20-6 Motors

On sinaller-sized motors excited from the same voltage supply that furnishes power to
the arniature,reduction in supply voltage will result in a reduction in speed but not so
great as in the case of separately excited motors, since the field flux is not reduced in
proportion to voltage reduction, owing to saturation in the magnetic circuit. Conversely,
an increase in voltage will result in an inoease in speed, but not so great as in the case of
the separately excited motor.
Thus the desirability of operating a motor at the rated voltage is seen.
22. Development of commutatorless dc motors has been and is currently being
pursued by many groups. Various solid-state switching devices such as transistors, thyris-
tors, and silicon controlled rectifiers are being substituted in an effort to eliminate the
eonmuttator, which has placed limitations on speed ratings, voltage ratings, and winding-
inductance values, to say nothing of maintenance problems encountered because of brush
and commutator wear. Operationally, the solid-state switching devices are triggered by
control circuits to switch the current in the armature coils at exactly the same time as the
commutator would switch the current or (for that matter) at other more appropriate times if
the application requires it.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
23. References for DC Motors
Hancock, S.: Speed Regulation and Stability of D-C Motors; Electr. J., February 1922,p. 46.
Hathaway, C. B.: Parallel Operation of Commutating-Pole Motorsand Generators; Electr. J., June
1922, p. 263.
Frazier, R. H., et al.: Precise Speed Control for D-C Machines; Bull. Mass. Inst. Technol., June 1935.
Burt, R. F.: Adjustable Voltage Skip Hoist Control; Iron Steel Eng., August 1943,pp. 38—40.
Caldwell; G. A., and Formhals, W. H.: Electrical Drives for Wide Speed Ranges; Trans. AIEE,
February 1942.
Langsdorf, A. S.: "Principles of D-C Machines," 5th ed.; New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company,
1940.
Shoults, Rife, and Johnson: "Electric Motors in Industry"; New York,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1942.
Siskind, C. S.: "Direct Current Machinery"; New York, McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1952.
Liwschitz-Garik,M., and Whipple, C. C.: "Direct-Current Machines," 2d ed.; Princeton, N.J., D.
Van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1956.
Puchstein, A. F.: "The Design of Small Direct Current Motors"; New York,John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1961.
Kincer, R. D., and DeWitt, B. F.: Modificationsof Basic Drive Motors and Applications; Wescon
Tech. Papers, 1965, vol. 9, pt. 3, no. 5.2.
Newell, A. F., and Williamson, K. H.: Regenerative Braking on D-C Motors; Mullard Tech.
Communs., January 1966, vol. 8, no. 79, pp. 283—290.
Kawano, S.: Speed Characteristicsof Separately Excited D-C Motor Taking Commutation into
Account; Electr. Eng. in Jpn., June 1964, vol. 84, no. 6, pp. 32—40.
Yates, W. W.: Brushless D-C Motors; Mach Des., March 1966, vol. 38, no. 5, pp. 136—142.
Bhagwat,P. G, and Wolfendale, E.: Silicon Controlled Rectifiers Replace Commutator in D-C
Motor; Control, January 1964.
Tustin, A.: Electrical Motors in Which Commutation Is by Switching Devices Such as Controlled
Silicon Rectifiers; Proc. IEEE, January 1964.
Bauerlein, Brushless D-C Motor with Solid-state Commutation, IRE Intern. Cont). Record, 1962,
vol. 10, pt. 6, pp. 184—190.
Hagevat,P. G, and Wolfendale, E.: Silicon Controlled Rectifiers Replace Commutator in D-C
Motor; Control, June 1964, vol. 8, no. 67, pp. 24—27.
Kincer, R. D., and Rakes, R. G.: Brushless D-C Motor, Wescon Tech.
Papers, 1964, vol. 8, pt. 9.
Miyairi, S., and Tsunehiro, Y.: Analysis of Characteristics
Electr. Eng. in Jpn., September 1965, vol. 85, no. of Commutatorless Motor as D-C Motor,
9, pp. 51—62.

Synchronous Motors
24. Definition. A synchronousmotor is a
machine that transforms electric power into
mechanical power. The average speed of normal
frequency of the system to which it is connected. operation is exactly proportional to the
Unless otherwise stated, it is generally
understood that a synchronousmotor has field poles
25. Types. A synchronous motor is similar to an acexcited with direct current.construc-
generator mechanical
tion. It is built with one set of windings,designated the armature, in
which is usually on the

1906
 Synchronous Motors 20-7

stator,that is directly connected to the ac supply system. The configuration of the opposite
member, usually the rotor, deter-mines the type of synchronous motor. Motors above 1 hp
usuallyhave dc separately excited field windings on salient-pole or round rotors. In the
brushless synchronous motor, the excitation (field current) is supplied through shaft-
mounted rectifiers from an ac exciter. In the slip-ring synchronous motor, the excitation is
supplied from a shaft-mounted exciter or a separate dc power supply, Motors below 1 hp
are usually of the nonexcited type, namely, of the reluctance, hysteresis, inductor, or
permanent-magnet type. DC separately-excited synchronous motors are the dominant
industrial type; they are fmther classified into open or totally enclosed, high or low speed,
and unity or 0.8 pf.
26. Standards. DC separately excited synchronous motors are covered by ANSI
Standard C50.10-1965, Synchronous Machines, and C50.11-1965, Synchronous Motors.
They are also covered by Part 21 of NEMA Standard MG-1 1972.
27. Theory of Operation. The operation of the dc separately excited synchronous
motor can be explained in terms of the air-gap magnetic-field model, the circuit model, or
the phasor diagram model of Fig. 20-3.
In the magnetic-field model of Fig. 20-3a, the stator windings are assumed to be
connected to a polyphase source, so that the winding cunents produce a rotating wave of
Bd, main field
Bt , net magnetic field

(stator)
9
Ja, current density
Bat armature

S
Main field poles
( rotor)
(a)

Ed
jlaXd
(b)
Ed
(c)
Fig. 20-3. Operation of synchronous motor. (a) Air-gapmagnetic-field model; (b) circuit model; (c)
phasor-diagram model.

current density Ja and radial armature reaction field Ba. The rotor carrying the main field
poles is rotating in synchronismwith these waves. The excited field poles produce a
rotating wave of field Bd. The net magnetic field Bt is the spatial sum of Ba and BC, it
induces an air-gap voltage Vauin the stator windings, nearly equal to the source voltage
Vt.The current-densitydistributionJa is shown for the current la in phase with the
voltage v t, and pf = 1. The electromagnetic torque acting between the rotor and the stator
is produced by the interaction of the main field Bdand the stator current density J a, as a J
x B force on each unit volume of stator conductor. The force on the conductors is to the
left (—4);the reaction force on the rotor is to the right (+4), and in the direction of rotation.
20-8 Motors

The operation of the synchronous motor can be represented by the circuit model of Fig.
20-3b. The motor is characterized by its synchronous reactance xd and the excitation
voltage Ed behind Xd. The model neglects saliency (poles), saturation, and armature
resistance,and is suitable for first-orderanalysis,but not for calculation of specific
operating points, losses, field current, and staffing.
The phasor diagram of Fig. 2()-3c is drawn for the field model and circuit model
previously described. The phasor diagram neglects saliency and armature resistance. The
phasors eon-espond to the waves in the field model. The terminal voltage Vt is generated
by the field Be, the excitation voltage Ed is generated by the main field BC, the voltage
drop jlaXd is generated by the armature reaction field Ba; and the current la is the
aggregate of the cun•ent-density wave Ja. The power angle b is that between Vt and Ed, or
between Bfand Bd. The excitation voltage Ed, in pu, is equal to the field current I m;in pu,
on the air-gap line of the no-load (open-circuit) saturation curve of the machine.
28. Starting. The interaction of the main field produced by the rotor and the arrnature
current of the stator will produce a net average torque to drive the synchronous motor,
only when the rotor is revolvingat speed n in
2.5 synchronism with the line frequency f; n = 120
p.u. f/p, p = poles. The motor must be started by
developing other than synchronous torques.
2.0 1 Practically, the motor is equipped with an
induction-motor-type squirrel-cage winding on
2 the rotor, in the form of a damper winding, in
1.5 order to staff the motor. The details of starting
are described in Par. 37.
The motor is started on the damper windings
1.0 with the field winding short-circuited, or termi-
nated in a resistor, to attenuate the high "trans-
former" induced voltages. When the motor
0.5 reaches the lowest slip speed, practically syn-
chronous speed, the field current is applied to
the field winding, and the rotor poles accelerate
and pull into step with the synchronously rotat-
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 ing air-gap magnetic field. The damper wind-
n ings see zero slip and carry no further current,
Fig. 20-4. Characteristic torque curves. for unless the rotor oscillates with respect to the
5000-hp synchronous induction motor dur- synchronous speed.
ing runup at full voltage.(1) Synchronous Starting curves for a synchronous motor are
motor for pf = 1; (2) synchronous motor for shown in Fig. 20-4. The damper winding is
pf = 0.8; (3) squirrel-cage induction motor. designed for high starting torque, as
compared
to an induction motor of the same rating. The
closed field winding contributes to the starting torque in the manner of a 3-phase
induction motor with a I-phase rotor. The field winding produces positive torque to half

2 Synchronous speed

s=o.05
1 XAsynchronous speed
b

Excitation applied

Fig. 20-5. Relationship between slip and time for a synchronous

motor pulling(into synchronism. (a)
Successful; (b) unsuccessful.
 Synchronous Motors 20-9

speed, then negative torque to frill speed, accounting for the anomoly at half speed. The
lnax•inutmand niinimum torque excursion at the anomoly is reduced by the resistance in
the closed field winding circuit during starting. The effect is increased by the design of
the damper winding.
The velocity of the rotor during the synchronizing phase, after field current is applied, is
shown in Fig. 20-5. The Il)tor is assumed running at 0.05 pu slip on the damper winding.
The undulation in speed, curve 1, is the effect of the poles attempting to synchronize the
rotorjust by reluctance torque. The added effect of the field current is shown by curve 2,
and the resultant by curve 3. The effect of the reluctance torque of curve 1 is not
dependent on pole polarity. The synchronizing torque of curve 2, with the field current
applied, is pole polarity dependent; the poles want to match the air-gap field in the
fonvarcltorque direction. Cuwe a shows a successful synchronization. Curve b shows the
condition of too much load or inertia to synchronize.
29. Torque Definitions. The torques described in the following paragraphs are listed
in the Standards. The minimum values are given in Table 20-2.
Locked-rotor torque is the minimum torque which the synchronous motor will develop
at rest for all angular positions of the rotor, with rated voltage at rated frequency applied.
TABLE 20-2. Locked-Rotor, Pull-in, and Pull-outTorques for Synchronous Motors
(From ANSI c50.11-1965, Table 2.)

Percent of rated full-load torque *

Pull-in (based Pull-outf
Locked on normal
r/min hp rotor Wk 2 of load) 1.0pf 0.8pf
514 to 1800 200 and below; 1.0pf 100
100 150 175
150and below; 0.8 pf
250 to 1000; 1.0 pf
200 to 1000; 0.8 pf 60 60 150 175
1250and larger 40 60 150 175
450 and below All ratings 40 30 150 200
*The torque values with other than rated voltage applied are approximately equal to the rated voltage
values multiplied by the ratio of the actual voltage to rated voltage in the case of the pull-out torque,
and multiplied by the square of this ratio in the case of the locked-rotor and pull-in torque.
åWith rated excitation current applied.
Pull-in torque is the maximum constant-loadtorque under which the motor will pull
into synchronism, at rated voltage and frequency, when its rated field current is applied.
Whether the motor can pull the load into step from the slip running on the damper
windings depends on the speed-torque
character of the load and the total inertia of
the revolving parts. A typical relationship
between maximum slip and percent of nor-
mal Wk2 for pulling into step is shown in 2
Fig. 20-6. Table 20-2 specifies minimum
values of pull-in torque with the motor
loaded with normal Wk2; these values are d 4
given in Par. 37. Nominal pull-in torque is
the value at 95% of synchronous speed,
with rated voltage at rated frequency
applied, when the motor is running on the
damper windings. 8
Pull-out torque is the maximum sus-
tained torque which the motor will
develop at synchronous speed for 1 min, 10
with rated voltage at rated frequency 0 20 40 60 80 too
applied, and with rated field current. Load Wk2/percent of normal WK2
In addition, the pull-up torque is Fig. 20-6. Typical relationship between load
defined as the minimum torque developed inertia and maximum slip for pulling synchro-
between standstill and the pull-in point. nous motors into step.
20-10 Motors

This torque must exceed the load torque by a sufficientmargin to assure satisfactory
acceleration of the load during starting.
The reluctance torque is a component of the total torque when the motor is operating
synchronously. It results from the saliency of the poles and is a manifestation of the poles
attempting to align themselves with the air-gap magnetic field. It can account for up to
30% of the pull-out torque.
The synchronous torque is the total steady-statetorque available, with field excitation
applied, to drive the motor and the load at synchronousspeed. The maximum 0
value as the
motor is loaded is the pull-out torque. developed at a power angle ö = 70
30. Phasor Diagrams. Two types of phasor diagramscan be used for analyzing the
synchronous motor and calculating its performance, as shown in Fig. 20-7. The round-
rotor diagram is suitable for synchronous motors without salient poles, and for a first-order
representation of salient-pole motors where saliency is neglected. The consequence of
neglecting saliency is that the phasor diagramyields too large a power angle b and
excitation voltage Ed. Neglecting saliency may be required to simplify a hand calculation,

la

Direct
axis jlaXd

(a)

jlaxq
jlqxq
_Quadrature
Ed
(b) axis
Fig. 20-7. Phasor diagrams of synchronous motor operating at a leading pf of 0.8. (a) Round-rotor
model; (b) two-reaction model.
but is certainly not required if a computer calculation is carried out. Typical values of
reactance for salient-pole motors are Xd= 1.1 pu, xq 0.7 pu for low-speed motors, and xd
= 0.8pu,xq— —0.5 pu for high-speed motors.
The two-reaction diagram is shown in Fig. 20-7b. In accordance with the Blondel
reaction theory the armature current is resolved into two components: one, two-
the direct-axis
component producing magnetization whose axis coincides with the center lines of the
poles; and the other, the quadrature-axis
is midway between the field poles. The component producing magnetization whose axis
or to demagnetize frie field poles; direct-axis component .tends either to magnetize
that is, it
produced by the direct current in the field adds to or subtracts from the magnetization
the other hand, produces magnetization winding. The quadrature-axis component, on
midway between poles, or what is frequently
called cross magnetization. The total voltage
drops due to the direct- and quadrature-axis drop in the machine is the vector sum of the
axis drop being the product of the direct-axis components of cunent separately, the direct-
the quadrature-axis drop being the product of current by the direct-axis impedance, and
the quadrature-axis current and the quadra-
ture-axis impedance.
For small motors,the armatureresistance can be included, but the pu
resistance will
always be relatively small comparedto the pu values of Xdand Under operating
 Synchronous Motors 20-11

conditions of several times rated armature and field current, and close to the pull-out
torque, the effect of saturation can be introduced by reducing xd from the saturated value
by Kingsley's method.
31. Power-Factor Correction. Synchronous motors were first used because they were
capable of raising the power factor of systems having large induction-motor loads. Now
they are also used because they can maintain the tenninal voltage on a weak system (high
source impedance), they have lower cost, and they are more efficient than corresponding
induction motors, particularly the low-speed motors. Synchronous motors are built for
operation at pf 1.0, or pf = 0.8 lead, the latter being higher in cost and slightly less
efficient at full load.
The selection of a synchronous motor to correct an existing power factor is merely a
matter of bookkeeping of active and reactive power. The synchronous motor can be
selected to correct the overall power factor to a given value, in which case it must also be
large enough to accomplish its motoring functions; or it can be selected for its motoring
function and required to provide the maximum correction that it can when operating at pf
= 0.8 lead. In Fig. 20-8, a power diagram shows how the active and reactive power
Q axis
1

Synchronous
motor

P axis

Total load

Induction
motor PFs = cos
PFi = cos
= COS

Fig. 20-8. Power diagrams of induction motor and synchronous motor operating in parallel, showing
component and net values of P and Q.

components P8and Qs Ofthe synchronous motor are added to the components Pi and Qi of
an induction motor to obtain the total Pt and Qt components, the kVAt,and the power
factor. The of the synchronous motor is based on the rated kVA and pf = 0.8 lead,
rather than the actual operating kVA.
The synchronous motor can support the voltage of a weak system, so that a larger-rating
synchronous motor can be installed than an induction motor for the same source imped-
ance. With an induction motor, both the P and Q components produce voltage drops in
the source impedance. With a synchronous motor operating at leading power factor, the P
component produces a voltage drop in the source resistance, but the Q component
produces a voltage rise in the source reactance that can offset the drop and allow the
terminal voltage to be normal. If.necessary, the field current of the synchronous motor can
be controlled by a voltage regulator connected to the motor bus. Phasor diagrams of an
induction motor and asynchronous motor connected to the same source are shown in Fig.
20-9. The leading current of the synchronous motor in Fig. 20-9c is able to develop
sufficient voltage rise through the source reactance Xcto overcome the voltage drop a
and maintain the motor voltage Vt equal to the source voltage Vs. in re
32. Power-Angle Diagrams. The power delivered to the terminals of a
motor as it is loaded mechanicallycan be derived from the phasor synchronous
for the lossless machine: diagram of Fig. 20-7b
vtEd 1
sin + sin 26 (20-7)
 20-12 Motors

Equation (20-7)is shown in per unit. The value of Pc will be in watts, if the voltages are
line-line and the reactances in ohms. The correspondingexpression for torque can be
obtainedby dividing by the synchronous
speed, Te PJ0)o,where = 1 pu, or 27
re 1 (2f/p) rad7s.
A plot of the torque is shown in Fig. 20-
10. The total value is the synchronous
Vs torque. The peak value is the pull-out
(o)
Pull- out torque

Ire
(b)

jlxe 8

Ire
Reluctance torque
(c)

Fig. 20-9. Comparison of induction motor Fig. 20-10. Power-angle diagram of a salient-pole
and synchronous motor for operation from synchronous motor.
system with supply impedance re —jxe (a)
System diagram; (b) induction motor at pf = cos torque. The second term of Eq. (20-7)rep-
lag; (c) synchronous motor at pf = cos lead. resents the reluctance torque. For round-
rotor motors, xd = xq, the reluctance torque
is zero, and the expression reduces to the first term. The curve gives the torque and power
as a function of the power angle b. The peak value of the first term can be increased by
raising the field current, which increases the excitation voltage Ed. The pull-out torque
can be raised substantially above the rated pull-out torque by this means.
33. Synchronization. Synchronization is the process by which the synchronous motor
"pulls into step" during the starting process, when the field current is applied to the field
winding. Initially, the rotor is revolving at a slip with respect to the synchronous speed of
the air-gap magnetic-fieldwaves. The rotor torque, produced by the damper windings, is
in equilibrium with the load torque at that slip. The ability of the rotor to accelerate and
synchronize depends upon the total inertia (Wk2), the initial slip, and the closing angle of
the poles with respect to the field wave at the instant field current is applied.
Figure 20-11 shows the torque versus angle ö locus for the rotor during a successful
synchronization.The rotor is subjected to the synchronous torque Ts, which is a function
of b, and the damper torque Td, which is a function of the slip velocity (no
n).
torque Ta available to accelerate the rotor is the residual of Ta = Ts + Td —T1. In The
figure, the closing angle is assumed zero at point a. Furthermore, Td = Tl, so that the the
residual torque Ta is zero. The rotor has a finite slip, so that the power angle
As it does, the synchronous torque Ts increases, Ta increases and the rotor increases.
point b, where n = no, Td O.The slip goes negative, reverses the direction accelerates to
damper torque, but the rotor continues to accelerate to point of the
maximumand the accelerating torque is zero. The rotor c, where the speed is
minimum speed, accelerates again, and finally synchronizes falls back to points d and e at
If the initial slip is excessive, or if the inertia at point f.
Il could follow the path al)'. The condition of and/or load too great, the locus in Fig. 20-
speed; the rotor never pulls into step, but Ta = O is reached below synchronous
the machine is tripped off. oscillates around the initial slip velocity until
34. Natural-Frequency Oscillation. The angular
rotor can oscillate about its average synchronous-speed position of a synchronous-motor
natural frequency L in cycles per minute. The frequency position with an undamped
is determined by the Wk2of the
rotating pafts and the synchronizing-torque coefficient P h which
is a measure in kW/elec.
 Synchronous Motors 20-13

"spring
lad. of the magnetic-field coupling or is given constant"
in
between the rotating field in the
MCI-21.86
air gap and the rotor. The frequency as
35,200 xf
n wk2 (20-8)

the phasor diagram of Fig. 20-7b. The power

The expression for Pr can be derived from
angle in electrical degrees is
ö = tan —1 (20-9)

The expression for PD in kW/elec. rad., at a load of Pe, in kW, is given by

57.3 Pe
(20-10)

where ö is calculated from Eq. (20-9).

The ratio, Pr/kVArating of motor, is expressed in terms of the per unit reactance xø
terminal voltage v t, and power-factor angle d),as
57.3 cos o
(20-11)
kVA xa COS0
tan-I v
Xq COS t

Unless special conditions are given, the value of Pr should be calculated from Eq. (20-11).

n max

Ta(+)
c
smin
d f s=o b no mmax s
e nmin

n art a
Sst rt
n min
S max

Fig. 20-11. Locus of torque and speed vs. power angle a fora synchronous motor during a successful
and an unsuccessful attempt to synchronize.

The amplitude of rotor angular oscillation will be limited by the damping torque of the
damper winding of the motor and of the load. However, it will be responsive to the load
torque that excites the oscillation, namely, its amplitude and frequency of cyclic variation
from its average value. See Par. 42.
35. Damper Windings. Damper windings are placed on the rotors of synchronous
motors for two purposes: for starting and for reducing the amplitude of power-angle
oscillation.The damper windings consist ofcopper or brass bars inserted through holes in
the pole shoes and connected at the ends to rings to form the equivalent of a squirrel-cage.
The rings can extend between the poles to form a complete damper. Synchronous motors
with solid pole shoes, or solid rotors, perform like motors with damper windings.
The design of the damper winding requires the selection of the bar and ring material to
meet the torque and damping requirements. Figure 20-12shows the effect on the starting
curves for the damper winding of varying the material from a low-resistance copper in
curve I, to a higher-fesistance brass or alumindm-bronze alloy in curve 2. Curve I gives a
20-14 Motors

starting torque of about 0.25 pu, and a pull-in torque of 1.0 pu, of the nominal synchronous
torque. Cunte 2 gives a higher starting torque of about 0.5 to 1.0 pu, but a pull-in torque Of
about 0.4 pu of the nonlinal value. The additional starting torque of the field winding is
superilnposed on the torque of the damper alone. The damper winding must be designed
to nneet the characteristics of the load.
To desigu the dalnper winding so that the amplitude of the natural-frequency oscilla-
tion is reduced, the bar currents during the low-frequencysweeping of the air-gap flux
across the pole faces nurst be maximized. Since the slip frequency is low, the currents and
dannpereffectiveness is maximized by making the dampers low resistance, corresponding
to euree 1 in Fig. 20-12.This design coincides with the requirement for low-starting

3 2 1

r2

s 1.0 0.5 0.050

Fig. 20-12. Effect of resistivity of damper material on the starting and pull-in torque ofthe synchronous
motor. Damper winding I, least resistance; damper winding 3, maximum resistance.

torque and high pull-in torque. In special cases, the equivalent of a deep-bar or double-
bar damper can be used, if there is adequate space on the pole shoe.
36. Exciters. DC separately excited synchronous motors are provided with a shaft-
driven exciter to supply the field power. Excitersare classified into slip-ringtypes and
brushless types. The slip-ring type consists of a dc generator, whose output is fed into the
motor field winding through slip rings and stationary brushes. The brushless type consists
of an ac generator, with rotating armature and stationary field; the output is rectified by
solid-staterectifier elements mounted on the rotatingstructure and fed directly to the
motor field winding. In each type, the motor field current is controlled by the exciter field
current. Typical kilowatt ratings for exciters for 60-Hz synchronous motors are given in
MCI-21.16 as a function of hp rating, speed, and power factor. For a given hp rating, the
exciter kW increases as the speed is reduced, and as the power factor is shifted from pf =
1.0 to pf = 0.8 load.
During starting,the motor field winding must be disconnected from the exciter and
loaded with a resistor, to limit the high induced voltage, to prevent damage to the rectifier
elements of the brushless, type, and to prevent the circulation of ac current through a slip-
ring-type dc exciter. The switching is done with a contactor for the slip-ring type, and with
thyristors on the rotating rectifier assembly for the brushless type. Except for the discon-
nection for starting, the synchronous-motor excitation system is practically the same as for
an ac generator of the same rating.
Brushless-type exciters are now used on all new high-speed synchronous motors (2 to 8
poles) that formerly were built with direct-drive dc exciters and slip rings. The brushless-
type exciters require minimum maintenance and can be used in explosive atmospheres.
The circuit of a typical brushless-typeexcitation system is shown in Fig. 20-13. The
semicontrolled bridge with three diodes and three thyristors rectifies the output of the ac
exciter generator and supplies the motorfield winding. thyristors act as a switch to
open the rectifier during starting and to close it during The
running, whereas the ac exciter
generator is excited with its own field current. The resistor is permanently connected
across the motor field winding during starting and running. It improves the torque
characteristics during starting,and protects the bridge elements against transient overvol-
tages during running. The capacitorprotects the diodes and thyristors against commuta-
tion overvoltages caused by hole-storage phenomena in conjunction with the inductances
of the armature windings of the ac exciter generator.
 Synchronous Motors 20-15

The control system (Fig. 20-13) comprises a simple auxiliary rectifier arrangement
connected in parallel with the main rectifier bridge and loaded with an auxiliaryresistor 7.
Each main thyristor has an auxiliary thyristor which provides the gate current and
operates on the same phase of the ac exciter when
voltage. Consequently the trigger signal
the thyristors have a forward loading. No
always occurs at the correct instant, that is,
frigger signal is given during the blocking period. There is no excitation at the exciter
dullingrun-up, and therefore no trigger signal is applied to the gates of the thyristors and
they remain blocking. The alternating cun•ent induced in the field winding flows in both
directions through the protection resistor 5. When the machine has been run-up to norrnal

3
8 13
14

6 9
4 5 7 16
10 18
11
12 15

17

Fig. 20-13. Brushless-type excitation system for a synchronous motor.

speed, the field voltage is applied to the ac exciter. It then supplies the control current and
the thyristors are fired. Control losses are only 0.1 to 0.2% of the exciter power and are
therefore negligible. The auxiliary thyristor 10 together with the diode 11 and zener diode
12 prevents preignition of the thyristors during run-up due to high residual voltage in the
ac exciter. On the other hand the gates of the other thyristors are protected against
overload by zener diode 9 and resistor 18. If the voltage exceeds the zener voltage, the
zener diode conducts the excess current.
37. Methods of Starting. The method used to start a synchronous motor depends
upon two factors: the required torque to start the load, and the maximum starting current
permitted from the line. Basically, the motor is started by using the damper windings to
develop asynchronous torque, or the using an auxiliary motor to bring the unloaded motor
up to synchronous speed (see Par. 38). Recently, solid-state frequency converters have
been designed to bring up to speed large several-hundred-MVAsynchronous motor/
generators for pumped-storage plants (see Par. 46).
Techniques for asynchronous starting on the damper windings are the same as for
squirrel-cage induction motors of equivalent rating. Across-the-line starting provides the
maximum starting torque, but requires the maximum line current. The blocked-rotor kVA
of synchronous motors as a function of pole number is shown in Fig. 20-14. If the ac line to
the motor supplies other loads, the short-circuitkVAof the line must be at least 6 to 10
times the blocked rotor kVA•ofthe motor to limit the line-voltage dip on starting. The
starting and pull-in torques for three general classes of synchronous motors are shown in
Fig. 20-15. The torques are .shown for rated voltage; for across-the-line starting, the values
will be reduced to V?(pu).
Reduced-voltage starting is used where the full starting torque of the motor is not
20-16 Motors

required and/or the ac line cannot tolerate the frill starting current. The starter includes a
3-phase open-delta or 3-winding autotransformer, which can be set to apply 50, 65, or 80%
700 Of line voltage to the motor on the first step. The
corresponding torque and line current are reduced to
600 25, 42, or 64%. The starter switches the motor to full
:c 500 voltage when it has reached nearly synchronous speed,
and then applies the field excitation to synchronize the
400 motor.
o ANSI C50.11-1965limits the number Ofstarts for a
300 100% p F
synchronous motor, under its design conditions Of
8 200 80% p Wk2, load torque, nominal voltage, and starting
a- 100 method, to the following:
1. Two starts in succession, coasting to rest
between starts, with the motor initially at ambient
0 8 16 24 32 40 48 temperature, or
2. One start with the motor initially at a tempera-
Fig. 20-14. Approximate blocked- ture not exceeding its rated load operating
rotor kVA of synchronous motors. temperature.
If additional staffs are required, it is recommended
that none be made until all conditions affecting operationhave been thoroughly investi-
gated and the apparatus examined for evidence of excessive heating. It should be
recognized that the number of starts should be kept to a minimum since the life of the
motor is affected by the number of starts.

Approx;maiespeed Loadinerfia =/Ohimesmoforinerhbl

fromwhkhpu//-in Load mohorinerfio /
wi//rcur wihh Zero load inerhia,

Mohrsfor
speed pumps,fan;
Moforsforhiq,;
Q6 horque load
(a moior wiih
*heséiorques
04 is larger *han
Moforsfor shandard)
genera/purpose 8
02
or for cons+anf
% forque loads
0
o 02 04 06 LO 12 14 1.6
Per unit Torque
Fig. 20-15. Approximate starting performance of synchronous motors.

38. Auxiliary Starting Means. Synchronous motors can be started by external means.
Synchronousmotors driving frequency-changer sets, dc generators,
tions where the load may be greatly reduced during the starting or for other applica-
started from a small wound-rotor inducåon or dc motor on the end period are sometimes
done only when the relatively large starting current inherent to the of the shaft. This is
objectionablebecause of the voltage dip it produces. When synchronous motor is
autotransformerstarting is used, the starting kVAtaken by oil pressure is supplied and
motor may be as low as 20% or less of the kVA an unloaded synchronous
reach synchronism. rating depending mainly on the time to
Use of Clutches. Clutches of various kinds have
motors and their loads, the motor being started been used between synchronous
light
engaged after the motor is in synchronism and fully with the clutch open and the clutch
excited. This results in very little
disturbance to the system, especially if other than across-the-line
times the clutch is made an integral part of the motor. Combining starting is used. Some-
the synchronous motor
with clutches permitting speed variations opens the field of. variable-speed
drive to
 Synchronous Motors 20-17

synchronous motor applications. Clutch types inclucle (I) mechanically operated friction
clutches, (3) revolving stator with brake, (4)
clutches, (2) electrically operated friction (5)
centrifugally operated {hiction clutches, squirrel-cage or eddy-current electrical
clutches, (6) planeta1Yclutches, and (7) hydraulic clutches.
Phase-wound damper windings are sometimnesused to obtain a motor which, during
induction motor. External resistors are inserted in
staffing, is substantially a wound-rotor high-torque
the rotor circuit to pernft starting with and low-stator current. When up to
with dc excitation, and the motor is then a
speed, the rotor windings are supplied
symchronous motor and carries its load as such.
39. Standard Ratings. Standard ratings for dc separately excited synchronous motors
are given in NEMA MCI-1972, Part 21. Standard horsepowers range from 20 to 100,000
lip. Speed ratings extend from 3600 r/min (2-pole) to 80 r/min (90-pole) for 60-Hz
machines, and five-sixths Ofthe values for 5()-Hz machines. The power factor shall be
unity or 0.8 leading. The voltage ratings for 60-Hz motors are 200, 230, 460, 575, 2300,
4000, 4600, 6600 and 13,200V. It is not practical to build motors of all horsepower ratings
at these speeds and voltages.
40. Effciency. Efficiency and losses shall be detennined in accordance with IEEE
test procedures for synchronous machines, Publication 115. The efficiency shall be
detennined at rated output, voltage, frequency, and power factor. The following losses
shall be included in detennining the efficiency: (l) 12R loss of armature and field; (2) core
loss; (3) stray-load loss; (4) friction and windage loss; (5) exciter loss for shaft-driven
exciter. The resistances should be corrected for temperature.
Typical synchronous motor efficiencies are shown in Fig. 20-16.The unity-power-factor
synchronous motor is generally I to 3% more efficient than the NEMA Design B
inducåon motors. The 0.8 pf synchronous motor, because of the increased copper loss, is
lower in efficiency; its effciency is closer to that of the induction motor at high speed, but
better at low speed.
41. Applications. Compared to squirrel-cage induction motors, synchronous motors
are used in numerous applications that take advantage of their unique features. The
synchronous motor is lower in cost for low-speed ratings below 500 r/min, and for large
horsepower ratings for medium speeds of 500 to 900 r/min. The efficiency of low-speed
and high-speed unity-power-factor synchronous motors is higher than induction motors.
The feature of controlling power factor using the reactive-powercapability of the
synchronous motor has been somewhat superseded by the relatively inexpensive ac
power capacitor. The advantage of the synchronous motor is found in applications having
a ' 'weak line," where the leading power factorOfthe motor supports the line voltage for
the motor and all other loads connected to the bus.
The starång characteristics of the synchronous motor can be matched to any induction-
motor design without affecting the running characteristics.The motor speed is always
synchronous. Synchronous motors are more suitable for high voltage than induction
motors; their inherently longer air gap permits the use of wider slots with more space for
insulation.
Typical applications for high-speed synchronous motors, 500 r/min and above, include
fans and blowers, pumps, reciprocating and centrifugal compressors, and motor-generator
sets. Typical applications for low-speed synchronous motors, below 500 r/min, include
reciprocating, centrifugal, and screw-type pumps, ball mills, and metal rolling mills. The
typical torque requirements for starting and synchronizing the loads for most applications
are listed in MCI-21.87.
42. Pulsating Loads. If the load driven by a synchronous motor is a periodically
pulsating load, such as a reciprocatingpump or compressor,the inertia of the rotating
parts must be carefully selected; otherwise, severe pulsations in the armature current and
power drawn from the system may result. The NEMA rule covering this is as follows
(MCI-21.84):
Pulsating Arrnature Current. When the driven load such as that of reciprocating pumps, com-
pressors, etc., requires a variable torque during each revolution, the combined installation shall
have sufficient inertia in its rotatingparts to limit the variations in motor armature current to a value
not exceeding 66% of full-load current.
The basis of determining the variation shall be oscillograph measurement and not be ammeter
readings. A line shall be drawn on the oscillogramthrough consecutive peaks of the cun•entwave.
The variation is the difference between the maximum and minimum ordinates of this envelope.
20-18 Motors

This variation shall not exceed 66% of the maximum value of the rated full-load current of the
motor. (The maximum value of the motor armature current to be assumed as 1.41 times the rated
full-load current.)
Figure 20-17 is an oscillogram of current input to a 200-hp, 4000-V, 100-r/min, 3-phase, 60-
Hz synchronous motor driving a duplex double-acting ammonia compressor. The current

98
r/min
514
97 Uti lity powerfactor, 3 phase 60 hertz
600
full-load value 900
96
ISOO
95
c 94
93
1+_92 r/min
91
1800
90
900 _
Q_ 85 600
2300 v
80

70
20 50 IOO 200 500 1000 2000 5000
Horsepowerrating

98
Unity power-factor , 230 sand 2300 V
Normal torque, open, 60 hertz horizontal
96 machines furnished without shaft or bearings

94 60

0 00
c 92
0

90
o

88
For machines furnished with shaft

raw—
and bearings the full-load efficiency
will be approximately 0.5 percent

84
86

20 30 50 100 200 300

lower.Dottedcurves represent
2200-V motors in lower hp range.

500 1000 2000 3000 5000

Horsepowerrating
Fig. 20-16. Full-load efficiencies of (a) high-speed
speed synchronous motors. general-purpose synchronousmotors and (b) Iow-

variation in accordance with the above ride is 18.1 A, which is 51% of

turn is 1.41 times 25.1 A, the rated motor current. 35.4 A, which in
The pulsating torque of the reciprocating compressor acts on the synchronous
which reacts like a second-order spring-inertia system with the natural frequencymotor,
fn,
defined in Par. 34. The closer the frequency of the pulsating torque to the natural
 Synchronous Motors 20-19

the power angle ö, and the greater the variation

frequency fn, the greater the excursions of
in the motor armature current. The measure of the ability of the motor to cope with the
PUlsating load is the compressor factor C defined in MCI-21.88 as
0.746 Wk 2n 4
108Prf (20-12)

have been analyzed

Practically all types of compressorsof C required in the for the pattern of the torque
required per revolution. The values motor-compressorassembly to
limit the pulsations to 66, 40, and 20%, are given by NEMA in MG 1-21.88 (1972).

23.7amp

Fig. 20-17. Current-pulsation oscillogramof a 200-hp 100%-pf4000-V100-r/minsynchronous motor

a double-acting duplex ammonia compressor.Current in one phase is shown with line voltage
= 4000, line amperes 21.5, field amperes = 32, and power factor = 100%approximately. Both
cylinders in operation, head pressure = 152 lb/in2, suction pressure = 27 lb/in 2.

The definition of C in Eq. (20-12)does not indicate its character in terms of the
synchronous motor and load as a second-order system. If the value of Wk2from Eq. (20-8)
is substituted in Eq. 20-12,we obtain
(20-13)
The frequency of the pulsating torque will be a multiple of the speed n, so that the ratio
n/fn is the separation of the driving frequency from the natural frequency of the second-
order system. The larger the separation ratio n/fn, the larger the value of C, and the larger
the attenuation of the effect of the pulsatingtorque.
43. Standard Tests. Tests on synchronous motors shall be made in accordance with
IEEE Test Procedure for Synchronous Machines, Publ. No. 115, and ANSI C50.10-1965.
The following tests shall be made on motors completely assembled in the factoryand
fumished with shaft and complete set of bearings: resistance test of armature and field
windings; dielectric test of armature and field windings; mechanical balance; current
balance at no load; direction of rotation. The following tests may be specified on the same
or duplicate motors: locked-rotor current; temperature rise; locked-rotor torque; over-
speed; harmonic analysis and TIF; segregated losses; short-circuit tests at reduced voltage
to determine reactances and time constants; field-winding impedance; speed-torque
curve.
The following tests shall be made on all motorsnot completely assembled in the
factory: resistance and dielectric tests of armature and field windings. The following field
tests are recommended after installation:resistanceand dielectric tests of armature and
field windings not completely assembled in the factory; mechanical balance; bearing
insulation; current balance at no load; direction of rotation. The following field tests may
be specified on the same or duplicate motors: temperature rise; sh01t-circuit tests
reduced voltage to determine reactances and time constants; field-winding impedance. at
The dielectric test for the armature winding shall be conducted for I min,
with an ac
rms voltage of 1000V plus twice the rated voltage. For machines rated 6 kv and above, the
test may be conducted with a dc voltage of 1.7 times the ac rms test value. The dielectric
test for the field winding depends upon the connection for starting.
field winding, the ac rms test voltage is 10 times the rated For a short-circuited
excitation voltage, but no less
2500 V, nor more than 5000 V. For a field winding closed through a resistor,
ms test voltage is twice the rms value of the IR drop, but not the ac
less than 2500 V, where the
current is the value that would circulate with a short-circuited winding.
made on an assembled group of several pieces of new apparatus, each of When a test is
which has passed
a high-potential test, the test voltage shall not exceed 85% of the -lowest test voltage for
20-20 Motors

any part of the group. When a test is made after installation of a new machine which has
passed its high-potential test at the factoryand whose windings have not since been
disturbed, the test voltages should be 75% of the original values.
44. Voltage and Frequency Variation. Motors should operate successfully in syn-
chronism, rated exciting current being maintained, under running conditions at rated load
with a variation in the voltage or the frequency up to the following:
1. Plus or minus 10% of rated voltage, with rated frequency.
2. Plus or minus 5% Ofrated frequency, with rated voltage.
3. A combined variation in voltage and frequency Ofplus or minus 10% (sum of
absolute values) of the rated values, provided the frequency variation does not exceed
plus or minus 5% of rated frequency.
Perfonnance within these voltage and frequency variations will not necessarily be in
accordance with the standards established for operation at rated voltage and frequency.
The limiting values of voltage and frequency under which a motor will successfully
start and synchronize depend upon the margin between the locked-rotorand pull-in
27.5 kV

O 0 5051
SIN

10,000 kVA

5980 @ÜXDR
630 2000 kVA
2600
Y Y 5400
63P kvar
63L 12,000kVA 500v
49
250 t)

t2.:-T Cement mill

auxiliaries

8750
2081 A,l.o r/min
Fig. 20-18, Cycloconverter-synchronous
motor gearless drive-system for ball mill
torques of the motor at rated voltage
of the load under starång conditions. and frequency and the corresponding requirements
Since the locked-rotor and pull-in torques of a motor
are approximately proporåonal to the square
of the voltage and inversely proportional to
the square of the frequency, it is generally desirable to determine what voltage and
 Induction Machines 20-21

at each installation, taking into account any

frequency variations will actually occur
current drawn by the motor. This information and
voltage drop resulting fh•on)the stamting
dliven machine detennine the values of locked-rotor and
the torque requirennents of the and frequency that are adequate
pull-in torque at rated voltage for the application.
Large low-speed synchronous motors are well suited
45' Large Low-Speed Motors.
for almost any constant-speed drive provided that suitable provision can be made for
Staffing.As compared with induction motors they usually have somewhat higher effi-
space, but they require an exciter and have
ciency•and lower cost and need less floor be made
higher starting cun•ents. Provision should for reducing the load as much as
Practicablewhen the motor starts, and the starting requirements after this has been done
should be considered carefully in the design of the motor. Care should be exercised to see
that adequate line and transformer capacity feeding the motor is installed, as otherwise
objectionable variations in voltage may result.
46• Cycloconverter Drive. A unique application for large low-speed synchronous
motors is for gearless ball-mill drives for the cement industry. For a recently installed
drive, the motor is rated 8750 hp, 1.0 pf, 6850 kVA, 14.5 r/min, 1900 V, 4.84 Hz, 40 poles,
Class B. The power is provided by a cycloconvefter over the range Oto 4.84 E-lz,as shown
in Fig. 20-18. The cycloconverter consists of six thyristor rectifiers, each of which gener-
ates one polarity of the 3-phase ac voltage wave applied to the motor. The cycloconverter
can be used effectively up to about one-third of the line frequency. The motor can be
controlled in speed by the cycloconverter frequency, or in torque by the angle between
the armature voltage and the field-pole position, approximately the power angle (3.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
47. References for Synchronous Motors.
Part-winding Starting of Synchronous Motors; Electr. World, Jan. 16, 1932, p. 142.
Edgerton, H. E., et al.: Pulling into Step of SynchronousInduction and Salient Pole Synchronous
Motors; Bull. Mass. Inst. Technol., No. 70, April 1931.
Edgerton and Lyon: Transient Torque-Angle Characteristics of Synchronous Machines; Trans.
AIEE, 1930, vol. 49, pp. 686-698.
Shoults, Crary, and Lauder: Pull-in Characteristics of Synchronous Motors; Trans. AIEE, 1935, vol.
54, pp. 1385—1395.
Hyde, M. A: Synchronous Motor with Phase-connected Damper Winding for High-Torque Loads;
Trans. AIEE, 1931, vol. 50, pp. 600-606.
Doherty, R. E., and Nickle, F. A.: Synchronous Machines, Trans. AIEE, 1926, vol. 45, pp. 913, 927;
Trans. AIEE, 1927, vol. 46, p. 1.
Park, R. H.: Two-Reaction Theory of SynchronousMachines—GeneralizedMethod of Analysis, I;
Trans. AIEE, July 1929,vol. 48, p. 716. Two-ReactionTheory of Synchronous Machines, Il; Trans.
AIEE, June 1933,vol. 52, p. 352.
Tittel, J.: Variable-Speed Synchronous Machines for Hydro-electric or Pumped Storage Power
Stations; CICRE Paper 109, May 1954.
Woll, R. F.: A-C Motor Rerate—New Industry Standard, WestinghouseEng., November 1965,vol.
25, no. 6, pp. 175-181.
Edwards, J. D., Gilbert, A. J., and Harrison, E. H.: Application of Thyristors to Excitation Circuits Of
Synchronous Motors, IEE Conf. Publ. 17, 1965,pt. 1, pp. 158—167.
Tanaka, Y.: Synchronous Motor with Transistorized Phase Controller, Electr. Eng. in Jpn., Novem-
ber 1964, vol. 85, no. 11, pp. 41—50.
Moore, R. C: SynchronousMotorsHelp PowerFactor, Power, December 1965,vol. 109,no. 12, pp.
73-75.
Cahill, D. P. M., and Adkins, B.: Permanent-Magnet Synchronous Motor, Pr.oc. LEE, December
1962, vol. 190, pt. A, no. 38, pp. 483-491.

Induction Machines
THEORY OF THE POLYPHASE INDUCTION MOTORI
48. Principle of Operation. An induction motor is simply an electric transformer
whose magnetic circuit is separated by an air gap into two relatively movable
One carrying the primary and the Other the secondaw portions,
winding. Alternating current
supplied to the primary winding from an electric power system induces an opposing
IP. L. Alger, "The Nature of Polyphase
Machines"; New York,John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1951.