DATA COLLECTION &

ANALYSIS
MODULE IV
 MODULE IV
DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
• Data Collection Methods

• Measurement of Variables

• Scaling Techniques

• Questionnaire Design

• Editing, Coding & Recoding

 Data Collection Methods
• Data collection is a fundamental step in the research process and involves gathering information or
data from various sources. The choice of data collection method is crucial and should align with the
research objectives. Here are some common data collection methods:
• Surveys involve administering structured questionnaires or surveys to a sample of respondents. They
are an efficient way to collect data from a large number of participants. Surveys can be conducted
through various means, including online surveys, phone interviews, or face-to-face interviews.
• Interviews: Interviews involve direct conversations between researchers and participants. They can be
structured (with predetermined questions) or unstructured (allowing for open-ended discussions).
Interviews provide in-depth insights and are useful when exploring complex topics.
• Observations: Observational research involves systematically watching and recording behaviors,
events, or phenomena. This method is often used in fields like psychology and anthropology, where
direct observation of subjects is essential.
• Existing Records: Researchers can also collect data from existing records or databases. This method is
particularly useful when historical or secondary data is relevant to the research questions.
 Measurement of Variables
• Variables are key elements in research, representing the characteristics or attributes that researchers want to study.
Proper measurement of variables is essential to ensure the validity and reliability of research results.

• Nominal Scale: Nominal variables represent categories or labels with no inherent order or ranking. Examples
include gender, marital status, or product categories.

• Ordinal Scale: Ordinal variables have categories with a specific order or ranking, but the intervals between
categories are not equal. For example, a Likert scale with response options like "strongly disagree," "disagree,"
"neutral," "agree," and "strongly agree" is an ordinal scale.

• Interval Scale: Interval variables have equal intervals between categories, but they lack a true zero point.
Temperature measured in degrees Fahrenheit is an example of an interval scale.

• Ratio Scale: Ratio variables have equal intervals between categories and a true zero point, allowing for
meaningful ratios to be calculated. Examples include age, income, and weight.
 Scaling Techniques
• Scaling techniques are used to assign values to responses or observations in a way that reflects the
underlying attributes being measured. These techniques help transform qualitative data into quantitative
data, making it amenable to statistical analysis. Some common scaling techniques include:
• Likert Scales: Likert scales are commonly used in surveys and involve respondents indicating their level
of agreement or disagreement with statements on a scale (e.g., from "strongly disagree" to "strongly
agree"). They provide a numerical representation of attitudes or opinions.
• Semantic Differential Scales: Semantic differential scales ask respondents to rate concepts or objects
using pairs of adjectives or descriptors. For example, a respondent might rate a product as "good" or
"bad" on various attributes.
• Numerical Rating Scales: These scales involve assigning numerical values to responses. For instance, a
product's quality might be rated on a scale from 1 to 10, with higher values indicating higher quality.
• Choosing the appropriate scaling technique depends on the type of data and the research objectives.
Researchers should select a technique that effectively captures the nuances of the variables being
measured.
 Questionnaire Design
• Designing effective questionnaires is critical for collecting high-quality data. Questionnaires are structured instruments
used to gather information from respondents. Here are some key considerations for questionnaire design:

• Clarity: Questions should be clear and unambiguous to ensure that respondents understand what is being asked.
Ambiguity can lead to misinterpretation of questions and inaccurate responses.

• Bias Avoidance: Questionnaires should be free from bias or leading questions that could influence respondents' answers.
Questions should be neutral and objective.

• Relevance: All questions should be directly relevant to the research objectives. Irrelevant or extraneous questions can
burden respondents and reduce survey completion rates.

• Response Options: The response options provided should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Respondents should be
able to select a response that accurately reflects their views or experiences.

• Pilot Testing: Before administering a questionnaire to the target sample, it's advisable to conduct pilot testing with a
small group to identify any issues with question wording or formatting.

• Proper questionnaire design is essential to collect valid and reliable data. It ensures that respondents can provide
accurate and meaningful responses, leading to robust research findings.
 Data
• Data is the lifeblood of research and analysis, providing the foundation upon which insights and conclusions are built.
However, raw data is often messy, inconsistent, and incomplete. To harness its potential, researchers must engage in data
editing, coding, recoding, recording, handling missing values, and identifying outliers. These processes collectively constitute
data preparation, a critical phase that directly impacts the validity and reliability of research findings.

1. Data Editing

• Data editing involves the careful examination and cleaning of raw data to detect and rectify errors, inconsistencies, and
inaccuracies. The objective is to ensure that the data accurately represent the real-world phenomena under investigation. Data
editing encompasses various activities:

• Identification of Errors: Researchers identify errors such as typographical errors, data entry mistakes, and inconsistent
formatting.

• Handling Inconsistencies: Inconsistent data entries, such as different date formats or units of measurement, are standardized.

• Validation Rules: Researchers establish validation rules to identify outliers or illogical values that may indicate data quality
issues.

• Imputation: Missing or erroneous data points may be imputed using statistical techniques to maintain data completeness.

• Data Cleansing: The data may be cleansed to remove duplicates, irrelevant observations, or outliers.
 2. Coding and Recoding
• Coding and recoding involve the transformation of categorical and ordinal data into numerical values that can be
used for statistical analysis. This process ensures that the data are in a format compatible with various statistical
techniques. Key aspects of coding and recoding include:

• Variable Coding: Assigning numerical codes to categorical variables, allowing them to be included in quantitative
analysis.

• Ordinal Data Recoding: Transforming ordinal data into numerical values that represent the order or rank of
categories.

• Dummy Variables: Creating dummy variables to represent categories with binary values (e.g., 0 or 1) for
regression analysis.

• Avoiding Bias: Carefully selecting coding schemes to avoid introducing bias into the analysis.
 3. Data Recording
• Data recording is the process of systematically documenting information about the data, including its source,
structure, and any transformations or modifications made during data editing and coding. Proper data recording is
essential for transparency and reproducibility in research. Key aspects of data recording include:

• Metadata: Capturing metadata, such as variable names, labels, and units of measurement, to provide context for
the data.

• Data Dictionary: Creating a data dictionary that outlines the structure of the dataset, including variable definitions
and coding schemes.

• Data Transformation Documentation: Documenting any data transformations, recoding, or imputation procedures
performed.

• Version Control: Implementing version control to track changes made to the dataset over time.
 4. Handling Missing Values
• Missing values are a common challenge in data analysis. They can arise due to various reasons, including non-response
in surveys or technical issues during data collection. Handling missing values is crucial to ensure that data analysis
remains valid and informative. Strategies for handling missing values include:

• Data Imputation: Imputing missing values using statistical methods such as mean imputation, regression imputation, or
multiple imputation.

• Indicator Variables: Creating indicator variables to flag missing data, allowing them to be included in the analysis.

• Complete Case Analysis: Conducting analyses using only complete cases (i.e., cases with no missing values) when
imputation is not appropriate.

• Understanding Missingness Mechanisms: Identifying the mechanisms behind missing data (missing completely at
random, missing at random, or missing not at random) to inform imputation decisions.
 5. Identifying Outliers
• Outliers are data points that significantly deviate from the bulk of the data. They can skew statistical analyses and lead to incorrect
conclusions. Identifying outliers is crucial for data quality. Techniques for identifying outliers include:

• Visual Inspection: Using graphical methods such as box plots, histograms, and scatterplots to visualize potential outliers.

• Statistical Tests: Employing statistical tests like the z-score, modified z-score, or Tukey's method to detect outliers.

• Domain Knowledge: Relying on domain expertise to identify values that are implausible or inconsistent with the research context.

• Outlier Handling: Deciding whether to remove outliers, transform the data, or perform robust statistical analysis that is less sensitive to
outliers.

• The data editing, coding, recoding, recording, handling missing values, and identifying outliers are integral processes in data preparation
and data cleaning. The quality and integrity of research findings depend on the rigorous execution of these steps. Researchers must
invest time and effort into ensuring that their datasets are accurate, complete, and well-structured. By adhering to best practices in data
preparation, researchers can enhance the reliability and validity of their analyses, ultimately advancing the state of knowledge in their
respective fields.
 Data Collection and Analysis
• Data Collection and Analysis is a critical phase in the research process for MBA students.
• It involves making informed decisions about data collection methods, the measurement of variables, scaling
techniques, questionnaire design, and coding.
• These components collectively ensure that the data collected is of high quality, relevant to the research objectives,
and amenable to analysis.
• Researchers must carefully consider each element to ensure the validity and reliability of their research findings
in the context of business and management studies.
 Multiple-Choice Questions (MCQs)
1. What is the primary purpose of a Likert scale in research?

• a) Assigning numerical codes to categorical variables

• b) Identifying outliers in the dataset

• c) Measuring respondents' attitudes or opinions

• d) Handling missing values in the dataset

• Answer: c) Measuring respondents' attitudes or opinions
2. Which of the following is a characteristic of a nominal scale variable?

• a) Equal intervals between categories

• b) True zero point

• c) Categories with a specific order or ranking

• d) Categories with no inherent order or ranking

• Answer: d) Categories with no inherent order or ranking
• 3. What is the purpose of data editing in the research process?

• a) Assigning numerical values to categorical variables

• b) Identifying and rectifying errors and inconsistencies in the raw data

• c) Creating indicator variables for missing data

• d) Visualizing outliers using scatterplots

• Answer: b) Identifying and rectifying errors and inconsistencies in the
raw data
• 4. Which sampling method divides the population into subgroups and then samples from each subgroup
independently?

• a) Simple random sampling

• b) Systematic sampling

• c) Stratified sampling

• d) Cluster sampling
• Answer: c) Stratified sampling
• 5. What is the purpose of coding and recoding in the research process?

• a) Transforming ordinal data into numerical values

• b) Creating dummy variables for regression analysis

• c) Removing outliers from the dataset

• d) Imputing missing values using statistical methods

• Answer: a) Transforming ordinal data into numerical values
• 6. Which data collection method provides in-depth insights and is useful for exploring complex topics?

• a) Surveys

• b) Observations

• c) Interviews

• d) Existing Records
• Answer: c) Interviews
• 7. What does a Likert scale measure?

• a) Temperature

• b) Attitudes or opinions

• c) Weight

• d) Time
• Answer: b) Attitudes or opinions
• 8. What is the first step in data preparation to ensure data accuracy?

• a) Coding and recoding

• b) Data editing

• c) Data recording

• d) Handling missing values

• Answer: b) Data editing
• 9. Which of the following is an example of a nominal scale variable?

• a) Income in dollars

• b) Age in years

• c) Gender (Male/Female)

• d) Temperature in Celsius
• Answer: c) Gender (Male/Female)
• 10. What is the purpose of a data dictionary?

• a) Creating dummy variables

• b) Assigning numerical codes to categorical variables

• c) Documenting the structure of the dataset and variable definitions

• d) Imputing missing values in the dataset

• Answer: c) Documenting the structure of the dataset and variable
definitions
 Case Study: Improving Customer
Satisfaction in a Retail Chain
Background:

• A large retail chain, XYZ Retailers, is experiencing a decline in customer satisfaction scores, leading to a
decrease in customer loyalty and sales. The management wants to identify the root causes of customer
dissatisfaction and implement strategies to enhance customer experience.

Case Study Scenario:

• XYZ Retailers conducted a survey among its customers to gather feedback on their shopping experience. The
survey included questions about product quality, staff behavior, store ambiance, and checkout process. The
responses were collected through online surveys and in-store questionnaires. The data collected revealed several
areas of concern, including long wait times at the checkout counters, unavailability of preferred products, and
staff behavior issues.
 Case Question
1. Based on the case study scenario, which data collection method did XYZ Retailers use to gather customer
feedback?

2. What should XYZ Retailers focus on to address the issue of long wait times at the checkout counters, as
identified in the survey data?
 Glossary Terms
• Nominal Scale: A measurement scale that represents categories or labels with no inherent order or ranking.

• Ordinal Scale: A measurement scale where categories have a specific order or ranking, but the intervals between
categories are not equal.

• Interval Scale: A measurement scale with equal intervals between categories but lacks a true zero point.

• Ratio Scale: A measurement scale with equal intervals between categories and a true zero point, allowing for
meaningful ratios to be calculated.

• Likert Scale: A scale used in surveys to measure respondents' attitudes or opinions, typically ranging from
strongly disagree to strongly agree.
 Glossary Terms
• Semantic Differential Scale: A scale asking respondents to rate concepts or objects using pairs of adjectives or
descriptors.

• Numerical Rating Scale: A scale where numerical values are assigned to responses, indicating the intensity of a
particular attribute.

• Stratified Sampling: A sampling method that divides the population into subgroups based on specific
characteristics and then samples from each subgroup independently.

• Data Editing: The process of identifying and correcting errors, inconsistencies, and inaccuracies in raw data.

• Coding: Assigning numerical codes to categorical variables for quantitative analysis.

 Glossary Terms
• Recoding: Transforming categorical or ordinal data into numerical values for statistical analysis.

• Data Dictionary: A document outlining the structure of the dataset, including variable names, definitions, and
coding schemes.

• Data Preparation: The process of cleaning, transforming, and organizing raw data to prepare it for analysis.

• Variable: A characteristic or attribute being studied in research, which can vary and is typically measured.

• Data Collection: The process of gathering information or data from various sources for research purposes.
 Glossary Terms
• Questionnaire: A structured instrument used to collect data from respondents, typically in survey research.

• Outliers: Data points that significantly deviate from the majority of the dataset, potentially influencing statistical
analyses.

• Complete Case Analysis: A data analysis approach using only cases with complete data, excluding cases with
missing values.

• Indicator Variables: Binary variables created to represent the presence or absence of specific conditions or
characteristics in the dataset.

• Interviews: Direct conversations between researchers and participants, providing qualitative insights into research
topics.
Thank You