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Chapter

Volatile Aromatic Flavor

Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
Albert Krastanov, Philip J. Yeboah, Namesha Dulari Wijemanna,
Abdulhakim S. Eddin, Raphael D. Ayivi and Salam A. Ibrahim

Abstract

Lactic acid bacteria are of great importance in the production of yogurt worldwide, yet
very little is still known about the mechanisms of aroma formation in foods subjected to
lactic acid fermentation. However, advances in the Adolfsson development of instrument
methods have made it possible to avoid some of the difficulties in extracting flavoring
substances from the otherwise complex matrix of lactic acid products. In this chapter, we
present recent developments related to the impact of yogurt starter cultures on the pro-
duction of the aromatic components in yogurts. In addition, we examine and characterize
the aromatic compounds based on the chemical structures and discuss modern analytical
techniques for yogurt analysis. As described in this chapter, a large number of flavoring
substances can be studied, isolated, and identified with the help of advanced instrument
analysis such as synthetic fibers for solid-phase extraction (SPME) and gas chromatog-
raphy combined with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). These techniques can help us reach a
more advanced level of understanding of the importance of specific strains for obtaining
the desired sensory qualities of fermented, lactic acid products. At a more advanced stage,
these analyses could allow scientists to develop rapid methods for determining the quality
and authenticity of lactic acid products based on the aromatic-metabolic profile of starter
cultures in the final product.

Keywords: yogurt, volatile, aromatic flavor, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, acetaldehyde

1. Introduction

Yogurt is defined as the product of fermented milk by L. bulgaricus and

Streptococcus thermophilus. Yogurt was first discovered in the Middle East and has
been a part of the human diet for thousands of years. However, it was not until the
twentieth century that scientists started to provide scientific evidence for the health
benefits associated with yogurt consumption. In 1905, a Bulgarian scientist, Stamen
Grigorov, was the first to report on Bacillus bulgaricus (now L. bulgaricus), a lactic
acid bacterial strain found in Bulgarian yogurt. Then, in 1908, the Russian scientist
Elie Metchnikoff theorized that one’s health could be improved, and senility delayed
by colonizing the gut with the host-friendly bacteria found in yogurt. The popularity
of yogurt is attributed to its various health benefits as well as the flavors and sensory
characteristics [1]. Yogurt is described as having a smooth, viscous gel-like texture

1
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

with Sharpe acid associated with green apple aroma. These characteristics play a
significant role in the consumer acceptability to yogurt products (Table 1). The tra-
ditional yogurt flavor is a combination of aroma and taste that are typically produced
during lactic acid fermentation by the yogurt starter cultures. During fermentation,
the yogurt starter culture coverts lactose and other nutrients in milk to several chemi-
cals that lead to the production of various flavor and aromatic compounds. More than
100 different volatile compounds have been reported and produced by various yogurt
cultures. Several advanced techniques and instrumentations have been applied to
determine the volatile compounds in yogurt products. Table 2 lists some of the com-
mon analytical instrument used for flavor analysis with advantages and limitations of
each instrument.
The selection of suitable strain combinations in yogurt starter culture is important
for achieving the best technological performance and desirable sensory characteristics.
However, the use of genetically modified lactic acid bacteria with encoded and targeted
flavoring [7] is not an acceptable solution primarily due to the lack of consumer accep-
tance of this technology, and restricted regulations for the use of such bacterial strains
in food products; this is especially true for the European market [7]. In this regard,

Volatile compounds Odor descriptor Volatile compounds Odor descriptor

Acetic acid Vinegar like Pentan-2-one-4-ol Cucumber, lettuce

Propanoic acid Cheesy Ethanol Alcohol

Methional Cooked vegetables 2,3-Butanediol Creamy

Methyl benzoate Vanilla-like Butyl acrylate Tropical fruity

Benzaldehyde Almond-like 1-Octen-3-one Mushroom earthy

Nonanoic acid Earthy 2-Pentanone Wine-like

Ethyl nitrite Sweet Acetone Fruity

Hexanoic acid Sweaty Pentanoic acid Disgusted

Acetaldehyde Fresh, green apple-like Hexanal Grass-like

Butanal Cocoa-like Ethyl acetate Mild

Octanoic acid Cheesy Decanal Floral

1-Hexanol Greasy Isobutyric acid Buttery

Decanoic acid Rot-like 1-Nonen-3-ol Mushroom-like

2-Furanmethanol Toast-bread like Diethyl disulfide Cooked onions-like

Heptanoic acid Sour Acetophenone Sweet almond

2,3-Pentanedione Sweet Ethyl 2-methylbutyrate Pear-like

2-Phenylacelaldehyde Flowery Tetradecanoic acid Coconut-like

3-Methyl-2-butenal Cherry-like Pentanal Fermented-like

Dimethyl sulfide Lactone-like, sweet Isopropyl alcohol Musty

2,3-Butanedione Butter, diacetyl vanilla Nonanal Rosy

Butyl acrylate Tropical fruity 2-Methyl-1-propanol Wine-like

Sources: [2–5].

Table 1.
Some identified volatile compounds in yogurt with their description of odors.

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Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

Technique Dairy products Analytical principle Pros Cons

High-vacuum Yogurt, cheese, Involves the use of Thermal decomposition Labor and time-
distillation sour cream organic solvents of compounds is intensive process
for extracting prevented due to and requires high
minute volumes of process operating at sample volumes
concentrated aqueous ambient or sub-
volatiles ambient temperature
Simultaneous Yogurt, milk fat, Involves a continuous High yield due to Heat-labile volatiles
(steam) skim milk powder process utilizing extraction rate risk breakdown if
distillation organic solvents extraction is not
extraction (SDE) with extremely low controlled at low
boiling solvents for pressure
concentrating volatile
compounds
Dialysis Yogurt, milk Separation process Yields high Labor and time-
is based on the concentration intensive process
diffusivity potential gradients
of volatiles through a
membrane resulting
in a concentration
gradient
Molecular Butter, cheese Similar process to Ideal for heat-labile Volatile requires
distillation the high-vacuum volatile compounds short distance
distillation procedure between the
but only requires condensation
transfer of volatiles system and the
from a matrix to a food sample under
chilled and condensed a high-vacuum
system environment
Dynamic Yogurt, milk, Restricted to the Minimal use of Time-sensitive
headspace/purge ice cream, hard number of bases sample, rapid process and involves use
trap cheese and minimized use of of expensive
thermal artifacts equipment
Solvent-assisted Butter, milk, Requires mixing High yields of volatile Limited to only
vapor evaporation whey protein sample in a selected compounds devoid of unique glassware
(SAFE) organic solvent and thermal process use
liquid is centrifuged or
evaporated
Stir-bar sorptive Human milk, Volatiles are concentrated Highly immiscible in Labor-intensive
extraction cheese without using solvents fluids
Solid-phase Yogurt, milk, ice Employs a fiber system Highly sensitive, and Volatiles could
microextraction cream that absorbs volatiles requires small sample be altered during
(SPME) and desorbs into a volumes extended thermal
gas chromatograph application process
injection port
Mass Yogurt, milk, Detects the mass-to- Volatiles are detected Extremely expensive
spectrometry cheese charge ratio of volatiles based on reference
spectra
Flame ionization Yogurt, milk, Detects volatiles in a Broad spectrum for Requires reference
cheese stream of gas detecting volatiles standards for
comparison
Sources: [3, 4, 6].

Table 2.
Analytical techniques for the determination of volatile compounds in fermented dairy products.

3
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

knowledge of the aromatic-metabolic profile of the starter cultures used and the influ-
ence of the profile on the sensory characteristics of the fermented products is essential,
both for the individual consumer and for the food industry. It should be noted that an
important consideration in the selection of starter cultures for the production of yogurt
and other dairy products is the ability of the starter culture strains to produce metabo-
lites that shape the sensory qualities of the product. Thus, in the selection of strains
included in the composition of starter cultures used for the production of dairy prod-
ucts, the metabolic profile of each strain is examined, particularly since some metabolic
products involved in the formation of the aroma have antimicrobial activity.
In this chapter, we present a comprehensive review of the general aromatic compo-
nents that are present in yogurt products. First, we introduce the role of lactic acid bac-
teria with regard to yogurt flavor. Next, we present the aromatic compounds and group
them based on the chemical structure into carbonyl compounds, organic acids, alcohols,
and esters as major compounds. We then go on to discuss advanced instrument techniques
for yogurt analysis. It is these techniques that could help us to reach a more advanced level
of understanding of the impact of specific yogurt strains for obtaining the desired sensory
qualities of yogurt products and other fermented lactic acid products.

2. The role of lactic acid bacteria in yogurt flavor

Yogurt is one of the most popular fermented dairy products worldwide nowadays.
Moreover, consumption of yogurt has been increasing globally as a result of its pleasing
sensory qualities, including texture, color, and flavor. Being one of the key food pres-
ervation methods, fermentation has significantly increased the nutritional value, shelf
life, and sensory qualities of foods. This process involves a variety of microorganisms
that break down the biochemical components of the food’s basic materials (carbohy-
drates, proteins, and lipids), improving catabolism (digestion), taste, and enhanc-
ing the pharmacological and nutritional benefits of the food [8]. Most of the flavor
compounds found in yogurt are a result of the activity of microbes in starter cultures,
lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Microbes found in this starter culture carry out three key
biochemical tasks during fermentation, which include the breaking down of milkfat
into free fatty acids (lipolysis), caseins into peptides and free amino acids (proteolysis),
and carbohydrates into lactic acid or other metabolites (glycolysis) [7]. Flavor is very
important in food; consumers consider flavor to be one of the most significant aspects
of food since it affects how well a particular product is liked and its overall acceptability.

2.1 Metabolic pathways of flavor compounds formation in yogurt

During fermentation, lactic acid bacteria processes create flavor precursors that are
then transformed into flavor compounds. Enzymes hydrolyze several dietary components,
including carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Carbohydrate metabolism (glycolysis),
amino acid metabolism (proteolysis), and fatty acid metabolism (lipolysis) are the three
main metabolic processes of LAB that lead to the formation of volatile compounds [9].

2.1.1 Flavor compounds from LAB carbohydrate metabolism

Lactic acid bacteria use the sugar lactose that is present in milk as their primary
source of energy and carbon [10]. In fact, the distinctive acidic flavor of yogurt can
be attributed to the conversion of lactose to lactic acid by LAB. The two distinct
4
Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

carbohydrate fermentation pathways in LAB—homo-fermentation and hetero-

fermentation result in various metabolic end products, depending on the LAB spe-
cies, substrate, and environmental factors. Homofermentative LAB, which include
Pediococcus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, etc., use the Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas
(EMP) pathway to produce lactic acid as the main by-product. However, heterofer-
mentative LAB such as Leuconostoc, Oenococcus, Lactobacillus, etc., use the phospho-
ketolase pathway (PKP), which also produces other end products, such as ethanol,
carbon dioxide, acetic acid [9]. Homofermentative metabolism could also switch to
a mixed-acid metabolism with a variety of molecules under specific situations such
as carbon limitation, carbon excess of slowly metabolized sugars, aerobic condi-
tions. The metabolic by-products of this metabolism would include multiple flavor
compounds such as acetaldehyde, ethanol, and diacetyl. Acetaldehyde, for example,
dominates the flavor of yogurt in its normal form and helps in its distinctive flavor.
Pyruvate is a crucial metabolic precursor that is usually catalyzed by aldehyde
dehydrogenase or α-carboxylase to produce acetaldehyde. The characteristic flavor
of yogurt is produced in fermented dairy products by a variety of C4 molecules such
as diacetyl, acetoin, and 2, 3-butanediol [7]. These molecules may be produced by
the citrate or glycolysis metabolism of certain LAB (Figures 1–3). Diacetyl is the
predominant significant flavor compound among these C4 chemicals, and both S.
thermophilus and L. bulgaricus are capable of producing it. Acetoin, which is diace-
tyl’s reduced form, is important for decreasing the sharpness of diacetyl and also
adds to the pleasant, creamy flavor of yogurt.

2.1.2 Flavor compounds from amino acid metabolism by LAB

In order for yogurt to have a pleasant taste and aroma (flavor), proteolysis is a
crucial biochemical step. Proteolytic abilities in certain LAB allow them to undergo
hydrolysis of proteins, which leads to the production amino acids and peptides
[9]. Proteolysis and the breakdown of an amino acid (amino acid degradation)
make up the first two phases of this process. The enzyme cell-envelope proteinases
(CEPs) help to break down the protein into oligopeptides, causing casein to begin
to undergo proteolysis by LAB. The second phase then begins and involves the
transport of di-, tri-, and oligopeptides into the cell. Peptidases further hydro-
lyze casein-derived peptides to amino acids after these casein-derived peptides
have been absorbed by LAB cells. In a single bacterial genome, peptidases can
be encoded in several copies. Free amino acids generated by the breakdown of
proteins (proteolysis) may be transformed into a variety of flavoring substances,
including those ammonia, amines, aldehydes, phenols, indole, and alcohols, and
these compounds all have imparted the flavor of the yogurt. The primary sources
of flavor substances obtained from milk protein are mostly branched-chain amino
acids such as Val, Leu, Ile, aromatic amino acids such as Phe, Tyr, Trp, and sulfuric
amino acids such as Cys, Met [11]. Transamination of amino acids to their respec-
tive α-keto acids is the first stage of amino acid breakdown. The α-keto acids then
go through several enzymatic processes, such as reduction to produce flavorless
α-hydroxy acids and decarboxylation to produce aldehydes that can subsequently
be reduced to an alcohol, or oxidative decarboxylation to produce acyl-CoA, and
finally, carboxylic acids [7]. After that, esterases or acyltransferases catalyze the
formation of esters or thioesters in processes involving alcohols and carboxylic
acids [12]. As a member of a different class of lyases, threonine aldolase may
convert threonine straight into acetaldehyde.
5
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

Figure 1.
Pathways of citrate metabolism by lactobacillus [1, 7].

Figure 2.
Pathways of lactic acid production by lactobacillus [1, 7].

6
Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

Figure 3.
Pathways of alcohol production by glucose metabolism [1, 6, 7].

2.1.3 Flavor compounds from LAB lipid metabolism

The two major processes that produce flavor components in fermented foods are lipoly-
sis and fatty acid oxidation. Most fermented foods contain free fatty acids as key aroma
components produced by the breakdown of lipids (triglycerides, diglycerides, and mono-
glycerides) [11]. The strains of Lactobacillus exhibit lipases in quite high concentrations,
which then produce these free fatty acids [11]. Free fatty acids, particularly saturated and
unsaturated fatty acids, serve as catalysts for catabolic processes that result in the oxida-
tion of lipids and the generation of a variety of volatile compounds, including alkanes,
methyl ketones, esters, secondary alcohols, and lactones [13]. Unsaturated fatty acids are
oxidized by two different pathways, one of which is the formation of hydroxyperoxides
via β-oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in the presence of free radicals. The synthesis of
4-5-hydroxy acids, which are transformed into α-δ-lactones that emit strong fruity aromas,
might result from another pathway of unsaturated fatty acid metabolism [14]. In addition,
a variety of esterases found in LAB may directly generate flavor ester from glycerides and
alcohols through an alcoholysis process. For example, in order to create ethyl butanoate and
ethyl hexanoate, LAB can esterify ethanol with butyric and hexanoic acids [11].

2.2 Effect of different lactic acid bacteria on yogurt flavor

The starter cultures, processing conditions, sources of milk, and some other
ingredients all have an impact on the flavor of yogurt [15]. However, within
7
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

these parameters, the development of the flavor components in yogurt is mostly

influenced by the starter cultures used. The culture used for yogurt is primar-
ily composed of Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp.
bulgaricus. As a result, some nations only allow the use of the word “yogurt”
for products prepared using starters that include bacteria from both of these
strains [16]. The symbiotic connection between these two bacteria is referred to
in mixed cultures as proto-cooperation and makes them mutually advantageous
during fermentation even though each grows well in milk on their own [16]. Due
to their associative development and mutual stimulation, the number of flavor
constituents in the mixed cultures is significantly higher than that in either of
the two individual cultures. It was discovered that the largest percentage of flavor
compounds, including acetaldehyde, diacetyl, acetoin, acetone, ethanol, and
2-butanone (Figure 3), were produced when mixed cultures were utilized during
lactic acid fermentation [7]. Additionally, the levels of methylated sulfides and
dimethyl trisulfide were extremely low in Lactobacillus bulgaricus and S. thermophi-
lus monocultures, suggesting that perhaps the mixed culture’s higher levels were
the result of interspecies interaction. The proto-cooperation of the mixed cultures
is also significantly influenced by proteolytic activity. Compared to pure cultures
or cultures with proteolytic S. thermophilus, this combination will generate higher
aroma volatiles and nonvolatile metabolites. Thus, the combination of both
microorganisms influences the synthesis of volatile and nonvolatile compounds
essential to flavor development. The Lactobacillus strains are the most widely
used commercial probiotics in yogurt. In addition to imparting yogurt’s flavor and
enhancing organoleptic qualities, these strains also provide health benefits. Yogurt
flavor development is influenced by a variety of environmental factors, such as the
composition of the culture medium, competition for nutrients, and interactions
between microorganisms.

2.3 Metabolic engineering application for flavor enhancement

A significant approach for genetically modifying strains in order to increase the

production of flavor compounds such as acetaldehyde, diacetyl, and esters is metabolic
engineering. The changing of one or more genes or enzymes is a popular method for
producing many different flavor molecules [11]. For example, formation of acetalde-
hyde by yogurt bacteria occurs via a variety of pathways, with threonine aldolase likely
being the primary enzyme in this process. Serine hydroxymethyltransferase (SHMT),
which is produced by the glyA gene in S. thermophilus, also has threonine aldolase activ-
ity. According to Chaves et al. [17], overexpression of the glyA gene in S. thermophilus
increases acetaldehyde synthesis by 80–90%, whereas inhibition of the gene completely
abolishes acetaldehyde formation. The main goal of these numerous metabolic engi-
neering solutions for LAB has been to efficiently produce diacetyl for its significance
in yogurt flavor. The als or ilvBN genes, ldh gene, and aldB gene that are coded for the
enzymes α-acetolactate synthase, lactate dehydrogenase, and α-acetolactate decarbox-
ylase, respectively, are the main enzymes involved in the synthesis of diacetyl.

2.4 Correlation between lactic acid bacteria and flavor compounds in yogurt

In several studies, certain volatile compounds found in yogurt have been linked
to LAB species, demonstrating that LAB significantly affect the flavor of many

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Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

fermented foods, including yogurt. Yogurt and other dairy products are often fer-
mented from milk from various plants and animal sources. The characteristic LAB
species found in these fermented dairy products come from the genera Lactobacillus
and are naturally prevalent in a variety of environments; however, they are mostly
used for fermentation purposes [18–20]. Lactobacillus was found to be the most
prevalent species in most samples of fermented yak milk. Microbial analysis, as well
as the flavor profile of the product, revealed that these bacteria were significantly
correlated with flavor compounds such as ethanol, benzaldehyde, ethyl acetate, 2,
3-pentanedione, and benzaldehyde [21]. Through correlational analysis using bidirec-
tional orthogonal partial least square, it was determined that bacteria contribute more
to flavor production than fungus. The majority of studies that compared the relation-
ship between the LAB community and volatile chemicals found a strong correlation
between LAB and the development of flavor in yogurt and other fermented foods.
In yogurt, the main species, Lactobacillus, is predominant and helps create esters,
aldehydes, acids, ketones, and alcohols.

3. Volatile and aromatic compounds in yogurt

Flavor is one of the most important properties of food products and is an impor-
tant factor determining consumer acceptability. With regard to dairy products,
their sensory properties largely depend on the relative balance of flavor compounds
derived from fat, protein, or carbohydrates in the milk. For example, the distinctive
flavor of yogurt is contributed by lactic acid and a complex mixture of flavor com-
pounds that include the volatiles already present in the milk and specific compounds
produced during lactic fermentation [22]. More than 100 different volatiles have been
identified in yogurt, including carbohydrates, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, acids,
esters, lactones, sulfur-containing compounds, pyrazines, and furan derivatives [3].
Characterization of the volatile compounds allows for examination of the mecha-
nism of formation of the aromatic profile of the product. Knowledge of the primary
flavor compounds and their origin will thus support the production of dairy products
of consistent quality that will be more readily accepted by consumers. For example,
routine analysis of the primary aroma compounds can be used for quality monitoring
during yogurt production. In addition, the profile of volatile compounds in yogurt can
be used as a parameter to provide consumers with a better quality and safer food [3].
One major pathway for the production of flavor compounds in yogurt is through
lipolysis or oxidation of the fatty acids in milk fat. Unsaturated fatty acids are
oxidized in the presence of free radicals to form hydroperoxides, which rapidly
decompose to form hexanal or unsaturated aldehydes. Unsaturated fatty acids also
lead to the formation of 4- or 5-hydroxyacids, which readily cyclize to γ- or δ-lactones
and odd-carbon methyl ketones by decarboxylation of β-keto acids. Another major
pathway would be the microbiological transformation of lactose (and produced lac-
tate) and citrate by acid-producing bacteria into acetaldehyde, diacetyl, acetoin, and
ethanol. The alcohols in the yogurt can then combine with the free acids to form esters
such as ethyl acetate and butyl acetate. In addition, biogenic amines and nitrogen-
containing compounds can be transformed from proteins and amino acids, and sulfur
compounds can be derived from organosulfur compounds [23].
However, not all volatile components found in foods are important for the foods’
organoleptic properties. For example, in most studies, despite the long list of volatile

9
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

compounds found in yogurt (Table 1), only a few had relatively high concentra-
tions. Only acetaldehyde, ethanol, acetone, diacetyl, and 2-butanone exert a strong
influence on the desired aroma and are also present in amounts detectable by com-
mon laboratory techniques. The main volatile compounds commonly reported to be
responsible for imparting the desired aroma to yogurt are the carbonyl compounds—
acetaldehyde, diacetyl, acetone, acetoin, and 2-butanone. Although present in small
amounts in yogurt, these compounds are important organoleptic factors.
The primary volatile components involved in the formation of the aroma of typical
Bulgarian yogurt are acetaldehyde, acetone, 2-butanone, diacetyl, ethyl acetate, and
ethanol. Kaminarides et al. [24] found that acetic acid, acetaldehyde, acetone, diace-
tyl, 2-butanone, acetoin, and 3-methyl-2-butanone were the primary volatile aroma
compounds in yogurt made from sheep’s milk. The primary aroma components in
Swiss yogurt as determined by GC-sniff technique are acetaldehyde, diacetyl, 2, 3-pen-
tanedione, methional, 2-methyltetrahydrothiophen-3-one, 2-neonal, 3-methylbutyric
acid, guaiacol, benzothiazole, and two unidentified compounds [3]. The aromatic
compounds in Swiss yogurt were investigated and found that few major compounds
that had high-impact yogurt flavor, these compounds are acetaldehyde, dimethylsul-
fide, Diacetyl, 2, 3-pentanedione, L-limonene, and undecanal. However, other major
constituents (fat, protein, and carbohydrates) in yogurt could play a major factor in
the release of volatiles compounds. The aromatic components produced by the starter
culture can be grouped into separate classes as carbonyl compounds, organic acids,
alcohols, and esters, depending on their respective chemical structure.

3.1 Carbonyl compounds

The quality of yogurt is heavily reliant on the relative balance of volatile com-
pounds including carbonyl substances derived from fat, protein, and carbohydrate in
the milk base during the fermentation process. Carbonyl compounds are the primary
aromatic substances in fermented yogurt where more than 38 of these compounds
have been detected [3]. They are composed of aldehydes and ketones. The type and
level of compounds derived during fermentation depend on the starter culture, variety
of milk, and the conditions of the fermentation process. The metabolism of citric acid
and amino acids by lactic acid bacteria—Lactobacillus acidophilus—and Streptococcus
thermophiles, both of which are commonly used in the yogurt industry, produces the
flavor compounds characteristic of yogurt products. Table 3 shows the most common
carbonyls compounds in yogurt and typical concentrations in yogurt products [3].
Several carbonyl compounds including diacetyl, acetoin, and butanediol are
derived from citrate metabolism while several amino acids are converted into
the intermediate metabolite pyruvate and finally acetaldehyde or directly into
acetaldehyde.
In citric acid metabolism (Figure 1), citrate is converted into acetate and
oxaloacetate with the presence of citric acid lyase catalyze. Next, oxaloacetate is
decarboxylated and produces pyruvate and carbon dioxide. Subsequently, pyruvate
is metabolized by lactic acid bacteria to produce different end products, including
diacetyl, acetoin, and butanediol [25].
The crucial role of carbonyl compounds in yogurt can be identified when consid-
ering the sensory attributes of yogurt. Although each of these carbonyls is responsible
for its characteristic flavor or aroma, the ultimate sensory properties of yogurt are
decided by a relative balanced mixture of all flavored substances as well as their
dominant properties.
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Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

Type Typical level in yogurt (mg/kg)

Acetaldehyde 23–40

Diacetyl 0.2–3

Acetoin 1.2–28.2

Acetone 0.3–4.0

2-Butanone 0.1–7

Table 3.
List of common carbonyl compounds found in yogurt.

Acetaldehyde is an essential aroma and flavor compound found in fermented

yogurt and provides the essential unique green apple or nutty flavor in fermentation
by L. bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophiles. However, a proper concentration
level of acetaldehyde is required in order to obtain the most desired sensory quality.
For example, although acetaldehyde gives a pleasant fruity aroma at diluted concen-
trations, high levels can result in a pungent irritating odor [3].
Diacetyl, which produces a characteristic buttery flavor in yogurt, is derived by
fermentation of the citrate present in milk. It is equally as important as acetaldehyde
with regard to the sensory quality of yogurt. The preferred typical yogurt flavor
would thus be obtained by a 1:1 mixture of acetaldehyde and diacetyl. However, when
the acetaldehyde level in yogurt is low, diacetyl contributes to producing a delicate,
full flavor and aroma in the product. At higher concentrations, diacetyl can act as a
flavor and quality enhancer as well [3].
Another flavored substance commonly available in yogurt is acetoin, which gives a
mild creamy, slightly sweet, butter-like flavor. While acetoin is converted from diacetyl
by the diacetyl reductase enzyme [5, 7], its flavor properties are also similar to those of
diacetyl. A proper combination of both substances thus results in a typically mild, pleas-
ant, buttery yogurt taste. Moreover, acetoin tends to reduce the harshness of diacetyl.
Acetone and 2-butanone reportedly have similar flavor characteristics with regard
to minor but important flavor compounds found in yogurt. Both compounds make a
positive contribution to sweet, fruity aroma and flavor qualities. Typical concentra-
tions of acetoin in yogurt range from 1.2 to 28.2 mg/kg [26, 27]. Diacetyl in combina-
tion with acetoin is responsible for the soft, pleasant, fatty taste of yogurt that is
crucial to yogurt’s widespread appeal.
Acetone and 2-butanone are two volatile compounds with a minor contribution
to aroma in dairy products [1, 24, 27, 28]. For example, acetone has a sweet fruity
aroma and is known to affect the flavor and taste of yogurt. Small amounts of acetone
typically originate from milk, but certain amounts are produced by bacteria in yogurt
and the concentration of acetone in yogurt ranges from 0.3 to 4.0 mg/kg [27]. The
taste characteristic of 2-butanone is similar to that of acetone and the concentrations
in yogurt range from 0.1 to 7.0 mg/kg [24, 27]. Gallardo-Escamilla et al. [28] reported
that 2-butanone is important for the aroma development of yogurt and contributes to
its fruity flavor.
However, many of the carbonyl compounds also play a role in the loss of yogurt
taste stability by developing off flavor during storage. For example, reactions from
carbonyl compounds can generate off-flavor chemicals. Lipid oxidation in milk results
in an undesirable stale, oxidized flavor. Moreover, some malodorous compounds
such as 2, 4, 5-trimethyloxazole can be generated from diacetyl and acetaldehyde in
11
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

the presence of ammonia [29]. Due to their off-character and low aroma and taste
thresholds, these compounds can lead to serious taste and aroma defects.

3.2 Organic acids

The most perceptible chemical compound in yogurt in flavor detection is carbonyl

compound followed by organic acids. Degradation of polysaccharides by lactic acid
bacteria during fermentation produces monosaccharaides and acids. Organic acids
contribute significantly to the sensory properties in fermented yogurt, especially with
regard to acidity. For example, changes in acid concentration lead to the development
of a characteristic flavor and aroma along with desirable consistency. Lactic acid is the
major organic acid found in fermented yogurt, and it has both positive and negative
impacts on taste (Figure 2). Approximately 20–40% of lactose present in milk base is
metabolized into lactic acid, which increases the acid concentration up to 0.9%.
Lactic acid bacteria utilize lactose and then glucose as the carbon source to pro-
duce pyruvate through glycolysis. Lactic acid is produced by lactate dehydrogenase.
Taste and mouthfeel of the final product can vary with the concentration of lactic
acid regardless of the flavor compound contained [30]. Moreover, formation of acid
directly involves the texture development. To obtain desirable consistency, it should
reach the optimum pH level. Typical pH level in yogurt is 4.4 [3].
Acetic acid, folic acid, and longer-chain organic acid are generated during yogurt
fermentation in addition to lactic acid for example, acetic acid amounts range from 0.5
to 18.8 mg/kg in typical products. However, high levels of acetic acid impart an unac-
ceptable vinegar-like taste [31]. Folic acid is mainly derived by Streptococcus thermophiles
by amino acid utilization. Accumulation of folic acid stimulates the growth of other
lactic acid bacteria including Lactobacillus acidophilus in the fermentation medium.
Longer-chain acids such as octanoic acid develop a characteristic soap-like flavor [3].
Thus, in order to obtain a yogurt with desirable properties, acid production should
be controlled. Extended acidification during fermentation or in storage results in the
development of off-flavors. Syneresis, the most common issue associated with the
sensory quality of yogurt, is a qualitative defect in the yogurt structure that tends to
lower consumer acceptability by weakening the appearance, texture, and consistency
of the product. Syneresis develops as a result of post acidification, which causes some
leakages of whey proteins.
Post acidification depends on the type of strain, microbial ratio in the yogurt
starter culture, the storage temperature, and the storage time. Post acidification
manipulation can be done changing the microbial ratio, and it increases the shelf life
of the yogurt. Volatile acids are also important from a nutritional and therapeutic
point of view in addition to their influence on organoleptic properties of the products.
In addition to lactic acid, other acids are produced during the fermentation of yogurt,
both by lipolytic processes and by bacterial fermentation. For instance, acetic acid is an
important compound produced by lactic acid starter cultures [26]. Acetic acid has been
reported at a concentration of 0.5–18.8 mg/kg in yogurt [26]. High levels of acetic acid
impart a vinegar-like taste that may not be accepted by consumers [32]. Longer-chain
acids (e.g., octanoic acid) may contribute to the characteristic soap-like aroma [33].

3.3 Alcohols

In addition to carbonyl compound and acid, another volatile compound gener-

ated during yogurt fermentation is alcohol. However, the contribution of alcohol
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compounds in flavor development is comparatively less. A total of eight to nine

alcohol compounds associated with fermented yogurt have been detected [34, 35].
The type and concentration of compound primarily depend on the starter culture
used (Figure 3).
Ethanol is considered to be the principal alcohol derived in lactic acid fermenta-
tion. It is produced by breakdown of glucose and catabolism of amino acids. In the
ethanol production pathway, glucose breaks down into lactic acid, ethanol, and CO2
with the presence of ATP. As acetaldehyde degradation occurs during alcohol produc-
tion, the amount of acetaldehyde in the medium is reduced.
As ethanol has an effective olfactory and trigeminal stimulus, it can act as a flavor
enhancer to some extent. In typical yogurt made by cow milk fermentation, ethanol
content ranged from 0.2 to 9.9 mg/kg [3] while yogurt made by other milk contained
a lower amount. In addition to ethanol production, 1-hexanol and 1-heptanol pro-
duction was also detected during fermentation. However, production of high levels
of alcohol, particularly ethanol, was measured during storage while a reduction in
acetaldehyde was reported. The level of ethanol ranged between 8.13 and 10.99%
throughout the storage period [34, 35].

3.4 Esters

Esters are another volatile compound found in fermented yogurt and have a
similar role to alcohol and acid in flavor development. A total of three to six ester
compounds were detected in fermented milk [34, 35] depending on the starter
culture. This included ethyl ester, butyl ester, and ethenyl ester. Ethyl ester, which is
significant among other esters in flavor development, is derived from the enzymatic
or chemical esterification of acids with ethanol. Ethyl ester adds unique fruity and
floral aroma and flavor while minimizing the sharpness and bitterness imported by
fatty acids and amines [1, 33]. Esters contained in yogurt are in a low amount and are
able to withstand extended storage periods.

3.5 Sulfur compounds

Volatile sulfur compounds are significant contributors to the off-flavors of yogurt.

As a class, sulfur compounds are typically present in foods at extremely low con-
centrations and have low sensory detection thresholds. Some of these compounds
provide background sensory nuances to the flavor, while others provide unique flavor
characterizing identities to the products. Sulfur compounds including methanethiol,
dimethyl disulfide, and hydrogen sulfide can be detected in fermented milk products,
and their presence contributes to the strong, unacceptable aroma [33–35].
The sensory properties of yogurt depend largely on the relative balance of
chemical compounds derived from carbohydrates, protein, or fat in the milk base.
The flavor components of yogurt include the volatile compounds naturally present
in the milk and specific compounds produced from milk fermentation. It has been
reported that more than 100 different volatile compounds have been identified in
yogurt, including carbonyl compounds, alcohols, acids, esters, and sulfur-containing
compounds.
The major compounds responsible for imparting the desirable flavor in yogurt are
acetaldehyde diacetyl, acetoin, 2-butanone, and lactic acid. Moreover, the optimum
flavor of yogurt results when proper levels of these compounds are produced. The
desirable concentrations of acetaldehyde in yogurt ranged from 23 to 40 mg/kg, while
13
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

lesser concentrations resulted in weak flavor and higher acetaldehyde led to an off-fla-
vor. Additionally, as with many other dairy products, yogurt is prone to deterioration,
especially under improper storage conditions. The generation of volatile byproducts
leads to off-flavors, which make the product unsatisfactory for consumers.

4. Extraction and analysis of volatile aromatic compounds in yogurt

4.1 Solid-phase microextraction (SPME)

The chemical analysis of aroma compounds in yogurt products is typically a com-

plicated process. For example, such analysis requires an extraction stage and, despite
the outstanding importance of aroma as an indicator of product quality and confor-
mity, it is still difficult to separate aroma compounds based on common properties
such as polarity or volatility. This is particularly true since most volatile organic com-
pounds are present only in small concentrations (μg/kg to mg/kg) in yogurt [36, 37].
As a result, it is often necessary to isolate the volatiles from the complex matrix and
concentrate these volatiles for analyses. Unfortunately, the extraction and concentra-
tion of volatile aroma components from yogurt products present a major analytical
challenge. The most significant problems encountered during this process are:

i. the tendency of the compounds to decompose or transform in the presence of

heat and/or oxygen.

ii. potential formation of secondary volatiles by enzymatic reactions.

iii. incomplete recovery of polar/semi-volatile aromatic components.

Classical techniques for preconcentration of volatiles such as steam distillation

direct extraction simultaneous steam distillation and extraction with a solvent static
headspace [26, 33, 36] and dynamic headspace [30] have been applied to the extrac-
tion and concentration of volatile aromatic compounds in yogurt. In recent years,
solid-phase microextraction (SPME)-based methods have been used to analyze
yogurt flavors [38, 39]. Unlike conventional extraction techniques, SPME is more
sensitive to experiment conditions. Any change in experiment parameters that affects
the partition coefficient and adsorption rate will also affect the amount adsorbed onto
the SPME fiber and the corresponding reproducibility [40].
Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) methods were developed in the 1990s by
Arthur and Pawliszyn as a rapid and useful technique for volatile compound analy-
sis. SPME coupled with GC-MS can provide high sensitivity with a small sample
volume; consequently, it can be used to analyze the aroma profile of a wide variety
of substances. Recently, this technique has been used to study the volatile profiles of
fermented camel milk [41], grapes and wine [42], and dried fermented sausage [43].
The amount of analyte extracted on the fiber depends on the polarity and thick-
ness of the stationary phase of the fiber, time and temperature of the extraction,
agitation and pH of the sample solution, addition of salt to the sample, and the con-
centration of the analyte in the sample. These SPME parameters must be optimized
for each analyte and matrix. Various fiber coatings are available with thicknesses from
7 to 150 μm. Although fibers coated with thicker films require longer time to reach

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Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

extraction equilibrium, they can be more sensitive because they can extract larger
amounts of analyte [44].
Solid-phase microextraction onto silica fibers externally coated with a suitable
stationary phase is used in combination with GC and is also directly coupled to HPLC
for the analysis of low-volatile or thermally labile compounds that are not subject to
GC analysis. The SPME device consists of a stand with an integrated extraction fiber
inside a needle and an assembly holder. Silica fibers (1 or 2 cm long) coated on the
outer surface with a thin film of an extraction phase consisting of a liquid polymer
and/or a solid sorbent are commercially available. StableFlex fibers consist of a flex-
ible condensed silicon core and are less fragile. Although SPME has maximum sen-
sitivity to the equilibrium distribution, there is a proportional relationship between
the amount of analyte adsorbed by the SPME fiber and its initial concentration in the
sample prior to partition equilibrium. As a result, complete equilibrium is not neces-
sary for quantitative analysis by SPME [44].

4.2 Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS)

Chromatographic methods are widely used in the identification of various aromatic

metabolites. In lactic acid products, these methods include Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy, electron impact ionization-mass spectrometry (EI-MS), electrospray
ionization-mass spectrometry (ESI-MS), and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy. Mass spectrometers are generally more sensitive and more selective than
any other type of detector. Prior to MS analysis, metabolites must be separated, and the
separated compounds must be ionized. Ionization techniques can vary, especially for
GC-MS and LC-MS [45]. Each of these techniques has advantages and limitations, and no
single analytical technique is yet available for the complete study of the metabolome [46].
GC-MS-based metabolome analyses have been developed and applied for meta-
bolic profiling in plants and microorganisms. The aforementioned studies clearly
demonstrated the utility of GC-MS for non-target metabolite profiling in a variety of
matrices [47].
GC-MS is a combined system where volatile and thermally stable compounds are
first separated by GC after which the eluted compounds are detected traditionally by
mass spectrometry. In metabolomics, GC-MS has been described as the gold standard
[48, 49].
Instrumental analysis of volatile compounds in yogurt is almost exclusively
performed by gas chromatography (GC), although high-performance liquid chroma-
tography (HPLC) has also been used in a limited number of cases. Various detectors,
including ionization detectors (FID), thermal conductivity detectors (TCD), electron
capture detectors (ECD), photoionization detectors (PID), and mass spectrometry
(MS) can be used to detect volatiles [3]. In particular, GC-MS is the most popular
technique used in the analysis of aromatic volatile components due to its ability to detect
and quantify known compounds, identify unknown compounds, and elucidate the
chemical properties of molecules. Although the sensitivity of MS depends on the nature
of the analytes and the type of equipment used, the detection limits of the charged
species can typically range down to picogram levels or even less. In addition to direct
calibration, the quantification of volatile compounds can be performed by matrix addi-
tion of the labeled compounds or by addition of the so-called internal standard [34, 35].
The application of GC-MS has boosted research on the aroma of yogurt and
other products, especially when coupled with SPME as a pretreatment method. The

15
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

primary advantages of SPME are its simplicity, low cost, ease of automation and in
situ sampling. SPME coupled with GC-MS has been widely used to assess the aroma
chemical profiles of volatile components derived from a wide variety of matrices,
including fermented milk [50], fruit and mango juice [51], grapes and wine [42], dry
fermented sausage [43], and alcoholic beverages [52, 53].

5. Aromatic components produced by Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp.

bulgaricus

Recent work has focused on the isolation and characterization of L. bulgaricus

with a particular interest in the metabolite profile of these strains. For example,
eight strains were examined for the metabolic profiles and found at least 47 different
aromatic compounds that were recently identified (Table 4) [5]. These aromatic com-
pounds were divided into six main groups based on the chemical structure of each, as
follows: 1. organic acid group 2. alcohol group, 3. aldehyde group, 4. ketone group, 5.
ester group, and 6. aromatic group. As expected, the primary aromatic component,
acetaldehyde, was produced by all of the bacterial strains. Importantly, acetaldehyde
is recognized as a major flavor component in yogurt and provides the traditional
strong, fruity aroma, sometimes described as green-apple-like that is characteristic
of yogurt products. All of the tested strains produced pentanoic acid along with
octanoic acids and acetone in a wide range of concentrations. We also observed that
using different combinations of yogurt cultures led to the formulation of a wide range
of unknown aromatic compounds and higher levels of acetaldehyde. Results showed
that the interaction between strains generated a favorable yogurt volatile profile

Volatile compounds chemical formula

Aldehyde compounds:
Acetaldehyde C2H4O
Furaldehyde C5H4O2
3-Hydroxybutanal C4H8O2
Benzaldehyde C7H6O
Benzacetaldehyde C8H8O
Ethylbenzaldehyde C9H10O
2-Octenal C8H14O
Decanal C10H20O
Ketone compounds:
2-Pentanone C5H10O
Acetoin C4H8O2
2,3-Butanedione C4H6O2
2-Acetylfuran C6H6O2
2-Nonanone C9H18O
2-Heptanone C7H14O
3-Methyl-2-butanone C5H10O
2-Undecanone C11H22O

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Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

Volatile compounds chemical formula

Acid compounds:

Formic acid CH2O2

Butyric acid C4H8O2

Acetic acid C2H4O2

Hexanoic acid C6H12O2

Pentanoic acid C5H10O2

Benzoic acid C7H6O2

Octanoic acid C8H16O2

1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid C8H6O4

Alcohol compounds:

2-Furanmethanol C5H6O2

Ethanol, 2-(octyloxy)- C10H22O2

3-Methyl-2-butanol C5H12O

2-Undecanol C11H24O

Ester compounds:

Propanoic acid, ethenyl ester C5H8O2

2(5H)-Furanone, 5-methyl- C5H6O2

Benzoic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester C15H22O2

3-Methyl-2-butenoic acid, tridec-2-ynyl ester C18H30O2

Ethanone, 1-(2,4-dimethylphenyl)- C10H12O

4-Ethylbenzoic acid, methyl ester C10H12O2

Aromatic hydrocarbons:

3-Carene C10H16

Undecane C11H24

Tridecane C13H28

3-Heptene, 2,2,4,6,6-pentamethyl- C12H24

2-Methylundecane C12H26

2-Pentene, 2,4,4-trimethyl C8H16

Tetradecane C14H30

2,4,6-Trimethyldecane C13H28

Nonadecane C19H40

Pentadecane C15H32

Hexadecane C16H34
Octadecane, 3-ethyl-5-(2-ethylbutyl) C26H54
Octadecane C18H38
Source: [5]

Table 4.
Aromatic components produced by symbiotic starter cultures of Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and
Streptococcus thermophilus.

17
Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

resulting in the highest numbers of compounds identified as key-aroma compounds

that are desirable for an acceptable organoleptic yogurt quality. Moreover, a different
starter culture preparation could also lead to the production of different metabolites.
Preparation steps would include bulk growth media, media additives, protein sources,
and amino acid composition (especially glycine). The use of direct-to-vat culture or a
lyophilized starter culture could also impact the aromatic profile of yogurt products.
Our work also demonstrated that there are synergistic effects among the aromatic
compounds that contributed to the overall yogurt flavor.

6. Conclusion

In this chapter, we reviewed the volatile flavor compounds in yogurt products.

In addition, we discussed yogurt starter cultures, major aromatic compounds, and
modern instrument analysis of yogurt flavor. Currently, yogurt sales are among the
fastest growing in the dairy industry. Consequently, a greater knowledge of enhanced
manufacturing procedures and consumer preferences would be highly useful in
helping the yogurt industry to improve on its current products and develop additional
innovative products. For example, the use of advanced techniques such as synthetic
fiber solid-phase extraction and gas chromatography combined with mass spectrom-
etry could help to identify a large number of aromatic compounds in yogurt. This
would open up the possibility for more comprehensive exploration of the importance
of specific strains in obtaining desired sensory qualities. Moreover, it would support
the selection of production strains and the flavor producers. On a more advanced
level, such analyses could allow us to develop rapid methodologies for quality control
and authenticity of lactic acid products based on the aroma-metabolite profile of the
starter cultures in the final product. There remains a lack of sufficient data related to
the importance of specific process parameters and strain specificity for aroma forma-
tion in lactic acid products. As a result, qualitative and quantitative analysis of volatile
aromatic compounds should merely be the first step toward achieving this goal. By
determining the relationship between key flavor compounds and the sensory proper-
ties of yogurt, we will have a better understanding of how yogurt flavor is affected by
the presence of critical flavor compounds. This will enable us to facilitate the produc-
tion of more uniform yogurt products for enhanced consumer acceptance.

Acknowledgements

This publication was made possible by Grant or project Number NC.X308-5-

18-170-1 from the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA). Its contents
are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
official views of NIFA. Authors would also like to acknowledge the support of the
Department of Family and Consumer Sciences and the Agricultural Research Station
at North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University (Greensboro, NC, 27411
USA). This work was also partially supported by the Bulgarian Ministry of Education
and Science under the National Research Program “Healthy Foods for a Strong Bio-
Economy and Quality of Life” approved by DCM # 577/17.08.201.

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Volatile Aromatic Flavor Compounds in Yogurt: A Review
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.109034

Author details

Albert Krastanov1, Philip J. Yeboah2, Namesha Dulari Wijemanna2,

Abdulhakim S. Eddin2, Raphael D. Ayivi2,3 and Salam A. Ibrahim2*

1 Department of Biotechnology, University of Food Technologies, Plovdiv, Bulgaria

2 Food Microbiology and Biotechnology Laboratory, Food and Nutritional Science

Program, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC, USA

3 Department of Nanoscience, Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering,

University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC, USA

*Address all correspondence to: ibrah001@ncat.edu

© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
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Current Issues and Advances in the Dairy Industry

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