Wave properties of particles

T K Shajahan
March 8, 2021

1 Waves behave like particles

Particle Properties of Waves
Summary of Results

• Following Max Plank’s idea, Einstein proposed that Light behaves like particles.

• This is very successful in explaining various phenomena involving light: including

photo electric effect, black body radiation, and Compton effect.

• In this picture, light is a wave: it has a wavelength λ; But it has momentum p and
energy E just like a particle

“All the fifty years of conscious brooding have brought me no closer to answer the
question, ‘What are light quanta?’ Of course today every rascal thinks he knows
the answer, but he is deluding himself.” (Einstein)

Difference between waves and particles

Particles

• Particles are localized. When they move, they have a trajectory.

• Two or more particles cannot occupy the same place.

Figure 1: Light as both wave and particle

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 Figure 2: Particles and waves. image from Byju’s

Figure 3: Count de Broglie

• Particles carry energy and momentum along with it.

• Two or more particles cannot cancel each other.

Waves
• Waves are spread out in space.

• Two or more waves can be at the same location, leading to interference.

• Energy and momentum of the wave is spread out in its wave front.

• Two or more waves can cancel each other by destructive interference.

de Broglies hypothesis
If the waves can have particle nature, particles also can have wave nature

h
• Waves have momentum p = λ

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 Figure 4: Electron track in a bubble chamber

Figure 5: The Bohr atom model

h
• Particles also must have wavelength λ = p
or ~k = p

• Similarly ~ω = E

de Broglie’s motivation
Why did he do it ? Thus electrons move in specific paths They are particles. But a
wave picture is helpful in understanding the Bohr atom model. The Bohr atom model
stipulated that electrons can only occupy discrete energy level. What determines whether
an electron can be in the K shell or L shell ? Why cannot it take any energy level ? Why
only discrete energy levels? deBroglie’s model sought to answer all these questions in a
single shot. According to this picture, electron is in a given orbit, if it can form standing
waves in it. Thus different orbits in an atom corresponds to different wavelengths of
electrons.

Find de Broglie wavelength

What is the de Broglie wavelength of electron moving at velocity 0.6c ?

λ = h/p

and

p = γm0 v
v
pc = γ(m0 c2 )
c

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 Figure 6: de Broglie’s atom model

we know, m0 c2 = 511 keV

r
v2
γ = 1/ 1 −
c2
= 1.25

Thus,

pc = 1.25(511)0.6
= 383keV

We will write,
λ = hc/pc

hc=1240 eV-nm
h = 6.63 × 10−34Js; hc = 1.99 × 10−25 Jm We convert this into eV-nm units. 1 eV =
1.6 ×10−19 J and 1 nm = 10− 9 m. Thus hc = 1240 eV-nm
Hence λ = 1240/(383 × 103 ) nm = 3.25 nm

Find Kinetic Energy

What should be the KE of a neutron if they have to be diffracted by crystals
with crytal spacing 0.1 nm
Wavelength of electron should be 0.1 nm
hc 1240
pc = = nm
λ 0.1
pc = 12.4 × 103 eV
Neutrons have rest energy of 938 MeV (= 938 ×106 eV) Since pc << m0 c2 , one can use
the classical kinetic energy equation.

(p)2 (pc)2
KE = =
2m 2mc2
Thus KE=0.08 eV

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What should be the KE of an electron whose wavelength is 1000 fm
we have λ = 10−3 nm and pc = 1240 keV. But electrons rest mass energy is 511 keV.
Since pc ≥ m0 c2 we must use relativistic equation for KE.
p
KE = p2 c2 + (m0 c2 )2 − m0 c2

Ans = 830 keV

What should be the KE of a proton whose wavelength is 1 fm

Ans: 617 MeV

Find wavelength from the accelerating potential

An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of V . What is its
deBroglie wavelength?
hc
λ =
pc
KE = qV
E2 = (qV + m0 c2 )2
= p2 c2 + (m0 c2 )2
p
pc = q 2 V 2 + 2qV m0 c2
hc
λ = p
qV (qV + 2m0 c2 )

An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 100kV. What is

its deBroglie wavelength?
qV = 100 keV m0 c2 = 511 keV Thus λ = 3.71 pm

2 Davisson and Germer experiment

American scientists Davisson and Germer were doing an electron scattering experiment,
in which electrons are scattered off a nickel crystal and the scattered electrons are detected
at various angles. They used an electron gun to stream electrons to the Nickel target (see
fig. 10). The electrons could be accelerated to desired kinetic energy by applying electric
field across the gun. In their experiments they found that electrons preferred to scatter
at an angle of 50◦ , and this scattering was maximum when their kinetic energy was 54
eV.

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Figure 7: Electrons are scattered off a nickel target. The scattered rays detected at
various angles.

Figure 8: The electron gun can vary electron’s KE. To see simulations of elec-
tron gun: https://www.didaktik.physik. uni-muenchen.de/elektronenbahnen
/en/kanone/klassisch/Simulation.php

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Figure 9: The electrons peaked distinct peak of electrons at 54 eV at an angle 50◦

Figure 10: The electrons peaked distinct peak of electrons at 54 eV at an angle 50◦

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 This was a puzzling behavior from particle point of view. Electrons, as particle,
must scatter in all random directions. Davisson and Germer were aware of de Broglie’s
hypothesis. They explained their results using the wave theory of electrons. Assuming
electrons are waves, one could calculate their wavelength using the familiar Bragg formula.
One must be careful to use the correct Bragg angle here. The Bragg angle is the angle
between incident ray and the plane of the crystal. The scattering angle is the angle
between the incident ray and the reflected ray. Knowing the geometry of scattering, one
can find the Bragg angle from scattering angle.
Then they compared the wavelength calculated using Bragg formula with that calcu-
lated using the deBroglie formula. There was a perfect match! This is the first direct
experimental confirmation of de Broglie’s formula. Davisson and Germer received Nobel
prize for their discovery, and our conception of matter was changed forever.

Wavelength of Electrons
From Bragg’s formula
The interplanar separation of Nickel crystal = 0.091 nm.
The Bragg angle θ = (180 − 50)/2 = 65◦ .
From 2d sin(θ) = λ we get λ=1.67 nm!

deBroglie Wavelength of Electrons

From KE = 54 eV.
√
p = 2mKE
p
pc = 2m0 c2 KE
√
= 2 × 511 × 103 × 54
hc
λ =
pc
Thus we obtain λ= 1.67 nm!

3 Probability Waves
Anatomy of a wave
A harmonic wave
A sine wave or cosine wave extends from −∞ to +∞. They have a definite wavelength
and frequency. Here we show snapshot of a travelling wave y = Acos(kx − ωt) at t = 0

Parameters of a wave
2π
λ is the wavelength; k = λ
is the wave number. ω is the angular frequency.

Phase velocity of a wave

The velocity of a particular point on the harmonic wave is called the phase velocity.
When we choose a given part of the wave (x = x1 and t = t1 ), we have fixed a phase φ.
As the wave moves, that point moves to x2 , t2 but the phase does not change:

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 Figure 11: A cosine wave y = Acos(kx − ωt) at t = 0

Figure 12: The constant phase of the cosine wave (red line) y = Acos(kx − ωt) moving
along with the wave

dφ
= 0
dt
d
(kx − ωt) = 0
dt
dx ω
=
dt k
This is the phase velocity.

What is waving in a de Broglie wave?

Born interpretation: It is a probability wave
Max Born proposed that de Broglie waves are probability waves. In classical mechanics
an object has definite position and momentum. That is, if we know the initial conditions
of a system precisely, it is possible to estimate the object’s position and velocities all
times to come. And measurements always yield the same answer. However, in the world

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 Figure 13: A probability wave must be a wave pulse

of elementary particles, even starting with the same initial condition, they may end up
at different places. Every measurement yields a different result.
In elementary particles, we can only estimate probabilities.
The modulus square of deBroglie wave gives the amplitude of that probability. It tells
us how likely to find a particle in a given location at a given time.

What is the wavelength of this wave?

We cannot define wavelength or frequency to such a wave pulse.

Constructing a wave packet

Consider two waves y1 and y2 ; their wavenumbers are very close: k2 = k1 + ∆k and
ω2 = ω1 + ∆ω.
Adding two waves

y1 = Acos(k1 x − ω1 t)
y2 = Acos(k2 x − ω2 t)
Y = y1 + y2
   
∆k ∆ω (k1 + k2 ) (ω1 + ω2 )
= 2cos x− t Acos x− t
2 2 2 2
 
∆k ∆ω
= 2cos x− t Acos (kx − ωt)
2 2

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Figure 14: Sum of two waves move with modulated amplitude

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 Figure 15: Sum of three waves move with varying frequency and amplitude

A wave group
The modulated amplitude acts as the pulse. This pulse is now a ’wave group’ in
which individual harmonic waves travel with their respective phase velocities.
The velocity with which the modulations move is called the group velocity.
∆ω
vg =
∆k
By adding together a large number of such harmonic waves one can construct any kind
of wave pulse. In the limit of a large number of such waves constituting the wavegroup,
the group velocity becomes,
dω
vg =
dk
A wave group can be constructed by adding several harmonic waves with appropriate
frequency (wavenumber) and amplitude. The individual harmonic waves in this combi-
nation moves with their respective phase velocities.
The wave group travels with the group velocity.

Phase velocity and group velocity of matter waves

Consider a relativistic particle moving with a velocity v. What is the phase velocity
and group velocity of the associated de Broglie wave?

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Phase velocity
ω
vp =
k
~ω
=
~k
E
=
p
γm0 c2
=
γm0 v
c2
=
v

The phase velocity is more than c! This is physically impossible. But there is nothing
physical moving at that velocity. It is just the conceptual harmonic waves, that can move
at that velocity.

Group velocity
dω
vg =
dk
dE
=
dp
dp 2 2
= p c + m0 c2
dp
1
= p 2pc2
2 2
2 p c + m0 c 2

pc2
=
E
γm0 vc2
=
γm0 c2
= v

The wave group is travelling with the particle!

Relation between phase velocity and group velocity

We have vp = ωk or ω = kvp .

dω
vg =
dk
d
= (kvp )
dk
dvp
= vp + k (1)
dk
The dependence of vp on k is known as the dispersion relation.

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 Figure 16:

Example 1. The deep water

p g ocean wave can be considered as a wavegroup with mean
phase velocity given by k . What is the velocity of the wavegroup? Using the eqn. 1,
we get
√ 1
vg = vp + k g(−) 3
r 2k 2
1 g
= vp −
2 k
1
= vp
2
So the ocean wave’s group velocity is half of its phase velocity.

4 Uncertainty Relation
4.1 Fourier Transform

Probability wave is a wavegroup

A wavegroup is made up of several harmonic waves. Harmonic waves have definite

wavelengths.
The wavegroup can also be specified as the wave numbers of the constituent har-
monic waves. Representing a wave by its wavenumber is called a Fourier Transform.
Mathematically, Z ∞
y(k) = y(x)eikx dx
0

The narrower the wave, we need more wavenumbers to make it:

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Figure 17: An interesting introduction to Fourier Transform can be found in
https://medium.com/unicorns-in-hoodies

Figure 18: The wave in the second panel contains three different harmonic waves shown
in the first panel. Its Fourier transform will contain just three lines, indicating the
amplitudes of those harmonics.

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 Figure 19: Different types of waves and their Fourier transforms

Uncertainty relations follows from the wave nature

Thus deBroglie wave a wave pulse that represents probability of finding the particle.
This wave travels along with the particle, its group velocity is same as the velocity of the
particle.
If we can specify the wavenumber then it is a harmonic wave, and the position of the
particle is uncertain. It can be seen that ∆k and ∆x are inversely related.
For a Gaussian wave, the product of ∆kx ∆x is minimum and is equal to 12 . For any
other type of wave this product is more that 12 . Thus,

1
∆kx ∆x ≥
2
~
∆px ∆x ≥
2
This is the position-momentum uncertainity relation. We can similarly write the Energy-
time uncertainity relation, as
~
∆E∆t ≥
2

What is uncertainity in position?

Uncertainity principle is useful

Show that an electron cannot be present inside a nucleus
During beta decay electrons are ejected from nucleus. Was these electrons part of the
nucleus, or created during the beta decay? Uncertainity principle helps us to answer
this question. Radius of the nucleus ≈ 10−14 m Uncertainity in position ∆x < 10−14 m
Uncertainity in momentum > ~/(∆x) Thus (∆p)c >19.7 MeV So the actual momentum
p of that order. pc2 ≈ 19.7 MeV. Therefore such electrons must have
should be at least
kinetic energy (pc)2 + m0 c2 − m0 c Thus these electrons must have kinetic energy of

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 Figure 20:

the order of 19 MeV. Electrons in beta decay have energy of the order of 1 MeV only.
These electrons could not have been inside the nucleus.

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