CHAPTER III.

THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Narrative Report on the Historical Development of Paradigms

Meaning of “paradigm” in the English Cambridge Dictionary “Model of

something, or a very clear and typical example of something” • Paradigm indicate
a pattern or model or typical example including cultural themes, worldviews,
Ideologies and mindsets ORIGIN: late 15th century.: via late Latin from Greek
paradeigma, from paradeiknunai ‘show side by side,’ from para-‘beside’ +
deiknunai ‘to show.’ “Paradigms are general framework or view points : literally
„points from which to view‟. They provide ways of looking at life and are
grounded in sets of assumptions about the nature of reality” (Babbie, 1998).
A research paradigm is “the set of common beliefs and agreements shared
between scientist about how problems should be understood and addressed”
(Kuhn, 1970). “Research paradigms can be characterized by the way Scientists
respond to three basic questions: ontological, epistemological and methodological
questions” (Guba, 1990) “Social scientists can ground their inquires in any
number of paradigms. None is write or wrong, merely more or less useful in
particular situation. They each shape the kind of theory created for general
understanding” (Babbie, 1998). According To Kuhn (1970) Paradigm Contains:
"universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model
problems and solutions for a community of researchers", i.e.,
what is to be observed and scrutinized, the kind of questions that are supposed to
be asked and probed for answers in relation to this subject, how these questions are
to be structured, how the results of scientific investigations should be interpreted,
how is an experiment to be conducted, and what equipment is available to conduct
the experiment.(Kuhn1970). Research Philosophy, Paradigms And Logic Of
Research; Plato 348–347 BC (Logic/ Ethics)“Objects are inherently good, just”
“Things are beautiful, unified, equal”. Socrates 469 / 470 BC (Contribution to
Epistemology, Ethics, Logic) “I know that I know nothing” “Knowledge is always
proportionate to the realm from which it is gained.”
According To Chalmers (2002): Ontology is the study of beings or their being
(What is reality ?) Epistemology is the study of knowledge (How we know ?)
Logic is the study of valid reasoning ( How we reason ?) Ethics is the study of
right and wrong (How we should act ?) Phenomenology is the study of our
experience (How we experience ?). Paradigm Debate/ Different Paradigms:
Positivism, Post-positivism, Critical theory (ideology), Constructivism,
Pragmatists.
 Expository Essay On The Overview Of The Research Process

The research process involves identifying, locating, assessing, and analyzing

the information you need to support your research question, and then developing
and expressing your ideas. These are the same skills you need any time you write a
report, proposal, or put together a presentation. Starting the Research Process
When you have to write a thesis or dissertation, it can be hard to know where to
begin, but there are some clear steps you can follow. The research process often
begins with a very broad idea for a topic you’d like to know more about. You do
some preliminary research to identify a problem. After refining your research
questions, you can lay out the foundations of your research design, leading to
a proposal that outlines your ideas and plans. This article takes you through the
first steps of the research process, helping you narrow down your ideas and build
up a strong foundation for your research project.
This are the following Steps first step: Choose your topic, First you have to come
up with some ideas. Your thesis or dissertation topic can start out very broad.
Think about the general area or field you’re interested in – it’s often a good idea to
choose a topic that you already know a bit about. Do some reading to begin
narrowing down your topic. Look for the top journals in your field and skim
through some recent issues. If an article interests you, check the reference list to
find other relevant sources. As you read, take notes and try to identify problems,
questions, debates, contradictions and gaps. Your aim is to narrow down from a
broad area of interest to a specific niche. Make sure to consider the practicalities:
the requirements of your programme, the amount of time you have to complete the
research, and how difficult it will be to access sources and data on the topic. Before
moving onto the next stage, it’s a good idea to discuss the topic with your thesis
supervisor. Second Step: Identify a problem, So you’ve settled on a topic and
found a niche – but what exactly will your research investigate, and why does it
matter? To give your project focus and purpose, you have to define a research
problem. The problem might be a practical issue – for example, a process or
practice that isn’t working well, an area of concern in an organization’s
performance, or a difficulty faced by a specific group of people in society.
Alternatively, you might choose to investigate a theoretical problem – for example,
an underexplored phenomenon or relationship, a contradiction between different
models or theories, or an unresolved debate among scholars. To put the problem in
context and set your objectives, you can write a problem statement. This describes
who the problem affects, why research is needed, and how your research project
will contribute to solving it. Third Step: Formulate research questions, Next, based
on the problem statement, you need to write one or more research questions. These
target exactly what you want to find out. They might focus on describing,
comparing, evaluating, or explaining the research problem. A strong research
question should be specific enough that you can answer it thoroughly using
appropriate qualitative or quantitative research methods. It should also be complex
enough to require in-depth investigation, analysis, and argument. Questions that
can be answered with “yes/no” or with easily available facts are not complex
enough for a thesis or dissertation. In some types of research, at this stage you
might also have to develop a conceptual framework and testable hypotheses.
Fourth Step: Create a research design, The research design is a practical framework
for answering your research questions. It involves making decisions about the type
of data you need, the methods you’ll use to collect and analyze it, and the location
and timescale of your research. There are often many possible paths you can take
to answering your questions. The decisions you make will partly be based on your
priorities. For example, do you want to determine causes and effects, draw
generalizable conclusions, or understand the details of a specific context? You
need to decide whether you will use primary or secondary data and qualitative or
quantitative methods. You also need to determine the specific tools, procedures,
and materials you’ll use to collect and analyze your data, as well as your criteria
for selecting participants or sources. Last Step: Write a research proposal, Finally,
after completing these steps, you are ready to complete a research proposal. The
proposal outlines the context, relevance, purpose, and plan of your research. As
well as outlining the background, problem statement, and research questions, the
proposal should also include a literature review that shows how your project will
fit into existing work on the topic. The research design section describes your
approach and explains exactly what you will do. You might have to get the
proposal approved by your supervisor before you get started, and it will guide the
process of writing your thesis or dissertation.
Collect at least three (3) research abstracts showing the common mistakes in
research. Be sure to include the title of research, author/s, the abstract itself as
well as the name of the journal, vol. no. and date of publication.

An abstract is typically the summary or overview of a scientific paper, thesis

or report. The purpose of the abstract is to give your reader a complete summary of
your entire project. As there is a never-ending supply of papers and reports to read,
you only have two chances to engage your reader and to convince them to keep
reading. The first is the title (and the keywords) and the second is the abstract. A
well-written abstract will maximize the chances of your document being read,
understood and even enjoyed. If writing a research paper, a well-written abstract
will maximize your publication success. Not only will reviewers appreciate a good
abstract, it may be the only part of the paper they are sent when invited to review a
paper. This focus of this article is to highlight what is commonly wrong with
abstracts. Please note: The relevancy of some issues raised here might depend upon
your discipline or document type. For example, some academic journals do not
require abstracts at all or only require a very brief project overview.

GRADUATE LEVEL
Researcher: Oletha Hope Gould
Presentation Title: Insect Repellant Potential of Juniper Berry (Di'zad' -Navajo
name) Essential Oil
Research Focus: Medicine and Health Science
School: Newcomb High School
Presentation Type: Poster Presentation

Abstract:
The Southwest shrub Juniperus communis (Juniper Berry) has many significant
medicinal value in the Native American culture that has not been proven
scientifically. One of the popular uses of Juniper berries aside from its detoxifying
action is its potential to repel insects. This study focuses on the development of
insect repellant from its essential oil obtained through steam distillation. 50 g of
fresh berries was collected and dried for 5 days and is placed in a still tank with
100 mL of water for steam distillation using the Flinn Scientific Borosilicate Lab
Kit. Gather the extracted oil and dilute 70% in three separate containers to be
transferred into spray bottles. Testing involved the spraying of the dilute sample
into a class jar with Anopheles juidthae (common NM mosquito) and compared
this to the effect of a commercial insect repellant. After testing and comparing the
result, the commercial insect repellant significantly showed that it is a better insect
repellant compared to the J. communis diluted essential oil. However, the essential
oil has also an insect repellant potential.

******************************************************************
HIGH SCHOOL
Researcher: Wyatt Dunham
Presentation Title: The Citrus Solution: Phase II
Research Focus: Utilizing citrus pectin and citrus peels as filtrates for heavy
metal pollutants found in a Superfund Site and the effects on Daphnia magna
before and after filtration.
School: Grove High School
Presentation Type: Poster Presentation

Abstract:
The purpose of this experiment was to test the effectiveness of composite filters
made from citrus peels and citrus pectin along with charcoal and sand on removing
heavy metal pollutants from the waters of Tar Creek. A toxicity test was also done
before and after filtration using Daphnia magna. Charcoal and sand were used as
filtrates to decrease the TDS and neutralize the pH of the water after filtration.
Daphnia magna were used as toxicity test before and after filtration. It was
hypothesized that the composite filters (citrus + sand +charcoal) will decrease the
heavy metal concentration, neutralize the pH, and decrease the TDS after filtration.
It was also hypothesized that a higher percentage of Daphnia magna will survive in
the filtered water as compared to the unfiltered water. Water samples were
collected from four different sites at Tar Creek. Each water sample went through
four different citrus filters plus one control (sand + charcoal). All the citrus filters
decreased the heavy metal concentration after filtration. All of the filters
neutralized the pH. The citrus peel filters for Site 4 were the only filters to have a
pH of 7 after filtration. Only 25% of the citrus filters decreased the TDS after
filtration, while 50% of the control filters decreased the TDS after filtration. A
higher percentage of Daphnia magna survived after filtration. The orange peel had
the overall highest survival of Daphnia after filtration. The correlation observed
before and after filtration was cadmium was most toxic to Daphnia magna.

******************************************************************

GRADUATE LEVEL
Researcher: Rita Asgeirsson
Presentation Title: An Analysis of Yukon Delta Salmon Management
Research focus: Fisheries management related to Bering Sea fisheries and
Yukon River salmon
populations.
School: Western Washington University
Student Level: Masters
Presentation Type: Oral Presentation

Abstract:
An Analysis of Yukon Delta Salmon Management
Rita Asgeirsson, Western Washington University
The broad range of Pacific Alaskan salmon has resulted in the creation of a
complex and multiorganizational system of management that includes the state of
Alaska, various federal departments, a Congressionally-mandated fishery council,
and a number of commercial and nongovernmental fish organizations. In the
Bering Sea salmon are caught by the commercial groundfish fleet as by-catch. On
the Yukon River salmon are commercially and traditionally harvested for both
economic and cultural sustenance by the Yup’ik residents of the Yukon Delta.
Declining salmon populations has driven scientific research which considers the
effects of Bering Sea salmon by-catch. My research findings indicate that Bering
Sea fisheries occur where juvenile salmon mature, directly impacting Yukon River
salmon populations. Further, the research reflects that although Yukon salmon
populations have plummeted, a recent effort was made to open the northern Bering
Sea, which includes the Yukon River coastal shelf, to deep-sea commercial fishing.
By researching the relationship of policy to cultural salmon dependence, it
becomes evident that Alaskan salmon-tribes are excluded from salmon
management and decision-making. Legal research reflects that three basic federal
Indian concepts – inherent rights, Indian Country, and tribal right of occupancy –
emerge as potential foundations that may allow Alaskan salmontribes to begin
sharing legal responsibility over salmon. Yukon River salmon are an international
and anadromous species that require multiorganizational management. My
research reflects that current management favors the Bering Sea commercial
fishing industry, despite data indicating Bering Sea fisheries impact Yukon salmon
populations and an overall downward trend in Yukon salmon populations.
.
These common mistakes are not listed in any particular order and some
overlap:

1. Not writing a summary

The abstract should be a complete, succinct summary of your entire project.
Summarising is being able to identify and highlight key points using as few words
as possible.
2. Not paraphrasing your own work
Paraphrasing is when you use your own words to convey meaning from another
source, with the aim of improving clarity. Paraphrasing often includes
summarising. One common mistake is to copy entire sentences from different parts
of the paper into the abstract. This is not summarising or paraphrasing.
3. Not summarising your entire project
A common mistake is to only include certain parts of the project in the abstract. If
your paper is structured into Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion
sections, then your abstract includes a summary of each section, often written as a
complete paragraph or with headings. If the abstract lacks key information, for
example the aim or the conclusions, the reader may not appreciate the strength of
importance of your project and not be convinced to keep reading. Don’t assume
your reader will search through your document for this information if they can’t
find it in the abstract.
4. Using the abstract as a de facto Introduction or Discussion
After writing important introductory and conclusion explanations in the abstract,
some authors then don’t include these details in the body of the document, fearing
it will look repetitive. This can happen if the abstract is written before designing
the rest of the document. Although drafting an abstract in the early stages of
writing is a good idea, it is best to finalise your abstract when you have finished the
rest of your document.
5. Including too much (or not enough) background
If the abstract is considered a de facto introduction, too much background may be
included. Alternatively, a brief summary of the background might be omitted if the
author assumes the audience is completely familiar with the project topic and the
background. Never assume your reader knows your topic or project as thoroughly
as you do; some of you readers might, but they will still need this information to
appreciate what your document is about.
6. Including too many (or not enough) methods
A brief summary of the methods or procedure is important as they are a key
component of any project. Given the potential complexity and diversity of a
scientific study, it is easy to add too much detail about methods; an example is the
unnecessary listing of all data collection instruments and their brand names. The
following example from a research paper abstract is a concise summary of the
methods. “Methods: We systematically reviewed the literature and meta-analyzed
risk estimates from longitudinal studies reporting the association of coronary heart
disease (CHD) or heart failure (HF) with risk of dementia.” Wolters F.J. et al.
(2018).
7. Not explaining what your results mean
As your abstract should include a summary of all parts of your project, this
includes a summary of the discussion or conclusion of your study. Some authors
omit interpreting their results, expecting the reader to wait until they have read the
entire document. They may not.
8. Including citations, abbreviations and detailed measurements
Standard convention is to avoid writing abbreviations, detailed measurements or
citations in an abstract. In some cases, and in some disciplines, it may be difficult
to avoid using abbreviations if they are used as terms, are not written in any other
format, difficult to write in full or impractical to leave out.
9. Including information not presented in the paper
It may be tempting to include extra information that is not in the rest of the
document but this is misleading. Stick to your key aim.
10. Not following the Instructions to Authors of your target journal
A journals’ Instructions to Authors are just that: instructions; they are not
suggestions or simply good ideas, nor are they meant to replace a science style
guide. Depending upon the extent of this omission, not following a journal’s
Instructions to Authors can dramatically increase the likelihood your paper will
instantly returned for further changes.
11. Not including keywords
Keywords of your study are essential to ensure that your paper is correctly indexed
and so your document will be visible in different search engines. Some authors
assume this step is not necessary, assuming that all terms will be visible. Keywords
“help promote an article’s visibility within the publications iceberg”.

Remember:

Don't assume your readers know everything you do.

Don't assume all published papers have good abstracts.
Seek feedback before finalising your later drafts.s