Communication

Youssef Adly Nabieh

1421056
Contents
1 Introduction 3

2 Basic elements of communication 3

2.1 Different Terms Used in Communication System . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2 Bandwidth of Signals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.3 Bandwidth of Transmission Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Ground, Sky, Space Wave Propagation 6

3.1 Ground Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Sky Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Space Wave Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

4 Antennas 8

5 Covering Range of TV Transmitting Towers 9

6 Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) 10

7 Satellite Communication 11
7.1 Types of Satellite Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
7.2 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

8 Mobile Phone Communication 12

9 Optical Fibers 13

10 Encoding Information 14
10.1 Types of Encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

11 Modulation 15
11.1 Need for Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
11.2 Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11.3 Types of Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11.4 Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
11.5 Frequency Modulation (FM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
11.5.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
11.5.2 Demodulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

12 Digital vs. Analog Data 18

13 Digital vs. Analog Transmission 19

14 Wi-Fi 20
14.1 Working Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
14.2 Key Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

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15 Sampling 21

16 Decimal and Binary 22

16.1 Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
16.1.1 Decimal to Binary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
16.1.2 Binary to Decimal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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1 Introduction
Communication is the process of transferring information or messages from
one point to another. In modern communication systems, information is typi-
cally converted into electrical signals and then transmitted electronically. This
approach offers advantages such as speed, reliability, and the ability to communi-
cate over long distances. Everyday examples of such systems include telephones,
TV and radio transmission, and satellite communication.

The history of long-distance communication traces back to the early nine-

teenth century with the development of telegraphy. Marconi is credited with
achieving the milestone of transatlantic radio transmission in 1901, although
the concept of radio transmission was initially demonstrated by Indian physi-
cist JC Bose. Satellite communication began in 1962 with the launch of the
Telstar satellite, followed by the launch of the first geostationary satellite, Early
Bird, in 1965. Around 1970, optical fiber communication emerged in the USA,
Europe, and Japan.

2 Basic elements of communication

In any communication system, there are basic components: the transmitter,
the receiver, and the transmission channel. The transmitter is where the mes-
sage signals from the source are converted into a suitable form for transmission.
The receiver, located at a different point, captures these signals and decodes
them back into their original form. The transmission channel can take various
forms, including wires, cables, or wireless connections.

To transmit non-electrical signals (such as voice), a transducer converts

them into electrical signals. However, most information signals cannot be trans-
mitted over long distances directly. Therefore, modulation is employed, where
the information signal is superimposed onto a high-frequency carrier wave. This
modulation enables the signal to be transmitted effectively over the transmis-
sion channel.

Figure 1: Block diagram of communication system

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 There are basically two communication modes : point to point and broadcast.
1. Point to point: In this mode, communication takes place between a single
receiver and transmitter. For example, a telephonic call between two
persons is a point to point communication.

2. Broadcast: In this mode, there are a large number of receivers correspond-

ing to a single transmitter. Radio and television are examples of this type
of communication.

2.1 Different Terms Used in Communication System

• Electrical Transducer: converts a non-electrical signal (like a voice sig-
nal) into an electrical signal.
• Signal: Any information in electrical form suitable for transmission is
called a signal. Signals can be either analog or digital. Analog signals
are continuous variations of voltage or current. Sine functions of time are
fundamental analog signals. Digital signals are those which can take only
discrete values. Binary system is extensively used in digital electronics. In
binary system, 0 corresponds to low level and 1 corresponds to high level
of voltage or current.
• Noise: Unwanted signals which are mixed with the main signals are re-
ferred to as noise.
• Transmitter: makes the incoming message signal suitable for transmis-
sion through a channel.
• Receiver: The signal sent by the transmitter through channels is received
by the receiver.
• Attenuation: When the signal propagates from transmitter to receiver,
it loses some strength and becomes weaker. This is known as attenuation.
• Amplification: The signal received by the receiver is weaker than the
signal sent by the transmitter (due to attenuation). The amplitude of
this signal is increased by an amplifier. The energy needed for additional
signal is obtained from a DC power source.
• Range: This is the largest distance from the transmitter up to which a
signal can be received with sufficient strength.

• Bandwidth: This is the width of the range of frequencies that an elec-

tronic signal uses on a given transmission medium. It is expressed in terms
of the difference between the highest frequency signal component and the
lowest frequency signal component.

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 • Modulation: The low-frequency message signals cannot be transmit-
ted to long distances by themselves. They are superimposed on a high-
frequency wave (also called a carrier wave). This process is called modu-
lation.
• Demodulation: This is the reverse process of modulation. At the re-
ceiver end, information is retrieved from the carrier wave. This process is
known as demodulation.
• Repeater: Repeaters are used to extend the range of a communication
system. It is a combination of a receiver and a transmitter. The receiver
(or a repeater) first receives the original signals, then amplifies it and re-
transmits it to other places (sometimes with a different carrier frequency).

2.2 Bandwidth of Signals

Message signals, such as voice, picture, or computer data, have different ranges
of frequencies. The type of communication system depends on the bandwidth.
Some frequency ranges and their corresponding bandwidths are given below:
1. For telephonic communication: A bandwidth of 2800 Hz is required. Since
the signals range from 300 Hz to 3100 Hz, their difference is 2800 Hz.
2. For music channels: A bandwidth of approximately 20 kHz is required.
This is because the audible range of frequencies extends from 20 Hz to 20
kHz, and their difference is approximately 20 kHz.
3. For TV signals: A TV signal consists of both audio and video components.
A bandwidth of approximately 6 MHz is required for its transmission.

2.3 Bandwidth of Transmission Medium

Like the bandwidths of message signals, different types of transmission media
offer different bandwidths. Commonly used transmission media include optical
fibers, free space, and wire. The International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
administers the present system of frequency allocations.
• Wired:
1. Wire Pair: Wire pair cables, particularly twisted-pair cables, used
to transmit electrical signals. The bandwidth of wire pair transmis-
sion depends on factors such as the thickness and quality of the wires,
as well as environmental conditions such as electromagnetic interfer-
ence and signal attenuation. Typically, wire pair transmission offers
a bandwidth suitable for low-frequency signals, such as those used
in telephone communication or basic internet connectivity. However,
compared to other transmission mediums like coaxial cables or op-
tical fibers, wire pair transmission may have limitations in terms of
bandwidth and susceptibility to interference.

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 2. Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cables offer a bandwidth of approximately
750 MHz.
3. Optical Fibers: Optical fibers offer a frequency range of 1 THz to
1000 THz.
• Wireless:
1. Free Space Communication (Radio waves): Communication
through free space using radio waves encompasses various modes such
as sky wave, ground wave, and space wave propagation. It offers a
bandwidth varying from a few hundreds of kHz to a few GHz. These
frequencies are further subdivided for various services as given in the
following table:
Service Frequency Bands
AM radio broadcast 540 - 1600 kHz
FM radio broadcast 88 - 108 MHz
Television 54 - 890 MHz
Cellular Phones 840 - 935 MHz
Satellite communication 3.7 - 6.425 GHz

3 Ground, Sky, Space Wave Propagation

Ground, sky, and space wave propagation are three primary mechanisms by
which electromagnetic waves propagate through the atmosphere. Each mecha-
nism follows specific laws and principles:

3.1 Ground Wave Propagation

Ground wave propagation occurs when radio waves follow the curvature of the
Earth’s surface. The waves propagate along the ground and are affected by fac-
tors such as frequency, distance, and terrain. Key laws and principles associated
with ground wave propagation include:
• Wavelength and Frequency: Ground wave propagation is effective at
lower frequencies (typically up to a few MHz) where the wavelength is
long enough to interact with the Earth’s surface.
• Ground Conductivity: The conductivity of the Earth’s surface affects
the attenuation and propagation characteristics of ground waves. Higher
conductivity allows for better propagation.
• Terrain Effects: Terrain features such as mountains, valleys, and bodies
of water can significantly impact ground wave propagation by causing
diffraction, reflection, and absorption of radio waves.
• Distance Limitations: Ground wave propagation is limited in range due
to factors such as absorption by the Earth’s atmosphere and ground, as
well as signal attenuation over distance.

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3.2 Sky Wave Propagation
Sky wave propagation involves the reflection and refraction of radio waves by the
Earth’s ionosphere, allowing for long-distance communication. The ionosphere
consists of layers of charged particles that can reflect radio waves back to Earth.
Key laws and principles associated with sky wave propagation include:

• Ionospheric Layers: The ionosphere consists of several distinct layers,

each with different ionization levels and refractive properties. These layers,
named D, E, F1, and F2, play a crucial role in sky wave propagation.
• Angle of Incidence: The angle at which radio waves strike the iono-
sphere determines whether they are refracted back to Earth or transmit-
ted into space. The critical angle is crucial in determining the maximum
usable frequency for sky wave propagation.

• Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF): MUF is the highest frequency

that allows sky wave propagation to occur for a given path and time. It
is influenced by factors such as ionospheric conditions, solar activity, and
the angle of incidence.

• Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF): LUF is the lowest frequency that

allows sky wave propagation to occur for a given path and time. It is
influenced by factors such as ionospheric conditions, ground conductivity,
and the angle of incidence.
• Frequency Dependency: The effectiveness of sky wave propagation
varies with frequency. Lower frequencies penetrate deeper into the iono-
sphere but may be absorbed, while higher frequencies may penetrate less
but experience less absorption.
• Variability: Sky wave propagation is subject to variations due to changes
in solar activity, time of day, and geographic location. Solar flares and
sunspots can enhance or disrupt ionospheric conditions, affecting commu-
nication.

3.3 Space Wave Propagation

Space wave propagation involves line-of-sight communication between the trans-
mitter and receiver without significant reflection or refraction from the Earth’s
surface or atmosphere. Key laws and principles associated with space wave
propagation include:

• Line-of-Sight: Space wave propagation requires an unobstructed line of

sight between the transmitting and receiving antennas. Obstacles such as
buildings, terrain features, and the Earth’s curvature can limit the range
of space wave communication.

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 • Frequency and Attenuation: Higher frequencies are more prone to at-
tenuation due to factors such as atmospheric absorption, rain, and foliage.
Lower frequencies can propagate further but may require larger antennas.
• Propagation Characteristics: Space wave propagation is subject to
fading, multipath interference, and polarization effects, especially in urban
environments with reflective surfaces and signal obstructions.
• Antenna Height: The height of transmitting and receiving antennas in-
fluences the range and effectiveness of space wave propagation. Higher
antennas increase the line of sight and reduce obstacles, improving com-
munication range.

4 Antennas
An antenna is a device used to transmit or receive electromagnetic waves. It
converts electrical signals into electromagnetic waves for transmission or vice
versa for reception. Antennas are essential components in communication sys-
tems, allowing the exchange of information wirelessly.
There are several types of antennas commonly used in various applications:

• Dipole Antennas: These antennas consist of two conductive elements,

usually in a straight line or V-shape. They are commonly used for radio
and television broadcasting.
• Yagi-Uda Antennas: Also known as beam antennas, Yagi-Uda anten-
nas are directional antennas with multiple elements arranged in a specific
pattern. They are used for long-range communication and are commonly
seen on rooftops for TV reception.
• Parabolic (Dish) Antennas: These antennas use a parabolic reflector
to focus radio waves onto a single point, making them highly directional
and suitable for satellite communication and radar systems.

• Patch Antennas: Patch antennas are flat, compact antennas commonly

used in wireless communication systems such as Wi-Fi routers and mobile
devices.
• Helical Antennas: Helical antennas have a helix-shaped structure and
are used for applications requiring circular polarization, such as satellite
communication and RFID systems.
• Log-Periodic Antennas: These antennas have multiple dipole elements
of varying lengths, allowing them to operate over a wide range of frequen-
cies. They are used in broadband communication systems.

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5 Covering Range of TV Transmitting Towers
TV transmitting towers play a crucial role in broadcasting television signals
to a wide audience. The covering range of a TV transmitting tower refers to the
geographic area within which the television signals transmitted from the tower
are effectively received by viewers.
The covering range of a TV transmitting tower depends on several factors,
including:
1. Tower Height: The height of the TV transmitting tower significantly
impacts its coverage area. Taller towers can transmit signals over longer
distances and reach viewers situated farther away from the tower. The
relation between tower height and covering distance can be represented as
(h + R)2 = R2 + d2
When R is Earth radius, h is tower hight, d is the distance that signal
could reach and be effectively received. Which also can be written as
√
d = 2Rh
To calculate the maximum distance between 2 Towers, the relation will
be as followed p p
dM = 2RhT + 2RhR

Figure 2: Line of sight communication by space waves

2. Transmitting Power: The transmitting power of the TV station broad-

casting from the tower affects the strength and reach of the signals. Higher
transmitting power allows signals to cover larger geographic areas.
3. Terrain and Obstacles: The geographical terrain and presence of ob-
stacles such as hills, buildings, and vegetation can obstruct or attenuate
TV signals, reducing the effective covering range of the transmitting tower
in certain directions.
4. Antenna Directionality: The directionality of the transmitting antenna
used at the TV tower influences the distribution of TV signals. Directional
antennas can focus signals in specific directions, extending coverage in
targeted areas while reducing coverage in others.
5. Frequency and Bandwidth: The frequency and bandwidth of the TV
signals transmitted by the tower also impact coverage. Higher frequencies
and wider bandwidths can provide clearer signals and extend coverage to
remote areas.

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 Overall, the covering range of a TV transmitting tower is determined by a
combination of these factors and is carefully planned to ensure optimal signal
reception for viewers within the designated broadcast area.

6 Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF)

The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) refers to the highest frequency that
can be effectively used for communication between two points via ionospheric
reflection. It represents the upper limit of usable frequencies for sky wave prop-
agation, beyond which radio waves are unable to penetrate the ionosphere and
propagate back to Earth.
Several factors influence the MUF, including:

• Solar Activity: Solar radiation ionizes the Earth’s upper atmosphere,

affecting the ionospheric layers and thus influencing the MUF. During pe-
riods of high solar activity, such as solar flares or sunspots, the ionosphere
becomes more ionized, allowing for higher MUF values.
• Time of Day: The MUF varies throughout the day due to changes
in ionospheric conditions caused by diurnal variations in solar radiation.
Typically, MUF values are higher during daylight hours and lower at night.
• Geographic Location: The MUF can differ based on the geographic
location of the transmitter and receiver. Regions closer to the magnetic
poles tend to have lower MUF values compared to equatorial regions.

• Seasonal Variations: Seasonal changes, such as variations in solar in-

clination angle and Earth’s magnetic field, can also affect the MUF. For
example, the MUF tends to be higher during equinoxes compared to sol-
stices.
• Ionospheric Conditions: Variations in ionospheric density, tempera-
ture, and composition directly impact the MUF. Changes in these con-
ditions can alter the reflection properties of the ionosphere, affecting the
propagation of radio waves.

It is calculated by the formula

Critical frequency
MUF =
cos(θ)

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 Figure 3: Diagram of MUF

7 Satellite Communication
Satellite communication refers to the transmission of signals between two or
more points via a satellite orbiting the Earth. It has become an integral part of
modern telecommunications, providing various services such as television broad-
casting, internet connectivity, and global positioning systems (GPS).

Satellite communication systems consist of three main components: the

ground stations, the satellite(s), and the user terminals. Ground stations are
located on Earth and are responsible for transmitting and receiving signals to
and from the satellite. Satellites act as relay stations in space, receiving signals
from ground stations and retransmitting them to other locations on Earth. User
terminals are devices used by individuals or organizations to send and receive
signals via the satellite.

7.1 Types of Satellite Orbits

Satellites can be placed in different orbits depending on their intended purpose
and coverage area. The common types of satellite orbits include:

• Geostationary Satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth at the same

speed as the Earth’s rotation (have periodic time equal to 24h), they are
always above the equator line, so they appear stationary relative to a fixed
point on the ground. They are typically used for telecommunications,
broadcasting, and weather monitoring due to their stable position.
• Polar Orbit Satellites: These satellites orbit the Earth from pole to
pole, with periodic time equal to 100 min, providing global coverage and
are commonly used for Earth observation, environmental monitoring, and
scientific research.
• LEO (Low Earth Orbit) Satellites: These satellites orbit at lower al-
titudes than geostationary satellites, typically between 160 to 2,000 kilo-

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 meters above the Earth’s surface. They are used for various purposes such
as communication, remote sensing, and satellite internet services.
• MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) Satellites: These satellites orbit at al-
titudes higher than LEO but lower than geostationary satellites, typically
between 2,000 to 35,786 kilometers above the Earth. They are commonly
used for navigation systems like GPS (Global Positioning System).
• HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) Satellites: These satellites have highly
elliptical orbits, spending more time near the apogee (farthest point from
Earth) than the perigee (closest point). They are used for specialized
communication and surveillance purposes.

• Molniya Orbit Satellites: These satellites have highly elliptical orbits

with a high inclination angle, allowing them to cover high latitudes with
long dwell times. They are used for communication in polar regions.

7.2 Applications
Satellite communication has a wide range of applications, including:

• Television and radio broadcasting

• Internet connectivity in remote areas
• Global navigation and positioning systems
• Weather monitoring and forecasting

• Military and defense communications

8 Mobile Phone Communication

Mobile phones, commonly known as cell phones, are equipped with low-
powered radio transmitters and receivers, operating within a range of up to 10
km. These devices operate within a network of small cells distributed across the
country, each housing a base station near its center.

Each base station communicates with mobile phones within its cell using
various frequencies, enabling simultaneous transmission and reception during
calls. However, the limited number of available frequencies restricts the capac-
ity of each base station to handle multiple calls concurrently.

The size of each cell varies based on geographical factors and anticipated
user density, with buildings and terrain affecting signal propagation. Upon ac-
tivation, a mobile phone periodically sends identification signals, allowing the
cellular exchange to allocate frequencies and select the strongest signal from

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available base stations.

Each base station monitors the strength of signals from within its cell
and adjacent cells. When a mobile phone moves into another cell, the cellular
exchange recognizes that the base station in the next cell is receiving a stronger
signal and switches the connection to the next cell.

When a mobile phone starts to make a call to another mobile phone, the
cellular exchange not only allocates the pair of frequencies that are used but
also provides the link between the two base stations involved. Thus, a connec-
tion is made from one mobile to its base station to the cellular exchange to
the other base station and finally to the other mobile. A connection also links
the cellular exchange and the PSTN. When a mobile phone calls a telephone
on a fixed line, the cellular exchange just connects the call directly to the PSTN.

Modern mobile phones use digital technology. The analog voltage pro-
duced by the microphone passes through the following stages:

1. The audio amplifier amplifies the signal and passes it to an analogue-to-

digital converter.
2. The analogue-to-digital converter samples the signal at regular intervals
and, for each sample, produces an 8-bit binary number.

3. The parallel-to-series, or parallel-to-serial, converter takes the 8 bits from

one sample and places them after the 8 bits from the previous sample to
produce a continuous series of binary digits.
4. An oscillator provides the carrier wave at a frequency selected by the
cellular exchange from the available frequencies at the base station.

5. The digital signal modulates the carrier wave, and the final signal passes
to the aerial through the switch.
Reception of the signal is the reverse process, except that a tuning circuit
selects only the one frequency allocated by the cellular exchange for that mobile
phone. The radio-frequency amplifier provides the amplification before demod-
ulation produces a series of bits, which represent the signal in binary form.
The series-to-parallel converter and digital-to-analogue converter produce an
analogue signal. Amplification of the audio signal occurs, and the final signal
passes to a loudspeaker to produce sound.

9 Optical Fibers
Optical fibers are hair-thin strands of specially coated glass used in commu-
nication systems to transmit data using light signals. The diameter of each fiber
is about 10−4 cm with a refractive index of 1.7. These fibers act as a guiding

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medium for light waves, allowing for efficient transmission of information.

A light beam acting as a carrier wave is capable of carrying far more infor-
mation than radio waves and microwaves. In order to have an efficient commu-
nication system, one would require a guiding medium in which the information-
carrying light wave could be transmitted. This guiding medium is an optical
fiber.

The operation of optical fibers relies on the principles of total internal

reflection. They can transmit a laser or other light beam from one end to the
other as a result of repeated total internal reflections at the glass boundary.
Each fiber can carry as many as 2000 telephone conversations with extremely
low losses.

Optical fiber communication involves the transmission of information by

the conversion of an electrical signal to an optical signal, the transmission of
this optical signal along the length of optical fiber, and then its reconversion to
an electrical signal.

Optical fibers offer several advantages over traditional copper wires, in-
cluding higher bandwidth and immunity to electromagnetic interference. They
are commonly used in telecommunications networks, internet infrastructure, and
high-speed data transmission systems. Ongoing advancements in optical fiber
technology have led to the development of new types of fibers, such as single-
mode and multimode fibers, as well as improved signal processing techniques
for higher data rates and longer transmission distances.

10 Encoding Information
Encoding information is a fundamental process in communication systems,
where data is converted into a format suitable for transmission over a communi-
cation channel. Various encoding techniques are used to represent information
in a way that can be efficiently transmitted and decoded at the receiver’s end.

Encoding involves converting raw data or information into a digital for-

mat that can be easily processed and transmitted. This process is essential to
ensure that the transmitted signals are reliable, efficient, and resistant to noise
and interference.

10.1 Types of Encoding

There are several types of encoding techniques used in communication systems,
including:

• Analog Encoding: In analog encoding, continuous signals are used to

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 represent data. Examples include amplitude modulation (AM) and fre-
quency modulation (FM), which are commonly used in radio broadcasting.
• Digital Encoding: Digital encoding involves converting data into binary
code, consisting of 0s and 1s. This allows for more efficient transmission
and error detection. Examples include pulse code modulation (PCM) used
in digital audio transmission and binary phase shift keying (BPSK) used
in digital communication systems.
• Line Encoding: Line encoding techniques are used to convert digital data
into a format suitable for transmission over a communication channel.
Examples include non-return-to-zero (NRZ), Manchester encoding, and
differential Manchester encoding.
• Error Correction Encoding: Error correction encoding techniques add
redundant information to the transmitted data to detect and correct er-
rors that may occur during transmission. Examples include forward error
correction (FEC) codes such as Reed-Solomon codes and convolutional
codes.

11 Modulation
In simple terms, Modulation is the process of superimposing audio signals
on a high frequency carrier wave for proper long distance transmission. This
process involves combining a high-energy carrier wave (graph a) with a low-
energy audio signal (graph b), resulting in a modulated wave (graph c), as
illustrated in the figure below.

11.1 Need for Modulation

1. In order to radiate a frequency of 20 kHz directly into space, we would
need an antenna length of 15,000 m. This is impractical. On the other
hand, if a carrier wave of 1000 kHz is used to carry the signal, we need an
antenna length of 300 m only.

2. As the audio signal frequencies are small, therefore these cannot be trans-
mitted over large distances if radiated directly into space (because of their
small energy). But, when the audio signal is modified by a high-frequency
carrier wave, it permits the transmission over large distances.
3. At audio frequencies, radiation is not practicable because of poor effi-
ciency. However, efficient radiation of electrical energy is possible at high
frequencies, thus making wireless communication feasible.

15
 Figure 4: Wave Modulation diagram

11.2 Demodulation
1. The process of recovering the audio signal from the modulated wave is
known as demodulation. If the modulated wave after amplification is
directly fed to the speaker, no sound will be heard. It is because the di-
aphragm of the speaker is not at all able to respond to the high frequency
of the modulated wave. This implies that the audio signal must be sep-
arated from the carrier at a suitable stage in the receiver and fed to the
speaker for conversion into sound.
2. A demodulator or detector circuit performs essentially two functions:
(a) It rectifies the modulated wave, i.e., the negative half of the modu-
lated wave is eliminated.
(b) It separates the audio signal from the carrier.

11.3 Types of Modulation

1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Phase modulation

11.4 Amplitude Modulation

1. When the amplitude of the high-frequency carrier wave is changed in ac-
cordance with the intensity of the audio signal, it is called amplitude

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 modulation. In amplitude modulation, only the amplitude of the carrier
wave is changed but the frequency of the modulated wave remains the
same, i.e., the carrier frequency.

Figure 5: AM Wave Modulation diagram

2. The ratio of change of amplitude of the carrier wave to the amplitude

of the normal carrier wave is called the modulation factor, also called
modulation index µ.
amplitude change of carrier wave
µ=
amplitude of the unmodulated carrier wave

3. Modulation factor determines the strength and quality of the transmitted

signal. The greater is the degree of modulation (i.e., µ), the stronger and
clearer will be the audio signal.
4. If the carrier is over modulated (i.e., µ > 1), distortion will occur during
reception.

11.5 Frequency Modulation (FM)

Frequency modulation (FM) is a modulation technique used in analog communi-
cation systems to encode information on a carrier wave by varying the frequency
of the wave. In FM, the amplitude of the carrier signal remains constant, while
its frequency is altered in accordance with the variations in the modulating
signal.

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 Figure 6: FM Wave Modulation diagram

11.5.1 Conversion
To perform frequency modulation, an oscillator generates a carrier wave at a
specific frequency. The modulating signal, typically an audio signal, is then
used to vary the frequency of the carrier wave. This modulation process results
in a frequency-modulated wave that carries the information encoded in the
modulating signal.

11.5.2 Demodulation
At the receiver end, the frequency-modulated wave is demodulated to recover the
original modulating signal. This is achieved by using a frequency demodulator,
which extracts the variations in frequency caused by the modulating signal. The
demodulated signal is then filtered to remove unwanted noise and interference,
resulting in the reproduction of the original audio signal.

12 Digital vs. Analog Data

Digital and analog data represent two fundamental forms of information used in
communication systems. Here’s a comparison between digital and analog data:

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 Aspect Analog Data Digital Data
Representation Analog data is continuous and Digital data is discrete and
represented by physical quanti- represented using binary digits
ties such as voltage, current, or (bits) consisting of 0s and 1s.
sound waves.
Accuracy Analog data can lose accuracy Digital data, being represented
due to noise and interference by discrete values, can be
during transmission, leading to encoded with error-correction
signal degradation. techniques to ensure accurate
transmission and reception.
Storage Analog data is typically stored Digital data can be stored in
in analog formats such as mag- various digital formats such as
netic tapes or vinyl records. hard drives, flash drives, and
cloud storage.
Manipulation Analog data is more challenging Digital data can be easily ma-
to manipulate and process com- nipulated, processed, and ana-
putationally compared to digi- lyzed using digital devices and
tal data. algorithms.
Examples Examples of analog data include Digital data includes text docu-
audio signals from microphones, ments, images, videos, and com-
video signals from cameras, and puter programs.
physical measurements such as
temperature and pressure.

13 Digital vs. Analog Transmission

Digital and analog transmission methods are used to convey digital and ana-
log data, respectively, through communication channels. Here’s a comparison
between digital and analog transmission:

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 Aspect Analog Transmission Digital Transmission
Processes Analog transmission transmits Digital transmission converts
before trans- analog signals directly through digital data into discrete signals
mission the communication channel before transmission, using tech-
without any conversion. niques such as modulation.
Noise Immunity Analog transmission is suscep- Digital transmission is more im-
tible to noise and interference, mune to noise and interference
which can degrade signal qual- compared to analog transmis-
ity. sion. Digital signals can be re-
generated and error-corrected,
resulting in higher reliability
and quality of transmission.
Bandwidth Effi- Analog transmission typically Digital transmission is more
ciency requires more bandwidth com- bandwidth-efficient compared
pared to digital transmission. to analog transmission. Digital
signals can convey more infor-
mation using less bandwidth.
Flexibility Analog transmission has limited Digital transmission offers
flexibility in signal processing greater flexibility in signal pro-
and transmission protocols. cessing, modulation techniques,
and transmission protocols.
Compatibility Analog transmission is compat- Digital transmission requires
ible with legacy communica- compatible digital equipment
tion systems and equipment de- and protocols for transmission
signed for analog signals. and reception.

14 Wi-Fi
Wi-Fi, short for Wireless Fidelity, is a technology that allows electronic de-
vices to connect to a wireless local area network (WLAN), typically using the
2.4 gigahertz (GHz) and 5 GHz frequency bands. It enables devices such as
smartphones, laptops, tablets, and smart home devices to access the internet
and communicate with each other wirelessly within a certain range.

14.1 Working Principle

Wi-Fi operates based on the principles of radio waves transmission. A Wi-Fi
network consists of a wireless router or access point that acts as a central hub,
transmitting data between devices and to the internet. Devices equipped with
Wi-Fi capability, such as smartphones or computers, connect to the router wire-
lessly using built-in Wi-Fi adapters.

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14.2 Key Components
• Wireless Router: The central device that manages the Wi-Fi network,
transmitting data to and from connected devices.
• Wireless Adapter: Built into devices such as smartphones, laptops, and
tablets, allowing them to connect to Wi-Fi networks.
• Access Point: An optional device used to extend the coverage of a Wi-Fi
network, especially in large or multi-story buildings.
• Modem: Connects the router to the internet service provider (ISP), al-
lowing access to the internet.

Over the years, Wi-Fi technology has evolved to provide faster speeds,
longer ranges, and better reliability. The latest Wi-Fi standards, such as Wi-Fi
6 (802.11ax), offer improved performance in crowded environments with multi-
ple connected devices.

The future of Wi-Fi technology holds promise for even faster speeds, in-
creased range, and better reliability. Emerging technologies such as Wi-Fi 6E,
which utilizes the 6 GHz frequency band, are expected to provide significant
improvements in performance and capacity for Wi-Fi networks.

15 Sampling
Sampling is the process of converting a continuous signal into a discrete sequence
of values at specific intervals in time or space. In other words, it involves taking
periodic snapshots or samples of the continuous signal at regular intervals. These
samples represent the amplitude of the original signal at those particular points
in time or space.
The Nyquist sampling theorem provides a guideline for determining the min-
imum sampling frequency required to accurately represent a signal without in-
troducing aliasing. It can be stated as follows:

• The sampling frequency (fs ) should be at least twice the highest frequency
(fc ) contained in the signal.

In mathematical terms, this can be expressed as:

fs ≥ 2 × fc (Nyquist criterion)
Where:
• fs : Sampling frequency (the rate at which samples are taken per unit of
time or space).
• fc : Highest frequency contained in the signal.

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 The intuition Let’s illustrate with an example: envision a signal consisting
of a lone sine wave oscillating at a frequency of 2 Hz.

Figure 7: Sampling of 2 Hz wave

16 Decimal and Binary

Decimal and binary are two numeral systems used to represent numbers in
different contexts.
• Decimal: The decimal numeral system, also known as base-10, is the
standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It uses
ten symbols (0-9) to represent values.
• Binary: The binary numeral system, also known as base-2, is a numeral
system that uses two symbols (0 and 1) to represent values. It is commonly
used in digital electronics and computer systems.

Aspect Decimal Binary

Radix Decimal is base-10, meaning it Binary is base-2, meaning it
uses 10 symbols (0-9). uses only 2 symbols (0 and 1).
Representation In the decimal system, each In binary, each digit’s value is
digit’s value is based on its po- based on powers of 2, with the
sition, with the rightmost digit rightmost digit representing 20 ,
representing units, the next rep- the next representing 21 , and so
resenting tens, and so on, with on, with each position being 2
each position being 10 times the times the value of the position
value of the position to its right. to its right.
Usage Decimal is commonly used in Binary is used in digital elec-
everyday life for counting, arith- tronics, computer science, and
metic operations, and repre- information technology, partic-
senting non-binary data. ularly in computing and data
storage.

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16.1 Conversion
16.1.1 Decimal to Binary
To convert a decimal number to binary, follow these steps:

1. Divide the decimal number by 2.

2. Record the remainder (either 0 or 1).

3. Continue dividing the quotient by 2 until the quotient is 0.

4. Write down the remainders in reverse order to obtain the binary equiva-
lent.

For example, to convert the decimal number 13 to binary:

• 13 ÷ 2 = 6 remainder 1

• 6 ÷ 2 = 3 remainder 0
• 3 ÷ 2 = 1 remainder 1
• 1 ÷ 2 = 0 remainder 1
So, the binary equivalent of 13 is 1101.

16.1.2 Binary to Decimal

To convert a binary number to decimal, follow these steps:

1. Write down the binary number.

2. Assign powers of 2 to each digit position from right to left, starting with
20 for the rightmost digit.
3. Multiply each digit by its corresponding power of 2.
4. Sum the results to obtain the decimal equivalent.

For example, to convert the binary number 1101 to decimal:

• 1 × 23 + 1 × 22 + 0 × 21 + 1 × 20 = 8 + 4 + 0 + 1 = 13
So, the decimal equivalent of 1101 is 13.

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