1502836 Viraton Aas ater 2 oKF. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Introduction This section will cover the vibration characteristics of rotating machinery, to establish what can be learned about the condition of a machine from vibration signatures produced by acquisition of data using FFT analysers (data collectors). Unbalance Is the most fundamental and common cause of machinery vibration. Similar symptoms to unbalance can be evident if there is wear in journal bearings. Misalignment is another common cause of machinery vibration. Process conditions can have @ significant effect upon vibration characteristics and need to be taken Into account when determining machine condition. Other less common sources of vibration will be covered under the miscellaneous heading. In each case, the vibration symptoms that are produced by the fault will be discussed and examples presented. Rolling element bearings deserve special consideration. From a practical point of view, there is clearly a need to have a reliable technique to assess their condition. The introduction of the Envelope Analysis technique has largely solved this problem. Although It is fairly straightforward to apply, the background to itis quite complex and will be covered in some detail Finally, It Is worth repeating at the start of this section what the overall objective is. The purpose of a condition monitoring system Is to allocate resources effectively to rectify machinery faults before failure. Thus, just because a machine exhibits “vibration,” it does not necessarily mean that it has a fault requiring maintenance action. The objective Is to identify significant and unusual vibration of such severity that action is required. Put simply, successful condition monitoring results in running machines, not shutting them down The Analysis Process Imbalance Amplitude: m. Figure 1. Vibration Signals Extracted by Frequency in FFT Spectrum Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-4 “oe conan fh trng mati ate enn cf SHE AB and may ot be repreicen ay form ry any mean (ewe exc] sme permission = ate15026436 vation Ants atsoy 2 oKF. ‘As previously discussed, various machinery problems produce vibration signals in specific frequency ranges, and this information can be used to diagnose what is causing the excessive vibration. In the above example, unbalance produces the highest amplitude vibration signal in the low frequency range (1X running speed). Bearing problems produce much smaller amplitude vibration signals in a higher frequency range (at the bearing’s fault frequency), and low amplitude gear mesh vibration signals are produced in the gear mesh frequency range (determined by the number of teeth on the gears). FFT spectra provide information to help determine the location of the problem, the cause of the problem, and with trending, how long until the problem becomes critical. Because we know that certain machinery problems occur at certain frequencies, we analyse the FFT spectrum by looking for amplitude changes in frequency ranges of interest. A two-step approach should be used when presented with a FFT spectrum for analysis: + Step 1: Collect useful information, then + Step 2: Analyse the spectrum Collect Useful Information Certain information is needed before attempting to diagnose a FFT spectrum. Before a spectrum can be analysed, the components that cause vibration within the machine must be known. In other words, what are the possibilities? + The number of fan blades or impeller vanes, number of gear teeth, the coupling type, the number and type of drive belts, sheave diameters, etc. ‘+ Type of bearings at each bearing location and their defect frequencies ‘+ Speeds of other machines running in the same vicinity, + Orientation, vertical or horizontal, overhung or centre-hung Any machine history that Is available must be reviewed and these include: + Are previously recorded values, spectra, logs, control room data, or overall trend plots available? + Was a baseline recorded? ‘+ Talk with operators. This often provides insight into the eriginal problem (coupling changed, flow increased, fan cleaned, etc.). + Check maintenance records and talk to anyone who uses or services service the machine. Knowing and identifying the machine's running speed is an important factor when analysing the FFT spectrum and there are several ways of determining this, including: ‘+ Read the speed from instrumentation. + Check the motor nameplate and use a high resolution spectra to look for peaks around this frequency + When there are no problems, the running speed peak in a vibration spectrum is often the first significant peak when reading from left to right. + Use a tachometer. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-2 esrereo 2013 seproscesn ay form oy ny means even eats) ures persion ante,15018436 Vrain Anas apo 2 oler. Knowing and understanding the type of measurement that produced the FFT is another important factor because this will help to recognise the severity of the problem. The information to gather for this includes: + Was it a displacement, velocity, acceleration, enveloped acceleration, etc., measurement that produced the spectrum? ‘+ Where was the probe positioned? + Are plots scaled consistently for easy comparison? Analysis Techniques ‘once @ machinery problem Is detected, the analyst uses detailed techniques to collect analysis data. A consistent analysis approach is to: + Carry out quick survey of overall vibration across the machine, the base, and any piping, ductwork, or other attachments + Acquire triaxial (H, V, A) vibration data at each bearing + For analysis purposes, acquire relative phase measurements. This improves the likelihood of a successful diagnosis + Evaluate overall vibration readings across the entire machine train and look for the highest amplitude, This is usually where the problem originates. + What probe directions have the highest amplitude? (significant) + Do the dominant frequencies have a relationship to rotating components? ‘Once the above information is known, you can proceed to analyse the collected spectrums. ‘Analysis usually follows a process of elimination. Eliminate what is not on the spectrum and what is left is most likely the problem. Spectrum Pattern Recognition ‘Once running speed is determined, identify the spectrum’s frequency ranges. The frequency range is usually identified by three broad categories, which are Less than 1x RPM; Low Frequency defects ‘and High Frequency defects, as can be seen in the diagram below. Low frequency rotational events and harmonics High frequency events < 1X) {ie., unbalance, misalignment, looseness, etc.) (ve. bearing or gear mesh) ax 10x ® 3 2 = 2X 3X 5 = 4x Frequency Figure 2. A Spectral Example. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics, Page 5-3 ose ree202 ‘The contents fh ing materi arte cnright of SKF AB and may tbe proce ay form by ny mean (even extrac) ies persion anewn20s 15028436 Vraton Aas atepny2 oKF Defects that usually occur at frequencies that are less than 1x rpm include rolling element bearing ‘cage frequency; beat frequency; oll whirl in sleeve bearings, sub-harmonic resonance; drive belt problems and background vibration. Low frequency defects are usually between 1x rpm and 10x rpm and these include unbalance, misalignment, mechanical looseness (Types A & B), blade passing frequencies, distortion (soft-foot oF piping strain), bent shaft, fundamental rolling element bearing defects and electrical defects in AC induction motors. High frequency defects are classed as being above 10x rpm and these Include gear mesh frequency and harmonics, harmonics of rolling element bearing defects and mechanical looseness (Type C). ‘Some of the problems, including Blade Pass Frequency, can be either low frequency or high frequency defects. Verify Suspected Fault Frequencies ‘The spectra may produce peaks at identified fault frequencies. These peaks may or may not represent the indicated fault. Apart from pure forms of unbalance and mechanical looseness Type ‘A, kook for harmonics of the fault frequencies to verify peaks are generated from indicated faults. If a peak appears at the fundamental fault frequency and another peak appears at two times the fundamental fault frequency, it is a very strong indication that the fault is real. If no peak appears at the fundamental fault frequency, but peaks are present at two, three, and maybe four times the fundamental fault frequency, this also represents a strong indication that the indicated fault is valid. Determine the Severity of the Fault ‘One method for determining the fault’s severity is to compere its vibration amplitude with 1SO standards for the machinery classification. The current ISO Standards for machinery vibration are ISO 7819 (Measurements Made on Rotating Parts) & ISO 10816 (Measurements Made on Non- Rotating Parts). Other international standards are available such as API Standards. ‘A better method is to compare the current amplitude to past readings collected under consistent conditions (trend analysis). While this is beneficial for steady state equipment, it can be problematic for equipment with varying speeds, loads and process conditions. Another method Is to compare the amplitude to other readings obtained by similar machines running under the same conditions. The key here is that they are operating under the same Conditions including the same mounting method, same product and same assembly. In this situation, if one machine has a significantly higher or lower than normal reading than all the others, then this usually indicates a problem. Identify Where the Change has Taken Place In most situations, the problem can be identified by understanding what has changed in the trend or the FFT. Looking at figure 3, we can identify where the change has taken place quite easily. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-4 esierea 20 The caren of hiring mater ae the ent SEF AB and may not be repratucedin ay frm a yay means (eve exacts] nes person atewos 1501836 Viton nays aegoy 2 oKF a Baseline spectrum (norm) 2 Higher than normal abevibration signal 3 Higher than normal abeand bearing, Nibration signals Figure 3. Spectrum Analysis Example Example 1 Is 2 relatively smooth FFT spectrum. This spectrum was obtained from 2 smooth running machine with no observable problems. Typically, a peak right at, or around, the machine's running speed frequency (1X) is observed. This peak occurs because there is usually a slight unbalance in any rotor. Other small peaks scattered at random frequencies represent non-harmful vibration, often harmonics of the running speed and the natural frequency of the machine and rotor. Example 2 shows how FFT spectra may indicate the source of excessive vibration. The FFT in Example 2 was obtained when the machine was slightly out of balance. As unbalance Is introduced, the peak at the running speed increases. This is called the first order peak, or 1X peak. Harmonics are seen as peaks at the running speed times two, three, etc. These are called second order, third order, ete. Example 3 The higher than normal 1X and bearing frequency peaks indicate the machine's Uunbalance has now caused damage to the machine's bearing. Harmonics When discussing harmonics, it is important to distinguish between fundamental fault frequencies and “harmonics” of fundamental frequencies. A harmonic Is a frequency that is an exact multiple of ‘2 non-sinusoidal type fundamental frequency. The fundamental frequency may be produced from a variety of sources (\.e., shaft speed, a pump's vane pass frequency, bearing fault frequencies, or gear meshing frequencies). For example, an outer race bearing spall may produce elevated vibration amplitude at 6.85 times shaft speed (6.85X). 6.85% is the bearing fault’s fundamental frequency. Since it is an “impact” type fault, it may also produce harmonics at 2X the fundamental frequency (13.7X shaft speed), 3X the fundamental (20.55X shaft speed), etc. Harmonies develop when the vibration pattern is not purely sinusoidal, For example, if there is looseness in a machine, once every revolution there may be a knock. This event occurs at once per shaft revolution (the fundamental frequency), but because it is an impact and not @ sine wave, It will also produce many harmonics ~ out to 10X running speed or even higher. This does not mean Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-5 esr 2001 “Toa conan of hie ranng mati eth cpyt SHE AS and may net be repraicedin any form or by ay mean ten ac) nls permision ames15028436 Vain Anais ato 2 okKF. ‘that It is knocking or impacting ten times every revolution. The harmonics are simply a result of the sharp spike produced every time the two parts knock together. Since the vibration due to a bearing fault, such as a spall, is an Impact, itis likely that harmonics of the fundamental bearing fault frequency will develop. It is important to note that with rolling element bearing faults, harmonics of the fault’s fundamental frequency typically appear first (anywhere in a 5-40X running speed frequency range). ‘These fault frequency harmonics are the earliest indicators that a bearing problem exists. If, over time, peaks appear at the bearing’s fundamental fault frequencies along with its harmonic frequencies, it is an indication of a worsening bearing fault that warrants immediate attention. Figure 4, Spectral Harmonics Non-Harmonics Non-harmonics are non-integer multiples of a vibration frequency. For example, a motor running at 2,950 RPM may produce vibration at one times running speed (1X), 2,950 CPM, and two times running speed (2X), 5,900 CPM. If the motor is driven by @ 50 Hz supply, the motor may produce an electro-magnetically induced vibration at 100 Hz (6,000 CPM). Since 6,000 CPM is not an exact Integer multiple of running speed, this vibration Is non-harmonic with running speed. In this case, It Is so close to 2X running speed that, in some cases, the analyst may mistake it as @ running speed harmonic. The result could be a misdiagnosis of misalignment, when, in fact, the true problem could be unbalance with a slight air gap problem that is producing the electrically induced vibration, Fundamental bearing fault frequencies are also non-harmonic with respect to shaft running speed. [A vibration frequency at 4.3145 times running speed may be an indication of a bearing fault. However, a vibration frequency at 8.629 is a harmonic of the fundamental bearing fault frequency. When looking for harmonics and non-harmonics, the fundamental frequency must be identified and understood before its potential harmonics are investigated. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-6 ‘The conan fhe wang materi ae Weep of SKF RE and may nde segroccein any om ob ry mens een oe ac) anes permis ante.wana 15018436 Vraton Ams aegon 2 oKF. Sideband Peaks Sidebands are caused by amplitude modulation i.e, when one amplitude modulates another. Modulation means increases and decreases. Figure 5. Example of Sideband Peaks For example, as a gear rotates, the vibration due to each tooth mesh will be the same for each revolution of the shaft. However, if the shaft or gear is eccentric, the vibration amplitude will increase and decrease as the shaft turns. At one point, the mesh will be perfect and 90 degrees later, the gear pitch circles may be separated slightly and the gear mesh vibration increases. This Increase and decrease as the shaft rotates is the modulation. This can often be heard in a gearbox as a wailing sound instead of a steady tone or pitch. (On the vibration spectrum, the modulation appears as 2 dominant peak at the primary vibration frequency, which is referred to as the centre frequency or carrier frequency. The frequency that Is, modulating the centre frequency appears in the form of two peaks equally spaced above and below the centre frequency, as shown in the previous diagram. They are referred to as sidebands. As @ problem becomes more pronounced, the sideband amplitudes increase and additional sidebands above and below the centre frequency appear. The spacing between the centre frequency and the sideband Is important, as it identifies the originating problem. In the gearbox example, the sideband spacing will Identify the speed of the shaft in the gearbox that has a problem. The problem may be the gear, but in other situations excessive bearing clearance, unbalance, or misalignment is the true root cause of the problem. Sidebands provide useful analysis information. They help identify electrical problems in motors and help in assessing gearbox and bearing fault severity. Sidebands and Bearing Faults Sidebands can provide a good indication of the severity of bearing problems. For example, as 2 bearing fault grows, sidebands usually appear around bearing fault fundamental and harmonic frequencies (on velocity and acceleration spectra). Typically, as the fault grows more severe, more ‘multiples and sidebands appear in both the fundamental and harmonic frequencies. As a problem worsens, more sidebands appear. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-7 ser Feb 2002 “he conan of his rang mati art cont SHF AS and may net be reprsicedin amy form rb ay mean [re exc) eles permis ane20s 15018436 Viraton Aras aegoy2 oKF Waterfall Plot Figure 6, Waterfall Plots Trend Spectrum Changes Most predictive maintenance software allows the operator to view multiple spectra from a single ‘measurement point collected over time. This type of display is often called a cascade or waterfall display, and is used to trend spectrum changes. In the above waterfall display, the fan measurement’s 1X peak experienced a steady increase in amplitude over the first four readings, indicating @ worsening once per revolution machinery problem (probably unbalance caused by fen blade build up or fan blade damage). The fan was repaired after the fourth reading, explaining the lower 1X amplitude on all subsequent spectra, This illustrates why history is so important when analysing a machine. If the vibration suddenly disappears and there is no record of cleaning, the reason for the sudden drop could be very confusing. Approximately 80% of machinery vibration problems can be solved by understanding the history of the machine. Analysing Typical Machinery Problems Unbalance fat Amp 0516 Fey 172, Oder 1A, ODER, 3647 OTN, 6, | DOI TR, 5.08, 3 © 0 10m 1m 2m 290 OD 2m eM ee sa sm GND OD TOM THO sO) ss Ha Figure 7. Spectrum Indicating Unbalance Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-8 osiereB 2013 ‘Te contents of thisrang materi ae the pit of SKF RB and may nt be sepradced nay form oy ny mens eer ere) urls perision raed1502836 Vrain Anais ategoy 2 oF. Vibration caused by pure unbalance produces a sinusoidal waveform at once per revolution. On a FFT spectrum, this appears as a higher than normal peak at 1 times (1X) running speed. While other faults can produce high 1X amplitude, they usually produce harmonics as well. In general, if the signal has higher than normal running speed harmonics, the fault is not pure unbalance. However, harmonics can occur as unbalance grows severe, or when horizontal and vertical support, stiffness differ greatly. Additionally, pure unbalance in 2 machine is rare, There is undoubtedly some amount of misalignment in any coupled machine. Therefore, the vibration analyst must be able to determine whether a machine Is “mostly” out of balance or “mostly” misaligned. An alignment correction for a machine that is mostly out of balance will produce @ negligible improvement. Unbalance can be caused by a number of factors, including improper manufacture, an uneven build-up of debris on rotors/vanes/blades, or the addition of shaft fittings without appropriate counter balancing. With pumps, uneven wear on impellers is indicated as unbalance. There are several unbalance conditions, includin = Static ‘+ Couple (Moment) ‘+ Dynamic (Static plus Couple) These are illustrated below. Figure 8. Static (Force), Couple (Moment) & Dynamic Unbalance Unbalance usually causes the bearing to carry a higher dynamic load than its design specification, which in turn causes the bearing to fail prematurely due to fatigue. Fatigue Is the result of stresses applied immediately below the load carrying surfaces and is eventually observed as spalling on the raceway surface. It’s probably unbalance ‘+ Overall Vibration Measurements: There is high energy, radial vibration (on horizontal machines, amplitudes increase more in horizontal measurements than in vertical) + Spectrum Measurements: There is a higher than normal amplitude at 1X running speed frequency Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-9 ce siereB 2013 “he conta of hr tri ae th py of SKE RB ad may et be proceed any for ay ny mes (een ere) ulss prion are1501846 Vraton Anas apo 2 oKF, + Spectrum Measurements: With the high 1X, there are little or no amplitude increases) at running speed harmonic frequencies (2X, 3X, 4X, etc.). When the peak at 2X is less than 30% of the 1X peak, unbalance is likely + Spectrum Measurements: 1X amplitude increases proportionally to speed increases (up to the machine's first critical speed) + Phase Measurements: Sensor shows 90° phase shift between horizontal and vertical positions con the same bearing + Phase Measurements: For predominantly static unbalance, there is usually no phase shift ‘across the machine or coupling in the same measurement position It's probably not unbalance if (for horizontal machine): + Assmall speed increase causes radical vibration increase (check for resonance) ‘+ Vertical measurement amplitudes increase more than horizontal (check for looseness) + Axial measurements ampli \des increase more than radial (check for misalignment) + Running speed harmonics at 2X and 3X increase with speed (check for alignment-type problems like misalignment, cocked bearing, bent shaft, etc.) Unbalance Summary If the radial measurement's 1X amplitude Is high and all harmonics (except vane passing) are less ‘than 30% of the 1X and do not increase with speed, there may be unbalance. If the majority of, vibration is in the radial plane and the 1X amplitude is medium to high in amplitude, and phase readings from vertical and horizontal measurements on the same bearing differ by 90°, there may be unbalance. If there is a non-synchronous peak corresponding to the 1X running speed of a nearby machine, there may be unbalance in the other machine. If vibration increases in both the axial and radial measurement planes, the machine has an overhung mass, and the axial phase ‘measurements across the machine or coupling are in phase, there may be unbalance. » Note: It Is important to again note that increasing unbalance forces place Increasing parasitic loads on nearby bearings. If the bearing's specified load is exceeded, damage can occur and the bearing's life will be drastically reduced. Corrective Actions be either added or removed from the rotating element. The ultimate aim being to reduce the uneven mass distribution so that the centrifugal forces and hence the vibrations induced in the supporting structures are at an acceptable level When unbalance has been identified and quantified, the correction is straightforward. Weight i" to Many rotors can often be balanced in place, running at their own operating speed, with minimum. disassembly. To balance in place, of course, a basic requirement is that the rotor has to be accessible to make corrections. Machines such as fans and blowers are good candidates; totally enclosed motor rotors and pump impellers are not. The technique of balancing in place is referred to.as Field Balancing and it offers some distinct advantages, including: Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-10 sar Feo 2003 ‘The conte oh trng materi are the contgt of SKE RB ane may et be repraicein ay far by any mews eve xa) ules ersson arte15028436 Vation Anas Caegoy 2 olnCF. + Balancing Is performed on the complete assembled machine and compensates for the assembly tolerances. + Costly and time-consuming disassembly to remove the rotor to a balancing machine is eliminated, + The effects of temperature, pressure, distortion, and other environmental influences can be incorporated + The resultant vibration can be the tolerance applied to the rotor, rather than the published balance tolerances normally used in a balancing machine. This is particularly advantageous if the supporting structure is close to 2 resonance. The unbalance in the rotor may have to be adjusted to abnormally fine levels to minimise the resultant resonant structural vibration. Modern instruments such as vibration analysers, data collectors, and portable belancers provide accurate information to assist in the balancing process. The vibration level measured at the rotating speed frequency Is used as an indicator of the amount of unbalance. The location is determined by measuring the phase. Phase (the relative motion of one part of a machine to another) is measured by means of a stroboscopic light or by an indicator in the instrument, triggered by a photocell. Misalignment Most experts agree that over half of all machinery problems are caused by misalignment. Misalignment is created when shafts, couplings, and bearings are not properly aligned along their centrelines. The two types of misalignment are angular and parallel/offset, or a combination of both. Angular Misalignment Paralle/Offset Misalignment Figure 9. Angular and Parallel Misalignment Angular Misalignment Angular misalignment occurs when two shafts are joined at a coupling In such a way as to induce @ bending force on the shaft Parallel/Offset Misalignment Parallel misalignment occurs when the shaft centrelines are parallel but displaced from one another. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-11 esiereez013 sprout any for a ny mean een ere) unless permenant1501846 Vrain Anais Categoy 2 okKF. ‘np 01582 Fg: 20, Rein Speed 210 FP ou on go Hoos 008 itigh 2Xand/or 36 3X 0 500 tum 1sm0 20m 2009 sO 340m om eNO JOON 3000 GMD KIN "NORD 7AM aN IRA Frreneney CPM Figure 10. Spectrum Indicating Misalignment we robably misalignment if: ‘+ Overall Vibration Measurements: There is high energy, radial and axial vibration amplitudes. A typical misalignment shows abnormally high vibration amplitude In the axial direction as compared to the radial readings (greater than 30% of the radials). ‘+ Overall Vibration Measurements: Unbalance motion is similar in the horizontal and vertical positions at each bearing. Misalignment motion is seldom the same from horizontal to vertical ‘and one bearing to the next. Unbalance generally produces high motion in the horizontal plane due to differences in bearing support stiffness. If vertical amplitudes are higher than the horizontal readings at the same bearing, misalignment is suspected. ‘+ Spectrum Measurements: Higher than normal 1X and harmonic amplitudes occur in both axial ‘and radial positions. If 2X is less than 30% of 1X, suspect unbalance, greater than 30%, and less than 50%, misalignment is probable; greater than 50% and less than 100%, strong misalignment; greater than 100%, suspect resonance. ‘+ Phase Measurements: Cross-coupling axial and radial phase angle readings are often confusing because misalignment Is rarely purely angular or offset. In the radial readings on each machine, look for combinations of 0° and180° degree phase relationships in the vertical and horizontal planes. It’s probably not misalignment if: + Axial measurement amplitudes are low (check for looseness). + 4X-10X running speed harmonic amplitudes are also high, or if 1/2 harmonics are present (check for looseness). Misalignment Summary Misalignment produces higher than normal vibration at running speed and possible harmonics of running speed out to approximately 5x running speed. Axial vibration at running speed is generally greater than 30% of the lowest radial amplitude. Phase relationships across the coupling in the axial or radial planes may indicate “pure” forms of misalignment, but are ineffective when dealing with complex misalignment or multiple sources of vibration. Misalignment generally produces combinations of zero and 180-degree phase relationships in the vertical and horizontal planes. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-12 ose ree 2002 rapraicedin ay for ry any mean even era) eles ermson rare1502836 Vraon Anas aes 2 okKF, Alignment Methods Straight Edge and Feeler Gauge ‘A rough alignment can be accomplished using straight edges, feeler gauges, and taper gauges to determine the relationship of the two coupling halves. This method aligns the coupling halves and is not necessarily aligning shaft centrelines. Axial and radial run aut of the coupling or shaft will limit accuracy. Feeler gauges or taper gauges are used to measure the gap between coupling gaps at the 12, 3, 6, and 9 o'clock positions. The feet of the machine are then moved until the horizontal land vertical gaps are equal. These moves correct the angular component of the misalignment, Offset misalignment is identified with a straight edge placed across the rims of the coupling halves at the top and one of the sides. Using dial indicators at the inboard and outboard feet, the machine ‘can be moved equally in the horizontal plane to reduce any horizontal offset. Equal shim changes, at the four feet will reduce the vertical offset and minimise any angular movement. The advantage of this method is that it is fast. It provides a good initial alignment and ensures that readings acquired with precision instrumentation are within their measurement range. The use of straight edges and feeler gauges do not provide a precision alignment. Boring or machining errors in the coupling may produce significant misalignment of the shaft centrelines, even though the couplings appear to be aligned with respect to one another. Radial play in the shaft due to excessive bearing clearances may change the stationary position of the shaft relative to its running centreline, A bent shaft or other eccentricity, or any corrosion or surface defects will affect the measurements, Axial end float, particularly In machines with plain bearings, may change the coupling gap during the alignment, especially ifthe shafts are rotated. ‘This method requires human intervention, which will also contribute to a poor alignment. The “feel” of a feeler gauge along with eyesight and viewing limitations cause variances between mechanics. Figure 11. Feeler Gauge Method Rim and Face Alignment ‘The rim and face method is very similar to the feeler gauge method outlined above. In the case of rim and face, however, more precise readings can be obtained, as there are no “feel” or sighting problems. To measure parallel misalignment, a dial indicator base is affixed to one shaft and the tip of the indicator is placed perpendicular to the rim of the coupling on the opposite shaft. Angular alignment readings are obtained from a dial indicator placed on the face of the coupling near the rim, Alignment moves can be determined through trial and error or graphical means, Graphing, when properly performed, minimises the number of moves. The rim and face method still has a place in machinery alignment. In some situations, the shaft of one of the machines cannot be Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-13 The ates is wang aera are Oe capri of SKE AB and may ot be rearducedin any fr by ny means ven exact) les erson is prane,15018436 Vrain Anais ategoy 2 oKF-. rotated. Therefore, reverse dial or laser methods may not be practical or possible. If given enough time, a rim and face precision alignment is possible, and is significantly better than the straight edge and feeler gauge method. However, rim and face alignment is prone to many of the same limitations as the feeler gauge method. Since readings are taken from coupling surfaces, this method is essentially aligning the couplings, not the shafts. Any irregularities in the coupling produce errors, and this method is sensitive to shaft and bearing clearance problems and axial end float. ‘The use of dial indicators and fixtures introduces additional error sources. All fixtures sag due to ‘gravity. Therefore, sag of the measurement setup should be measured on a test fixture prior to taking readings. Fixture sag does not affect the accuracy of this method when steps are made to property compensate for it. Parallax errors are possible when viewing dial indicators at an angle. If the machine is significantly misaligned initially, it may be possible for the indicator to make several rotations or change direction. A rough alignment using the feeler gauge method limits the dial excursions. Good measurement technique overcomes any of these instrument problems. Z — Figure 12. Rim and Face Alignment Set-up Reverse Dial Indicator Method The reverse dial indicator method acquires two simultaneous parallel readings of the stationary machine with respect to the moveable machine, and the moveable machine with respect to the stationary machine, Alignment moves are determined using graphing techniques or calculations. Reverse dial alignment has many advantages over the rim and face method. Since the indicators and indicator targets rotate on the shaft axes, or centrelines, a true centreline alignment Is possible, However, this method is still sensitive to excessive bearing play and coupling backlash and other errors associated with dial indicators such as bar sag, parallax errors, etc. Figure 13. Reverse Dial Indicator Method Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-14 “Te cnn of hs tring mtr af cont of SHF AB and may net bo reproucesn ay Yorn 2b my mes [eve exc) nls person andwos 150 18436 Vvaon Aas atego2 oer. Laser Alignment Methods Laser alignment systems represent the latest advancements in alignment technology. There are humerous configurations utilising single and dual lasers, inclinometers, etc., and each has advantages and disadvantages. Lasers provide accurate measurements, but final alignment results are dependent on the qualifications of the technician using the tool. For example, failure to correct for soft foot, base distortion, and pipe strain produce alignment errors even when the most sophisticated tool is used. A typical laser alignment setup is shown below. If proper procedures are recognised and followed, & laser alignment system has many advantages over other alignment methods. Laser systems are sensitive to lens cleanliness and any interference that prevents proper transmission and reception of the beam. These include dirt or debris on the lenses, interference from other light sources, and, heat waves. The mounting of the laser is important. Steps should be followed to ensure that the laser heads do not slip or rock on the shafts, If very tall posts must be used to clear the coupling, be careful of torsion or sag in the fixture arms, especially with single post designs. If the laser is ‘out of calibration, the readings will be in error. Laser systems should be calibrated periodically, and, heads (measurement units) that are dropped or damaged should be verified before being put back into service. Generally, the more sophisticated laser systems handle a variety of alignment situations such as base-bound and bolt-bound conditions, and will accept thermal growth offsets for both machines, Graphing may be necessary with basic laser systems to determine optimum moves and cold alignment positions. Figure 14. Typical Laser Alignment Set-up Bent Shaft Problems Bent shafts are a common problem encountered on machinery, and can be the result of manufacturing errors or mishandling and damage during transportation or installation, In addition, ‘a rotor may bow as the result of thermal distortion at elevated temperatures or due to excessive unbalance forces Regardless of the cause, bent shafts will usually generate @ predominant vibration at 1x rpm, very similar to simple unbalance, and, like unbalance, the radial vibration caused by a bent shaft will be fairly uniform and should not be directional. However, unlike unbalance, bent shaft conditions will normally cause a relatively significant vibration in the axial direction as well. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-15 ser ren en2 reared any frm or by ny mea ver era) permis watewos 1302836 Viation Anas Category 2 ocr. [As bent shafts cause significant vibration in the axial direction, the problem can normally be verified using a phase analysis of the axial vibration. However, there are actually two different types of bent shaft conditions, one where the bend is at one bearing and the other is when the bbend is in the centre of the shaft. 8 ax 2x AXIAL Figure 15. Bent Shaft Mechanical Looseness Mechanical looseness, or the improper fit between component parts, is generally characterized on 2 spectrum by a long string of rotating frequency harmonics or 1/2 rotating frequency harmonics at abnormally high amplitudes. Some text books refer to different types of mechanical looseness as Type A - vibration at 1x rpm ‘Type B - vibration at 1x & 2x rpm. ‘Type C ~ many harmonics of running speed » Note: These harmonics may be sporadic. For example, looseness may display peaks at 2X, 3X, 4X, 5X, 6X, etc, or at 3X, 3.5X, 4X, 5.5%, 6X, ete. 0076, Fg: 5, Running Spe 580 EM, oss, a 03s ° m0 =~ 00 an 1o0m0 L Enc, Figure 16. Spectrum Indicating Mechanical Looseness Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-16 ‘The contents of thistrning maar ere apt f SE AB and may et be prac any for by yan ven era) ls peison ae1501836 Vraton Anas aepoy 2 oKF. ‘Some possible causes of wear/looseness are, but not limited to: the machine has come loose from Its mounting; a machine component has come loose; the bearing has developed a fault, which has, worn down the bearing elements or the bearing seat If the looseness Is bearing related, the effects are the same as unbalance, only more severe and if looseness is generated from @ component (for example, a fan blade), there is a possibility the part, will become detached, causing secondary damage Diagnosis 1s probably mechanical looseness if: ‘+ Overall Vibration Measurements: There is high energy radial vibration, especially in the vertical measurement plane, and + Overall Vibration Measurements: There Is normal (low) vibration in the axial plane. ‘+ Spectrum Measurements: There is an abnormally high running speed amplitude, followed by higher than normal harmonics of running speed, and perhaps 1/2 harmonics of running speed (from 2X - 10X), Harmonic peaks may decrease in amplitude as they increase in frequency (except at 2X, which, when measured in the vertical position, can be higher in amplitude). Soft Foot / Piping Strain ‘Soft foot and /or piping strain are two of the most common machine installation problems found in plants. Soft foot Is @ condition where one or more feet of a machine are not sitting flat and fully on the base when loose. The distortion in a machine created when a soft foot is tightened down can ‘cause a multitude of problems from internal misalignment to motor air gap problems. Figure 17. Soft Foot Soft foot often produces elevated amplitude at running speed and is most often diagnosed when nothing else seems to fit. Soft foot also “distorts” the vibration pattern of the machine, thereby skewing the normal patterns expected in unbalance and misalignment. Soft foot should always be checked during installation and any subsequent realignment. Most laser alignment systems have @ Soft-Foot function incorporated into the alignment process, or as separate function within the instrument. Piping strain is usually where the pipe attached to the pump are either too long oF too short and this can cause a distortion, similar to soft-foot. It is important to remember that itis unlikely that piping strain will be found on electric motors or fan casings. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-17 esr rez “The cortans fis rang mata are the copright of SHF AB and may net be reproacedin any form ry ny mean even eras) eles armen aewi03 FE ISO 18436 Vibration Analysis Category 2 okK ‘These problems can sometimes be detected through radial readings around the casing of the machine at the bearing where the vibrations are highest. Simply record the overall amplitude at various locations around the casing and then plot them on a piece of paper. The next step js to draw a line from the point with the highest amplitude to the point with the lowest amplitude, as shown in figure 17. Figure 18. Radial Pump Readings In figure 17, plotting from highest to lowest reveals a diagonal line up towards the right hand side, if this was the general direction of the piping for this pump, it would suggest that the pipe is too short. If however, the pipe came from the left hand side, it might suggest that the pipe is too long. In the case of soft foot, the radial readings usually show the highest amplitudes at the top and the lowest amplitudes diagonally opposite in the lower side of the machine. Further confirmation of a soft foot condition can be achieved by taking phase readings on all four foot of the machine, as shown in figure 25. ase ase 60" 250° Figure 19. Motor Foot Phase Readings In figure 25, it can be seen that the phase readings is around 180° different from all the others and if this coincides with the radial readings pointing to this bearing, a soft foot would be expected. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-18 “he cnn fis ising mati rh opr of SHE AB ad mya reproaced nay Yor oy my mesne evn sara) ule parison rare,aos 15018436 Vibration Anas Category 2 oKF. ‘The next step Is to have the machine turned off and by attaching a dial test indicator (DTI or Clock Gauge) to the machine with the needle touching the foot of the machine at position 4, ‘The bolt Is then slowly loosened with a spanner until it becomes hand tight. If a soft foot is present, then as the machine foot returns to its original rest position, the deflection will be seen on the DTI. Any movement of more than 0.05 mm should be considered a soft foot and the total amount of movement indicated by the clock gauge is the amount of shims that need to be put under the foot. Summary If there are a series of three or more synchronous or 1/2 synchronous multiples of running speed (range 2X to 10x), and their magnitudes are greater than 20% of the 1%, then there may be ‘mechanical looseness. If the machine is rigidly connected (no coupling or belt), and the radial 2x is high, then there may bbe mechanical looseness. Misaligned Bearing Figure 20. Misaligned Bearing Figure 21. Phase Measurements Help Diagnose a Misaligned Bearing Like misalignment, @ cocked bearing usually generates considerable axial vibration. However, phase measurements from the suspect bearing’s axial position help differentiate the two. If the phase readings among the adjacent four sensor locations vary considerably, a cocked bearing is, Indicated. Success in diagnosing this condition is directly related to the stiffness of the bearing support and the flexibility of the shaft Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-19 ‘The conta f isang ari are he apt of SKE AB and may ot repraacein amy for ry ny mean [ve extrac) ele persion aneaos 150 2836 Vibration Anas aegoy 2 oKF Resonance Resonance Is a condition where a structure vibrates at very large amplitudes for a given force level. ‘This means that on some machines, even when they are aligned to precision tolerances and balanced to low levels, vibration amplitudes can be unacceptably high. Moreover, when the alignment and balancing are mediocre, the vibration amplitudes can go off the chart. If the resonance condition can be properly identified and corrected, there will be dramatic reductions in Vibration levels and significant improvements in machine life. What is Resonance? Resonance is not a source of vibration; it is an amplifier of vibration. Every structure or part has natural frequencies, which are frequencies where It likes to vibrate. For example, when a bell Is struck, it will ring at its natural frequencies. It is said that the bell resonates, or that it is resonating. These natural frequencies are physical properties of the bell and are determined by its geometry, size, and material. Every time that the bell rings, it will resonate at the same natural frequencies. Notice that the word “frequencies” is used rather than frequency. In reality, a structure has an infinite number of resonant frequencies. The tone we hear from a particular bell is actually a combination of all of its natural frequencies that are excited by the device used to ring it. On smaller bells, the natural or resonant frequencies increase. Larger bells resonate at lower frequencies. The same is true with guitar or violin strings. Pluck one string and it resonates at a particular set of frequencies. Change the geometry by holding the string to the neck of the Instrument at the mid-point, and its resonant frequencies increase. Loosen the string and the properties of the material, in this case strain due to string tension, change. The resonant frequencies lower as strain is reduced, While some machinery vibration problems are due to resonance from Impacting forces like bearing damage or pump cavitation, most resonance conditions are from a rotating or periodic force produced inside the machine. An automobile provides a good analogy. Resonance Is a physical property of an automobile. Therefore, there are specific frequencies where the automobile is resonant. If everything is properly balanced and assembled, we are often unaware that the resonances exist. However, an out of balance tire can provide a significant amount of vibration energy that can excite resonances of the entire car. For example, assume that the left front tire is out of balance. At low speeds, the driver may be completely unaware there is a problem. However, as the speed increases, at 5B miles per hour, the ‘car begins to shake and the steering wheel begins to oscillate slightly. At 62 miles per hour, the car again runs smoothly, but a slight shaking can be felt in the steering wheel. The shaking increases as the car approaches 70 miles per hour, and at 72, the dashboard begins to shake violently. What the driver has experienced are two distinct resonant frequencies at S8 and 72 miles per hour. Knowing the speed of the car and the circumference of the tire, the actual frequencies of the resonances can be determined and measured with a vibration instrument. In a case like this, the solution is simple, balance the tire to a precision level and it will not produce enough energy to excite the resonances. The vibration problems will disappear. The resonances still exist but are Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-20 sar Fe8 2002 “he contents ti tranng mati at epg ot SHE RB an may net be reprucein ay for any mean (ve ena) nie person # anewos 15028436 Viaton nabs Cato 2 okKF effectively dormant. A guitar string will not resonate unless plucked, and @ pump or fan will not resonate unless excited by some force, such as unbalance or misalignment. Resonance in Rotating Machinery If all structures are resonant, how do rotating machines operate? Most machine designers attempt to design their machinery components such as pumps, fans, motors, and the bases and foundations so that their first resonant frequency is well above the designed running speed of the ‘machine (20 to 30% higher). VIBRATION AMPLITUDE ROTATING SPEED. Figure 22. Operating Speed Designed Away from Critical Speeds Other machines may have known (through test or analysis) resonances 20 to 30% lower than rotating speed. Therefore, in many machines, resonance Is not a problem. However, in about half fof the machines in the field, resonance can have an adverse affect. Since it manifests itself in many forms, maintenance departments are often ineffective in identifying and controlling it. For example, 2 motor driven horizontal pump is designed so that the first resonant frequency of the “package” Is 2,475 cycles per minute (CPM). Since the running speed is 1,785 RPM, there is, sufficient separation between any forces the machine may be producing at running speed and the resonant frequency. Therefore, there is no resonant amplification. However, the pump has six blades on the impeller. Under certain flow conditions, it produces vibration pulsations equal to the number of blades times RPM, This is its “blade pass frequency.” In this case, the blade pass frequency is 6 x 1,785, or 10,710 CPM. The discharge piping was site-installed after the major systems were installed, and due to the length, diameter, and thickness of one of the pipe sections, there is @ resonant frequency at 10,500 CPM, This frequency is well within the 20 to 30% range where resonance can be excited. As pump flow is varied, certain settings cause the pipe to begin vibrating violently. Understanding the interaction between the forces and the resulting vibration response, a case like this Is relatively easy to diagnose and correct. However, many plants lack the understanding; therefore, these common resonance problems persist. In other cases, the entire machine may be resonant on its base or foundation. Often, machine manufacturers package a machine for a particular application. They select a motor from column A, ‘2 pump from column B, and assemble them on a standard base/ frame. Certain combinations of components may produce a machine that is resonant exactly at running speed. These machines are often very difficult to work with, as they are sensitive to the slightest change in balance or alignment. In some cases, they will never run successfully. Again, recognizing this as a resonance Chapter 5; Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-21 co sxeree 2013 The ata fang marae apg of SKF AB and may tbe reorouced any form ry any mean even eras) se ermineaos 150 18436 Vrain nas Category 2 oKF problem, simple corrections may produce significant improvements. Some of the characteristics of resonance include: + An unusually high amplitude at one location on a machine compared to others ‘+ Sensitivity to speed changes. Increases or decreases in speed produce large changes in amplitude + Repeated episodes of cracking. The high stresses produced by 2 resonant condition promote fatique ‘+ Difficulty when balancing. Resonance at running speed makes balancing difficult ‘The key is to always suspect a machine of suffering from a resonance related problem. If testing confirms that resonance is not @ problem, it can be crossed off the troubleshooting list. If not considered initially, an obvious problem may be missed. Identifying Resonance Resonance can be identified analytically using a variety of methods. The most common are: ‘+ Run-up or Coast-down Tests: The vibration amplitudes are monitored as the machine's speed is, varied producing a plot similar to the one shown above. ‘+ Bump or Impact Tests: A typically stationary machine Is impacted to excite Its various natural frequencies, which is similar to striking a bell. Peaks in a vibration spectrum taken while impacting identify the resonant frequencies. ‘+ Plotting of the vibration pattern, operating deflection shape, or mode shape: A part or structure that is resonating produces a unique vibration pattern. Measuring points around the structure, ‘on piping, on floors or foundations, etc., may reveal a definite vibration pattern. ‘+ Sensitivity to Bracing -~ A machine that is producing a large amount of “source” vibration will not change significantly if the machine or component is braced to a stationary object. However, ia partis truly resonant, the vibration will drop significantly when braced, ‘+ Shaker Tests ~ Instead of using the machine to vary the frequency of the vibration, @ small variable speed motor with a rotating unbalance can be used to study the machine. The advantages of @ shaker are that the machine does not have to be running and the speed can be varied well below and above the normal running speed of the machine. Impact Testing ‘An Impact, Bump, or Rap Test is a simple repeated impact test applied to a machine or product to excite the structure. This allows the approximate natural frequencies to be determined. A bump test Is carried out to determine if resonance is responsible for high noise or vibration levels. The signal involved is not steady state and its magnitude will vary. Therefore, the expected input range has to be set manually. The magnitude of the signal will depend on: ‘+The frequency response of the structure ‘+The force being applied (how hard itis being hit) ‘+The mass of the hammer being used (how big the hammer is) ‘+The sensitivity of the accelerometer ‘Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-22 epee ay far ry myn ve eases min awoos 150 8436 Vaan Anas Cater 2 oKF ‘Therefore, estimation has to be made of the expected full scale range of the signal in transducer Units. (The range options change based on the transducer type selected.) Forced Response Testing In engineering practice, we are almost invariably interested in predicting the response of a structure or mechanical system to external forcing. For example, we may need to predict the response of a bridge or tall building to wind loading, earthquakes, or ground vibrations due to traffic. Another typical problem you are likely to encounter Is to Isolate a sensitive system from vibrations. For example, the suspension of your car is designed to isolate a sensitive system (you) from bumps in the road. Electron microscopes are another example of sensitive instruments that must be isolated from vibrations. Electron microscopes are designed to resolve features a few nanometres in size. If the specimen vibrates with amplitude of only a few nanometres, it will be impossible to see! Great care Is taken to isolate this kind of instrument from vibrations. That is one reason they are almost always in the basement of a building: the basement vibrates much less than the floors above. External Forcing models the behaviour of a system, which has a time varying force acting on It. An example might be an offshore structure subjected to wave loading. Base Excitation models the behaviour of a vibration isolation system. The base of the unit is siven @ prescribed motion, causing the mass to vibrate. This system can be used to model a vehicle suspension system, or the earthquake response of a structure. Rotor Excitation models the effect of a rotating machine mounted on a flexible floor. A crank with ‘small mass is fixed to the machine and rotates at constant angular velocity, causing the mass to vibrate. When conducting forced response testing, the following applies: + The steady state response is always harmonic and has the same frequency as that of the forcing + The amplitude of vibration is strongly dependent on the frequency of excitation and on the properties of system + If the forcing frequency is close to the natural frequency of the system, and the system is lightly damped, huge vibration amplitudes may occur; this phenomenon is known as resonance + There is @ phase lag between the forcing and the system response, which depends on the frequency of excitation and the properties of the system + We often measure the natural frequency and damping coefficient for a mode of vibration in a structure or component, by measuring the forced vibration response of the system This Is done by finding some way to apply @ harmonic excitation to the system (base excitation might work, or apply a force using some kind of actuator, or deliberately mount an unbalanced rotor on the system), ‘Then, mount accelerometers on the system and use them to measure the displacement of the structure, at the point where it is being excited, as a function of frequency. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-23 ser Fee 2012 “he cortars fs rang materi re eye SKF AB an ny net reorder ay frm ry ny meas oven eu) els persone rt15018436 Vrain Anas Category 2 olkerF. Forced vibrations are the resulting vibrations caused by periodic forces within the system, such as unbalanced rotating masses or the intermittent engagement of multi-tooth cutters (milling), or transmissions through the foundations from nearby machinery. The machine tool will oscillate at the forcing frequency, and if this frequency corresponds to one of the natural frequencies of the structure, the machine will resonate in the corresponding natural mode of vibration. A machine structure that is subjected to a periodic force will vibrate at the forcing frequency. Forced Vibration - Forced vibration is also termed as “steady deterministic vibration.” An unbalanced shaft or rotor Is a typical cause that leads to forced vibration in a system. The forced vibration Is termed as a Frequency Response Function (FRF), where @ is the frequency of the exciting force and @v is the natural frequency of the system. Forced vibration happens at the frequency of the exciting force. The amplitude of motion depends both on the amplitude of the force and on the frequency of the force. A low frequency of excitation force causes a displacement determined by the “static” stiffness. As the excitation frequency increases, so does the amplitude of the displacement, up to the “resonance.” At resonance, the frequency of the excitation force matches the natural frequency. At resonance, the amplitude of the displacement is much larger than at low frequency. For excitation frequencies higher than the natural frequency, the amplitude of the displacement decreases. Correcting Resonant Conditions Resonance Is often easily corrected and some of the most common means are: + Bracing or Stiffening: Clamping @ resonant part to a stationary part of the machine or surrounding structure is often a very effective and permanent correction. Use a section of angle iron and C-clamps to check a variety of locations and directions to Identify the optimum correction. + Changing the speed of the machine: If the speed of the machine can be increased or decreased 50 the vibration source frequency is 20 to 30% away from a known resonant frequency, the vibration will probably fall to within acceptable limits. + Damping treatments: Damping Is similar to a shock absorber on a car. It does not fix the problem, but it limits the amplitude. This is a tricky correction often best left for the professional. + Reduce or eliminate the vibration source: This is the most important corrective measure and usually the last to be investigated. If the vibration source is extremely small, the amplification due to resonance will also be small, Look for ways to eliminate source vibration through balancing, alignment, etc. Analysing Bearing Vibration ‘As discussed earlier, a bearing may fail for a number of reasons: improper lubrication, contamination, heavier loading than anticipated (e.g., like unbalance, misalignment, bent shaft), Improper handling or installation, old age, etc. In general, initial bearing fatigue results from cyclic shear stresses just below the surface of the raceway as the roller repeatedly passes. Over time, the fatigue leads to cracks, which gradually Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characterist Page 5-24 oswres22 The cones ths tring mati the eopyht of SHER aed may et be produce in ary er by ry means een eats) urless eran ran15028436 Viaton Anais Category 2 oKF. extend up to the surface, As rolling elements pass over these cracks, fragments begin to break away. This Is known as spalling or flaking, The spalling progressively increases and leads to eventual failure. The progression to failure is fairly predictable in 2 controlled environment. However, changes in lubricant condition, sudden shock loads, or other events can radically alter the road to failure. / Spal on outer race Figure 23. Rolling Element Bearing with Spall Another type of bearing failure Is initiated by surface distress. Surface distress causes cracks to form on the surface and grow into the material. Surface distress is also caused by excessive load or Improper lubrication and may also be due to particle denting from spalls that have begun elsewhere In the bearing In either case, the failing bearing produces noise and vibration that, if detected and properly analysed, provide maintenance personnel adequate time to Identify the cause of the bearing problem and an opportunity to replace the bearing before fallure. >» Note: Even If the bearing warrants replacement, the analyst must stil determine the “root cause’ of the bearing’s failure. Bearing Fault Frequencies ‘A physical relationship exists between a bearing's component geometry and the vibration signals emitted by problems by each of the bearing’s components. If the bearing’s geometry (the diameter, of the rolling elements, the pitch diameter, the number of rolling elements, and the contact angle) Is known, the bearing's fault frequencies (the frequencies of the vibration signals emitted by problems on each of the bearing’s components) can be easily calculated. ‘After the bearing’s fault frequencies are Identified, the bearing's vibration spectrum is analysed to look for spectrum peaks appearing at these fault frequencies (or at harmonics of these fault frequencies). A peak at a known fault frequency indicates that the bearing has a problem and Indicates where the problem is located on the bearing.A bearing’s fault frequencies are calculated Individually for the bearings: ‘+ BPFO: Ball Pass Frequency Outer Race + BPFI: Ball Pass Frequency Inner Race + BSF: Ball Spin Frequency Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-25 es reez02 “The contents of hs tring mater are the cig SHF AB and may rt be reprocedin any frm or by ny mean even extrac) eles ermine ane15028436 Vraton Analysis aego2 oF. ‘+ FTF: Cage Frequency or Fundamental Train Frequency ‘These four fundamental fault frequencies are calculated for each type of bearing, using equations Felating to the beering's geometry. The equations for calculate a bearing’s fundamental fault frequencies are as follows Inner Race = BPFI = Outer Race = BPFO XRPM = N,x FTF (or Rol cage FIFE = XRPM = 0.35~0.45x RPM Where + (a) = Number of Rolling Elements + Bd = Ball Diameter + Pd = Pitch Diameter + A= Contact Angle NOTE: If frequencies are requested in Hertz, RPM is divided by 60. ‘The formula for BSF calculates the speed of the ball or roller. However, the frequency generated by roller speed is seldom measured. This is true because the balls or rollers are encased in the cage and between the inner and outer races. If one of the rolling elements has a defect of any kind, the defect can strike the inner and outer races and/or the front and back side of the cage alternately. This generates two times BSF, because the timing for each event is exact and occurs when the roller rotates half a revolution. Al of these Ideal bearing frequency formulas are based on the assumption of pure rolling contact between the rollers and races. The small error resulting from any slipping of these surfaces would produce somewhat lower values in the above equations. Also, if the bearing is turning on the shaft or in the housing, the bearing frequencies can be lower. When looseness is involved, the spectral lines at the bearing frequencies can be wide banded. The outer race frequency may not be generated if the outer race is loose in the housing and the defect Is not in the load zone, Changes in the contact angle cause changes in the bearing frequencies. For example, with the outer race stationary and inner race rotating, if the contact angle increases, FTF, BPFO, and BSF Increase and BPFI decreases. If the contact angle decreases, FTF, BPFO, and BSF decrease and BPFH increases. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-26 ose res 3 reredced may form ery ny mass vena) nes prmason aed1501496 Viratn Anas aegony2 ORF. Careful analysis of the measured and calculated bearing frequencies using exact geometry, speed, ‘and measurement accuracy often reveals useful information on the integrity of the bearing journal, housing, and thrust loads. This data is then used to determine when the bearing should be replaced, how long it will last, and the additional work required to prevent the new bearing from failing prematurely. Displaying Fault Frequencies proms 15 Amp. 1054 Fg 275, (OI, 18) (3 186, (ae AIT.) jure 24. Bearing Fault Frequencies With over 1,000 bearings used in 2 single paper machine, calculating bering fault frequencies from their geometry for each bearing would be @ time consuming, tedious job. Thankfully, today’s ‘computer technology performs these calculations automatically. Most vibration analysis software incorporates a built-in database of bearings Identified by manufacturer and model number. The bearing's four fault frequencies are stored in this database. ‘As part of the configuration of a bearing measurement, the user simply specifies the monitored bearing’s manufacturer and model number. Once specified, the bearing's fault frequencies are linked to the measurement. After data collection, the bearing's fault frequency can be displayed on the vibration spectra. A peak at a known fault frequency indicates that the bearing has a potential problem. In the preceding spectrum, a problem on the bearing’s outer race is clearly identified when the bearing’s fundamental BPFO frequency marker aligns with the first significant peak on the enveloped acceleration measurement (at approximately 35 Hz). Subsequent peaks occur at ‘multiples of the problem's fundamental frequency (2xBPFO, 3xBPFO, and 4xBPFO), > Note: The above spectrum clearly shows the benefit of overlaying bearing fault frequencies ‘and is an excellent example of how the enveloping process highlights bearing faults. Bearing Failure Stages Typically, a rolling element bearing problem progresses through four stages before catastrophic failure. Each of these stages exhibits spectrum characteristics useful in bearing fault analysis. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-27 co sxrrenzcia The caren of thing materi ae pit SKF AB ad may ot be repaid ny foro yey meas oven oat) asprin ate20a 1501496 raion nabs Category 2 oKF. Stage a "Noapprent charge on ya vec specu Stage 2 Deere pear Stage 3 Stage 4 Deets urdanertaequeres dso pear Deets harmonic Frequarcits devy mutile sedmay ob bands ‘shade oy) ramen ee eo Saco dlp sebons Figure 25. Bearing Failure Stages Note: Although acceleration and acceleration enveloping signal processing are best for analysing bearing problems, the spectra above plot velocity, as velocity spectra display both low frequency and high frequency events, which will be discussed further. Stage 1 When a rolling element bearing problem develops, the vibration signal Is typically so small compared to other vibration signals emanating from the machine it will not be noticeable on 2 velocity spectrum. Signal processing methods like Acceleration Enveloping that focus on monitoring very high or ultrasonic frequency ranges where bearing problems are first indicated are needed to detect a bearing problem in this early stage. Stage 2 As the bearing problem grows, harmonics of the problem’s fundamental frequency typically appear first (anywhere within the 500 Hz to 2 kHz frequency range) and possible bearing component natural frequencies are excited. On a velocity spectrum, these fault frequency harmonics are the earliest indicators that a problem exists. Toward the end of Stage 2, sideband frequencies typically accompany these harmonic peaks. Stage 3 As the problem deteriorates, the fundamental frequencies and harmonics of these fundamental frequencies appear in the lower frequency range of the spectrum. As the problem grows more severe, more multiples and sidebands appear in both the fundamental and harmonic frequency ranges. As a general rule, the more harmonics that appear, the more severe the problem. The bearing should be replaced at this time, Stage 4 As the problem progresses into Stage 4, more harmonics and sidebands appear (especially in the harmonic frequency range) and the noise floor rises. This results in a haystack appearance in the velocity spectrum. At this stage, bearing vibration is often strong enough to affect the 1X signal and Its multiples, which often experience a rise in amplitude. It is important to rote that in Stage 4, overall vibration in the bearing frequency band often drops (even though the bearing's condition is worsening). This is caused by the problem spreading and rounding off, which results in less severe impact signals (and less overall vibration). Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-28 © sire@ 2012 ‘The conta of string materi ae the cpg of SKF AB ad ay ot be esrocced in an om ob ny means een ra) us parmisan aawos 1018436 iain Aas Cater 2 oKF. Low Frequency Spectral Analysis (0 - 2,000 Hz) In many cases, it may be possible to locate defects in a bearing under normal operation by correlating peaks in the velocity spectrum with the defect frequencies for the specific bearing. If Increasing levels of vibration exist at one or more of the defect frequencies, then it might be suspected that a defect corresponding to that frequency exists. This vibration may also be modulated as the defect and elements move in and out of the bearing's “loaded zone.” One problem with this technique is that the peaks can be very small compared with ‘other vibration components; hence, they will not significantly affect the overall vibration level. In addition, these peaks can be buried by secondary vibration/ background noise and a failure could {90 undetected. ‘There are instances where this technique has proved successful; however, it gives little advanced warning of failure (damage has usually to be of an advanced nature to provide significant peaks) and failures could be missed in the interval between measurements. The operator should be aware that whilst a single fatigue can produce a series of impulses, they are not necessarily of a cyclic nature, due to the loss of pure rolling motion. High Frequency Spectral Analysis (> 2,000 Hz) Monitoring the high frequency velocity or acceleration spectrum produced by a rolling element bearing can help assess its condition. Whilst acceleration is the most sensitive indicator of bearing defects, the velocity level can offer evidence of impending failure. This technique does not try to correlate the vibration peaks with known defect frequencies, as these occur at low frequencies. ‘The vibration produced by rolling element bearings is usually impulsive in nature; hence, the dynamic forces will excite many resonances of the bearing components and machine structure. The frequency of these resonances will be unrelated to the bearing defect frequencies, thus making it difficult to relate this response to bearing generated forces. In addition, the frequencies generated will vary from bearing housing to bearing housing. Hence, there is no advantage in investigating the frequency spectrum of the bearing housing response. Alternatively, the overall vibration level can be monitored and trended to detect the existence of a bearing defect. The advantage of this technique is that there is no need to know the geometry of the bearing. Secondly the higher frequency response is generally more sensitive to bearing defects and their severity. The major disadvantage with this technique Is that the source of the high frequency response cannot be identified and other sources of high frequency vibration can produce false alarms. Such sources of high frequency vibration include turbulence, cavitation, mechanical, Impacts, gear trains, steam flows, metal cutting, ete. For the early detection of rolling element bearing defects, refer to the methods at the ‘end of Chapter 4 ~ Special processing of the Acceleration Signal. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-29 ser Feo 2009 ‘The contents fi tring mati are copyright SKF AB andy rt be reoroucedin an frm ry any mews even eno) eles permison ane15028436 Viraton Anas aes 2 olKF. Vibration in Sleeve bearings Vibration problems associated with plain or sleeve bearings are normally the result of excessive bearing clearances, due to wear or improper adjustment, or looseness of bearing shells in the housing. Misalignment of sleeve bearings is another possible problem that has already been discussed, Excessive bearing clearance When problems of excessive bearing clearance or bearing looseness occur, the first indication Is usually 2 noticeable increase in the normal vibration frequencies of unbalance and misalignment typically at 1x rpm, Increasing bearing clearance simply reduces bearing stiffness, allowing any existing forces to exhibit higher amplitudes. As bearing wear or looseness progresses, the characteristics associated with looseness will begin to appear. This will usually include multiple harmonics of the fundamental frequencies, and may be localised to a specific bearing if only one bearing has a problem. This can also been seen in the time waveform, where the wave will show @ ‘squaring’ at the top and bottom. If the bearing Is actually wearing or wiping In the load zone, the Increase in vertical vibration amplitude may be more pronounced than that In the horizontal direction. If the machine is fitted with non-contact proximity probes for measuring relative shaft vibration, bearing wear will usually be accompanied by a noticeable increase in the DC gap voltage, Indicating that the bearing is dropping relative to probe location. 1x RPM 3x 23 4x Figure 26. Effects of Excessive Clearance Excessive wear of plain bearings on some machines may result In “sympathetic” vibration characteristics. For example, bearing wear on gear boxes may cause an increase in vibration at the ‘gear-meshing frequency and its harmonics because of the resultant change in gear clearances and gear alignment. Similarly, bearing wear on high speed centrifugal pumps may reveal a noticeable increase in the hydraulic vane-passing frequency, since the pump rotor is no longer centred in the housing or centred relative to diffusers. In the case of large motors, bearing wear may cause a significant change in the air gap between the motor armature and stator (field), resulting in unbalanced magnetic forces, indicating characteristics of "electrical" problems. In some cases, excessive wear of sleeve bearings may result in sub-harmonic vibration frequencies such as Ys x rpm. This has been noted on several occasions with excessive wear on sleeve bearings on large motors. Oil Whirl Instability ll Whirl Is probably the most common cause of sub-synchronous instability in hydrodynamic journal bearings. Normally, the oil film itself will flow around the journal to lubricate and cool the bearing. In so doing, it will develop an average speed slightly less than 50% of the journal surface ‘Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-30 osx Fee2012 ‘The ota of ang ari are api of SKE AB an ma ot be reproucen ay Yor oy ny mean een era) unless parison aes,15026436 Vrain Anais Caton 2 oKF. speed. Normally, the shaft rides on the crest of an oil pressure gradient, rising slightly up the side of the bearing slightly off vertical at a given, stable attitude angle and eccentricity. The amount of rise depends on the rotor speed, rotor weight and oil pressure. With the shaft operating ‘eccentrically relative to the bearing centre, It draws the oil into a “wedge” to produce this, pressurised load-carrying film. If the shaft receives a disturbing force such as @ sudden surge or external shock, it can momentarily increase the eccentricity from its equilibrium position. When this happens, additional oll is immediately pumped into the space vacated by the shaft. This results in an increased pressure of the load-carrying film which creates additional force between the film and shaft. In this case, the oil film can actually drive the shaft ahead of it in a forward circular motion and into 2 whirling path around the bearing within the bearing clearance. If there is sufficient damping within the system, the shaft can be returned to its normal position and stability. Otherwise, the shaft will ‘continue in its whirling motion which can become violent depending on several parameters. Figure 27. Oil Whirl Whenever a possible oll whirl problem Is detected, the following things should be checked: + If the machine has a history of successful operation and evidence of oil whirl is just beginning to appear, check for possible bearing wear. If a plain bearing wears, the shaft will tend to operate more eccentrically relative to the centreline of the bearing, which increases susceptibility to oil whirl. + If the machine has no past history of oll whirl problems, check to see if a different lubricating oll is being used. The temperature, viscosity and other properties of the lube oll can sometimes affect oil whirl + If the machine is a new installation, check the design of the bearings. Normally, pressure lubricated sleeve bearings on machines subject to possible oil whirl problems should have 2 minimum static (Gournal) load of 6.9 bar. If the bearing surfaces are too large, the bearings ‘may be lightly loaded and susceptible to oil whirl. ‘+ Ifa machine has just been overhauled, make sure that the bearings are not lightly loaded to misalignment or other installation problems. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-31 ‘The centers of hiring materi are eonrigt of SKF AB and may nt be reprsicedin ay frm yam mean ren erect) nls Permian atedaos 15028436 Vraon Aas atego2 oKF Oil Whip Instability This may occur in a machine that is subject to oll whirl and when the oil whirl frequency coincides with, and becomes locked into a system natural frequency. Oil whip is a lateral forward Precessional sub-harmonic vibration of the rotor. At this point, the oil whip frequency remains constant, irrespective of the shaft rpm. When a shaft goes into oil whip, its dominant dynamic factors become mass and stiffness, and its amplitude is limited only by the bearing clearances. Left uncorrected, oll whip can cause severe damage to the entire machine, Rotor Rub Rotor rub occurs when the rotating parts of a machine contact stationary parts and can be catastrophic depending on which parts actually contact one another, the material construction of ‘each part, rotational speed-induced vibration, structural rigidity of both the rotating and stationary parts and the Impact velocity itself. Rotor rub encompasses a variety of events, some of which can be catastrophic and others that are less catastrophic. Examples of catastrophic events include @ rotor contacting a bearing, ® rotor contacting a stator in an electric motor, impeller vanes contacting diffuser vanes and turbine blades contacting diffuser vanes. Examples of less catastrophic events include a shaft rubbing a seal, a coupling guard rubbing a shaft, a belt rubbing guard and fan blades contacting a shroud (cover). ax RPM ax Figure 28, Rotor Rub Vibration Due To Drive Belt Problems. ‘Some common problems with belt drive systems such as eccentricity and misalignment of pulleys have already been discussed in the earlier sections of this chapter. Although these are vibration problems that occur with belt drives, they are not truly the result of actual belt problems. Vibration due to belt problems implies that there is something physically wrong with the belts themselves such as hard spots, missing chunks, variations in belt width or other belt deformities that produce vibration forces with vibration frequencies which are directly related to the rotating speed (rpm) of, the belts. ‘The first step in analysing vibration caused by true belt defects Is to calculate the rotating speed (rpm) of the belts. To do this, it is necessary to know the diameter of one of the pulleys and its rpm along with the length of the belt. The rpm of the belt can then be found using the following equation, we SS Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-32 ‘The contents of string materi re te cnn of SHE 882 may not be rwprsicedin ay frm ry any mean even era) le person rate15018136 Viraon Aas Category 2 oKF. For example, assume that a fan pulley is 37.5 cm in diameter, and rotates at 2400 rpm. The belt length is 465 cm, and r= 3.14159. Therefore, the rpm of the belt is: x x Pulley Diameter x Pulley RPM Belt RPM = Belt Length 3.14159 x 37.5 x 2400 465 = S08 rpm In this case, true belt defects such as those listed above, will generate vibration frequencies related to 865 rpm. In most cases, however, belt defects will generate vibration frequencies at multiples of belt rpm such as 2x, 3x, 4x, belt rpm. A significant belt defect rarely causes a predominant vibration at its fundamental rotating speed frequency (1 x belt rpm). The reason is similar to that for gears. A belt defect normally causes multiple events or forces during each revolution. A force will be generated as a defect on a belt enters a pulley, and a second force may be generated, a reaction force, when the defect exits or leaves the pulley. Since there are at least two pulleys Involved in any belt drive system, forces will be generated as the belt defect enters and leaves the second pulley. If idler pulleys are involved, @ belt defect may generate even more reaction forces during its rotation. In the case of multiple belt drives, if defects occur on more than one of the drive belts, the possibilty of vibration at harmonics of belt frequencies is increased. ‘The most important thing to consider when analysing the vibration on belt drive systems is that, depending on the number of belts, pulleys and idler pulleys involved, belt defects can occur at multiples or harmonics of belt rpm. Therefore, knowing beforehand what the rotating speed of the belts is and what the possible harmonic frequencies might be Is of the utmost importance. Armed With this simple bit of information, the analyst can be on the lookout for these frequencies in the spectral data. In some cases, the potential belt defect frequencies may turn out to be very close to other problem related frequencies such as the rpm of the driver or driven units. If this is the case, it may be necessary to take a high resolution spectrum in order to separate possible belt defect frequencies from other potential problem-related frequencies. When the problem is worn, loose or mismatched belts, the amplitudes in the spectrum are generally unsteady (pulsing up or down). The belt frequencies often pulse up and down in time with the machine rpm (driver or driven). Driver / Driven Belt Freq. Figure 29. Worn, Loose or Mismatched belts Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-33 esierebz012 ‘The contr of his hing mati are theca SHF AB and may rt be repraacedin ay form oy ay ean een src) les permison eared,eos 1501836 Vibration ass Category 2 okKF When the problem is belt misalignment, this usually causes high vibration in the axial direction and most commonly at 1x rpm. Another indicator of misalignment across belts is when taking readings fon one component, often the highest amplitude is the running speed of the other component e.g. when takings readings on the motor, the highest amplitude is the fan rpm, = Figure 30. Belt or Pulley Misalignment {As with any other component, belts have their own natural frequency and if this coincides with elther a running speed, or any other forcing frequency, high vibration will be generated from the belts. This vibration can be removed by altering the belt tension. Natural Freq. Figure 31. Belt Resonance Analysing Specific Driving or Driven Units Hydraulic/ Aerodynamic For @ pump that is operating normally, with no defects, It is common to see the running speed and the Blade Pass Frequency (BPF) on the spectrum. The BPF is calculated by multiplying the number of blades (or vanes) on the impeller by the running speed of the machine. This also applies for piston pumps and fans. When there are no problems with the pumps, it is common to see only 1x rpm and Blade Pass Frequency. BPF may have 1x rpm sidebands, however they should be of low amplitude. If 1x rpm sidebands have always been present around BPF, but do not change in ‘amplitude there usually isn't any problems. However, if sidebands have never been present and then begin to appear, it is usually the beginning of a problem. Similarly, if they have always been present and then begin to increase in amplitude, it is usually the start of a problem Chapter §; Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-34 oseree2002 ‘The ones fining mater are te apt of SKF A and may ot be repracedn ay frm er by ny mean [eve nrc) eles pemsion aed15018436 Viraton Anais Cteary2 oKF. Figure 32. Pump normal spectrum Cavitation occurs in pumps when the suction pressure falls towards the vapour pressure of the pumped liquid, resulting in the formation of vapour cavities (or bubbles) in the impeller eye (suction). When put under pressure, these cavities implode, resulting in the familiar pumping gravel” noise typical of a pump that has cavitation. When viewed as a spectrum, this noise appears as random broad band vibration at high frequency, typically up to 2 kHz and Is usually low ‘amplitude. There may be @ peak in this spectrum at the blade pass frequency (number of blades X running speed) and multiples. If left unchecked, cavitation can cause erosion of the impeller material. Figure 33. Cavitation Turbulence is more common in air handling units and is usually @ result of variations in pressure or velocity in ducts or piping. This often a low frequency vibration occurring less that 1x rpm and therefore covers a narrow frequency range and is usually high in amplitude. (Figure 34) If the casing or the rotor are eccentric, this results In an uneven gap and this can result in high amplitudes at BPF and harmonics. Another cause of this Is the impeller wear ring seizing on the shaft. (Figure 35) Figure 34, Turbulence Figure 35. Eccentric Component Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-35 eseree 7012 ‘The ene fh ring materi ae the cpa ct SKE AB and may net be eproccein any form orb ny mean een era] unless pemasin grantedwaa 15018436 Viraon Analysis aepoy2 olKF. Machines with Gear Drives Gear-mesh problems can easily be quite complex, however by following @ few simple guidelines they can be broken down and better understood. When analysing defects on gear, one of the most important frequencies to understand is the gear Mesh Frequency (GMF). For a simple gearbox, this frequency can be calculated from the formula: Mesh Frequency = Number of teeth x shaft speed In a singles stage gearbox (increasing or decreasing) then the formula can be expanded to + GMF = #7, x rpm, = #T2 x rpm; ‘The second of these formulae must always be true for any single stage gearbox. If it is not true, there Is a problem with the figures or the gears would simply be destroyed in operation. For ‘multiple stage gearboxes, the same formula is applied at each meshing stage of the gearbox. Consider the following gearbox: 57 Teeth 1440 rpm. ==. How many teeth ‘on this gear? =a : = = ‘at ‘Applying the formula, GMF = #7; x rpm, = #T, x rpm, to the first stage of the gearbox, then: GMF = 57 x 1440 = 15 x rpm, ‘Therefore, to calculate the speed of the intermediate shaft is done as follows: GMF = 57 x 1440 2080 GMF = 15 x rpmy = 82080 = 15 x rpm; 2080 / 15 = $472 rpm To calculate the #Teeth on the output shaft at the second stage of the gearbox is done in exactly the same manner: pm. = GMF = 33 x 5472 = #T x 6688 GMF = 180576 = #T x 6688 #7 = 180576 / 6688 = 27 teeth Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-36 reprasucedin oy form orb any mea eve exact) ses permsson 9 ratewees 15018496 Viraton Aas ategon2 oKF. One of the main concerns with machines that include gears and gear drives is the detection and analysis of gear defects. However, experience has revealed that many gear problems will result in vibration frequencies that may be 2x and in some cases 3x the fundamental gear-mesh frequency. For this reason, the recommended practice is to set the Fmax for gear analysis to a minimum of 3.25x gear mesh frequency (some text books say 3.5 x fundamental gear mesh frequency). In the case of multiple gear increasers or reducers (such as was shown in figure 29), it may be necessary to use more than one Fmax to accommodate more than one geer-mesh frequency. For example, the gear-mesh frequency of the low-speed input gear with the intermediate gear is 82080 CPM / 1368 Hz (1440 RPM x 57 teeth = 82080 CPM) and the gear mesh frequency. Of the Second stage is 180576 CPM. Therefore, the frequency ranges required for the spectra are: Input Shaft = 3.25 x GMF = 3,25 x 82080 = 266760 CPM (4446 Hz) Output Shaft = 3.25 x GMF = 3.25 x 180576 = 586872 CPM (9781.2 Hz) It would be common practice to round these figures off and for the input shaft, this could be rounded off to either 4450 Hz, or 4440 Hz. For the Output shaft, this could be rounded off to 10,000 Hz oF 9,700 Hz. ‘As can be seen in the above example, in some cases It may be necessary to use more than one spectra with different frequency ranges to carry out an effective condition monitoring programme. When carrying out a detailed analysis, due to the wide range of problem-related vibration frequencies anticipated, including the analysis of sidebands, the resolution of the spectrum must be considered very carefully Vibration Due to Gear Problems Since it is impossible to manufacture perfect gears in terms of tooth profiles, concentricity, and meshing characteristics, it is not unusual to identify some gear-related vibration on nearly every gear driven system. However, if the vibration at gear frequencies or multiple harmonics of gear ‘meshing frequencies is considered excessive compared to industry standards, analysis should be corried out to identify possible causes for correction, not only to avold fallure, but to increase the service life as well. ‘The following is an outline of some of the more important aspects regarding the analysis of gears and gear drive systems: In a normal spectrum, it should be possible to determine the pinion speed, gear speed and the Gear Mesh Frequency. There shouldn't be any harmonics of GMF and if there are sidebands around GMF they should be low amplitude, Some gearboxes always display sidebends, while others don't. If sidebands are always present, but do not increase in amplitude, it is not necessarily @ problem. If there are no sidebands normally present and they begin to appear, or if they have always been present and they begin to grow in amplitude it usually indicates the beginning of a problem. Also, there should not be any natural frequencies present on the spectrum. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics Page 5-37 ‘The contents ofthis traing materi ae pig of SAF AB and may ote eroded in an fom ry any means een ena) ws permisn ane1501836 Vrain Ans atepn2 oF. Figure 37. Normal spectrum for gearbox When there Is wear on the gear teeth, this usually causes the amplitude at GMF to increase, however 2x GMF and 3x GMF usually increase in amplitude much quicker than the GMF alone. ‘Another indicator that wear is the problem is the appearance of the natural frequency of the gear itself and this will usually display 1x rpm sidebands. As the wear progresses, the amplitude of the sidebands increases and more “families” of sidebands appear. When the problem is that there Is overloading on the gear teeth, the amplitudes at GMF, 2x GMF and 3x GMF normally show increases along with Increases in the amplitudes of the sidebands. If the sidebands do not show any increase In amplitude, then high levels at the GMF may just be normal. There should not be any natural frequencies present in the spectrum. ron SPEDE POSE When the sidebands around GMF, 2x GMF and 3x GMF are showing high amplitudes the problem ‘can be backlash, eccentricity or non-parallel shafts. If it ls an eccentricity problem, the 1x rpm of the problem gear will usually show an increase in the spectrum. If the problem is backlash, this normally excites the GMF and natural frequency of the gear. If backlash Is the problem, this can be proven by increasing the load on the gears and the amplitudes should drop considerably. Reducing the load will allow the amplitudes to increase again. Chapter 5: Machinery Vibration Characteristics, Page 5-38 co ser Fea 2002 “The coments of is tring materi ae the cpg of SKE AB an ay at be reproduce ay for or) any mean ve nrc) us permission ated1502846 Vrain Anis Cats 2 okKF. 1x Gear 4x Pinion Figure 40. When misalignment across the gears is the problem, this usually always excites 2x GMF and sometimes 3x GMF. GMF may not show a very large change in amplitude, but the 2x GMF will show a significant increase in amplitude. The sidebands will also show a significant change Increase in amplitude. In some cases, the sidebands around 2x GMF are actually at 2x rpm and they are not, always the same amplitude. When the gears are visibly inspected, it is common to see an uneven, wear patterns on the gears when this problem occurs. Figure 41. SG wih GS" HsMghinerE le tibrBley If there is a cracked or broken tooth in the gearbox, this normally shows an increase at the 1x rpm of the problem gear. This problem is very best found by looking at the time waveform data rather than a spectrum. The time between peaks in the wave form will be equal to 1 / RPM. 1/RPM Figure 42. Chapter 5: Machinery Page 5-39 ation Characteristics ‘he contents fisting mati arte contig of SKF AB an may nt repraicdin ay form any mean een era) le parison res,