 × 2 complex
factorial design which will contain a total
of eight cells.
Factorial designs are used mainly because of
the two advantages.

(i) They provide equivalent accuracy (as

happens in the case of experiments with only
one factor) with less labour and as such are a
source of economy. Using factorial designs,
we can determine the main effects of two (in
simple factorial design) or more (in case of
complex factorial design) factors (or
variables) in one single experiment.
(ii) They permit various other comparisons
of interest. For example, they give
information about such effects which
cannot be obtained by treating one single
factor at a time.

•The determination of interaction effects is

possible in case of factorial designs.