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Basic Concepts of
Critical Thinking
CHAPTER 3

Meaning of Critical
Thinking
Lesson 1

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Critical thinking…
• Isdefined as a wide range of cognitive
skills and intellectual dispositions
needed to effectively identify,
analyze, and evaluate arguments
and truth claims.
• means thinking clearly and intelligently

Critical thinking…
• helps to discover and overcome personal
preconceptions and biases; to
formulate and present convincing reasons
in support of conclusions
• helps to make reasonable, intelligent
decisions about what to believe and what
to do

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Question…
•Does it mean that if you
are intelligent, you are a
good critical thinker?

Thus, critical thinking aims to…

•arrive at well-reasoned,
considered, and justifiable
conclusions.

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Standards of Critical
Thinking
Lesson 2

• Some important intellectual standards

of critical thinking
Clarity
Precision
Accuracy
Relevance
Consistency
Logical correctness
Completeness
fairness

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Clarity
• clear understanding of concepts and
clearly expressing them in a
language that is free of obscurity and
vagueness.
• Before we can effectively evaluate a
person‘s argument or claim, we need
to understand clearly what the
person is saying

Clarity
• clarity is a gateway standard, If a
statement is unclear, we cannot
determine whether it is accurate or
relevant.
• Sometimes lack of clarity is due to
laziness, carelessness, or a lack of skill.
At other times, it results from a
misguided effort to appear clever,
learned, or profound

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Clarity
• Critical
thinkers, however, not only strive
for clarity of language but also seek
maximum clarity of thought.
• To achieve our personal goals in life, we
need a clear conception of our goals and
priorities, a realistic grasp of our abilities,
and a clear understanding of the problems
and opportunities we face

Precision
•a matter of being exact,
accurate and careful

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Accuracy
• Accuracy is about correct
information.
• Wrong information leads to
wrong decision.
• attractive or sophisticated ideas
should be abandoned if it is based
on false information

Accuracy
• “Truth is the first virtue of
systems of thought. A theory
however elegant and economical
must be rejected or revised if it is
untrue.” – John Rawls

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Relevance
• Thequestion of relevance is a
question of connections
• When there is a discussion or debate,
it should focus on relevant ideas and
information.

Consistency
• Consistency
is about the quality of
always behaving in the same way
or of having the same opinions or
standards.

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Consistency
•2 kinds of inconsistency
1. logical inconsistency
2. Practical inconsistency

Consistency
1. logical inconsistency
involves saying or believing
inconsistent things (i.e.,
things that cannot both or all
be true) about a particular
matter

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Consistency
2. Practical inconsistency
involves saying one thing
and doing another.

Consistency
Sometimes people are fully aware that
their words conflict with their deeds; in
short people sometime are hypocrites
 In some cases, people are not fully
aware that their words conflict with
their deeds.
Example, family vs making money

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Logical Correctness
• Tothink logically is to reason
correctly
• Thinking
critically needs accurate
and supported beliefs

Completeness
• werightly prefer deep and
complete thinking to shallow
and superficial thinking

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Fairness
• Criticalthinking demands that our
thinking be fair - that is, open
minded, impartial, and free of
distorting biases and preconceptions.

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Characteristics of Basic Traits of

Critical Thinking Critical Thinkers
LESSON 3

Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers

• Are honest with themselves, • Strivefor understanding, keep curiosity
alive, remain patient with complexity,
acknowledging what they don't know, and are ready to invest time to overcome
recognizing their limitations, and confusion.
being watchful of their own errors. • Base judgments on evidence rather than
• Regard problems and controversial personal preferences, deferring judgment
whenever evidence is insufficient. They
issues as exciting challenges. revise judgments when new evidence
reveals error

Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers Basic Traits of Critical Thinkers

• Areinterested in other people's ideas and • Practice restraint, controlling
so are willing to read and listen
attentively, even when they tend to their feelings rather than being
disagree with the other person. controlled by them, and
• Recognize that extreme views are seldom thinking before acting.
correct, so they avoid them, practice fair-
mindedness, and seek a balance view.

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Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers

• Pretend they know more than
they do, ignore their limitations,
Basic Traits of and assume their views are error-
free.
Uncritical Thinkers • Regard problems and
controversial issues as nuisances
or threats to their ego.

Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers

• Are inpatient with complexity and • Are preoccupied with themselves and
thus would rather remain confused their own opinions, and so are
than make the effort to understand. unwilling to pay attention to others'
• Base judgments on first impressions views.
and gut reactions. They are
unconcerned about the amount or
quality of evidence and cling to their
views steadfastly.

Basic Traits of Uncritical Thinkers

• Ignore the need for balance and give
preference to views that support their
established views.
• Tend to follow their feelings and act
Barriers to Critical
impulsively
Thinking
LESSON 4

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Barriers to Critical Thinking 1. Egocentric

• Egocentrics are selfish, self-absorbed
1. Egocentrism people who view their interests, ideas,
2. Sociocentrism and values as superior to everyone
else‘s.
3. Unwarranted Assumptions • You are responsible for your successes but
and Stereotypes not for your failures.
• Not capable of listening to others and
4. Relativistic Thinking understanding them.
5. Wishful Thinking •

1. Egocentric 1. Egocentric
• Prioritizing your own desires all the • Self-interested thinking is the
time. tendency to accept and defend
• Big ego to think that you know better beliefs that harmonize with one‘s
than others. You look for flaws rather self-interest.
than looking for opportunity to grow
and learn
• You tend to think that you are always
in the spot light.

1. Egocentric 2. Sociocentrism
• For example,
most doctors support legislation making it • group-centered thinking
more difficult for them to be sued for
malpractice because they do not want to • can hinder rational thinking by
punish for mistakes committed in the
workplace. focusing excessively on the
Most university professors strongly
support tenure, paid sabbaticals, low group
teaching loads, and a strong faculty voice
in university governance because these
will promote their interest.

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2. Sociocentrism 2. Sociocentrism
• Group bias is the tendency to see • Conformism refers to our tendency to
one‘s own group (nation, tribe, sect, follow the crowd - that is, to conform
peer group, and the like) as being (often unthinkingly) to authority or to
inherently better than others group standards of conduct and belief
• The desire to belong, to be part of the
• Social scientists tell us that such ingroup, can be among the most powerful
thinking is extremely common of human motivations. This desire can
throughout human history and seriously cripple our powers of critical
across cultures reasoning and decision-making

3. Unwarranted Assumptions 3. Unwarranted Assumptions

and Stereotypes and Stereotypes
• Anassumption is something we believe to • One of the most common types of unwarranted
be true without any proof or conclusive assumptions is a stereotype.
evidence. •a stereotype is a generalized belief about
• Some of our assumptions can be a particular category of people.
reasonable, but some are unwarranted. • Because people are not identical, no matter what
race or other similarities they share,
stereotypical conceptions will often be false or
misleading

3. Unwarranted Assumptions 3. Unwarranted Assumptions

and Stereotypes and Stereotypes
• Nursing Stereotypes
“Nursing is a woman’s job”
“Nurses are too busy to get to know
their patients”
“Nurses are just doctors’ personal
assistants”
“Nurses don’t need breaks”
“Nurses need an IV of caffeine to
function”

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4. Relativistic Thinking 4. Relativistic Thinking

•Relativism is the view that 1.Subjectivism
truth is a matter of opinion. the view that truth is a
matter of individual opinion
•Two popular forms of whatever an individual
believes is true, is true for
relativism: that person, and there is no
1.subjectivism and such thing as “objective” or
2.cultural relativism “absolute” truth

4. Relativistic Thinking 4. Relativistic Thinking

1.Subjectivism 2. cultural relativism
Example: Jaime believes that the view that truth is a
abortion is wrong and Joan matter of social or cultural
believes that abortion is not opinion
always wrong. According to the view that what is true
subjectivism, abortion is always for person A is what person
wrong for Jaime and not always A‘s culture or society
wrong for Joan. Both beliefs are believes is true
true – for them.

4. Relativistic Thinking 5. Wishful Thinking

2. cultural relativism • refers
to a state of believing
For example:
Drinking wine, for example, is
widely considered to be wrong in
something not because you
Iran but is not generally considered had good evidence for it but
to be wrong in France. According to
cultural relativism, therefore, simply because you wished it
drinking wine is immoral in Iran
but is morally permissible in were true
France.

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Benefits of Critical
Thinking
LESSON 5

Critical Thinking in Life

1. critical thinking can help us
avoid making foolish personal
decisions
Choosing a course/profession
what relationships to enter into
what personal behavior to
develop

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Critical Thinking in Life

Critical thinking can help
us avoid such mistakes by
teaching us to think about
important life decisions
more carefully, clearly, and
logically.

Critical Thinking in Life

2. critical thinking plays a vital role
in promoting democratic
processes
It is vital that citizens’ decisions
be as informed and as rational as
possible

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Critical Thinking in Life

Many of today‘s most serious societal
problems - environmental destruction,
poverty, ethnic conflicts, decaying the
morality of societies, high level of
corruption, violating basic human
rights, displacement, to mention just
a few - have largely been caused by
poor critical thinking.

Critical Thinking in Life

3. critical thinking is worth
studying for its own sake,
simply for the personal
enrichment it can bring to
our lives

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Critical Thinking in Life

One of the most basic truths of the
human condition is that most people,
most of the time, believe what they are
told
people accepted without question that
the earth was the center of the
universe,
that demons cause disease that
slavery was just,
that women are inferior to men.

Critical Thinking in Life

Critical thinking, honestly and
courageously pursued can help
free us from the unexamined
assumptions and biases of our
upbringing and our society.

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Critical Thinking in Life

“This is what I’ve been
taught, but is it true?”

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INFORMAL
FALLACIES
Content
1. Fallacies in General
2. Fallacies of Relevance
3. Fallacies of Weak Induction
4. Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Illicit
Transference
5. Fallacies in Ordinary Language
Fallacies in General
LESSON 1
Fallacy
▪It is a defect in an argument that arises from either a
mistake in reasoning or the creation of an illusion that
makes a bad argument appear good.
▪The term non sequitur (“it does not follow”) is another
name for fallacy.
▪Both deductive and inductive arguments may contain
fallacies (they are either unsound or uncogent, depending
on the kind of argument)
Fallacy
Usually divided into two groups:
▪Formal Fallacy
▪Informal Fallacy
Formal Fallacy
➢May be identified by examining
the form or structure of an
argument
➢Found only in deductive
arguments with identifiable forms.
Example
All vaccines give immunity.
The president of the Philippines can give
immunity.
Therefore, the president is a vaccine.
Example
If Fred has diarrhea, then he has a
stomach ache.
Fred has a stomach ache
Therefore, Fred has diarrhea
Remember!
Formal fallacies occur only in deductive
arguments. Thus, if an argument is
inductive, it cannot contain a formal
fallacy.
Remember!
If a standard deductive argument
(categorical syllogisms and hypothetical
syllogisms) is invalid because of an
improper arrangement of terms or
statements, it commits a formal fallacy.
Informal Fallacies
➢Those that can be detected only by
examining the content of an argument.
➢One must know the context and the
meaning behind the argument to
determine if it contains an informal fallacy.
Example
Manny Pacquiao is endorsing a certain
medicine as a cure to body pain.

Therefore it is an effective medicine for

body pain.
Example
After trying a new diet for just one
week, I lost five pounds. Therefore, this
diet is effective for everyone and
guarantees rapid weight loss.
How do informal fallacies work?
➢Getting the reader or listener to feel various
emotions and then attaching a certain conclusion to
those emotions.
➢Discredit an opposing argument by associating it
with certain pejorative features of its author.
➢Appeal to various dispositions of the reader
(superstitions, mental laziness).
How NOT to be fooled by fallacies?
➢Study the typical ways in which
arguers apply various techniques of
using informal fallacies.
➢Learn the various types of fallacies.
INFORMAL
FALLACIES
Content
1. Fallacies in General
2. Fallacies of Relevance
3. Fallacies of Weak Induction
4. Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Illicit
Transference
5. Fallacies in Ordinary Language
Fallacies of Relevance
LESSON 2
Fallacies of Relevance
▪ They share a common characteristic that the
arguments in which they occur have premises
that are logically irrelevant to the conclusion.
▪ Yet they may appear to be psychologically
relevant, so the conclusion may seem to follow
from the premises, even though it does follow
logically.
Fallacies of Relevance
In a good argument, In an argument that
the premises provide commits a fallacy of
genuine evidence in relevance, the
support of the connection between
conclusion. the premises and
conclusion is
emotional.
Fallacies of Relevance
▪ Thus, to identify a fallacy of relevance, one
must be able to distinguish genuine evidence
from various forms of emotional appeal.
Different Type of Fallacies of Relevance
1. Appeal to Force
2. Appeal to Pity
3. Appeal to People
4. Argument against the Person
5. Accident
6. Straw Man
7. Missing the Point
8. Red Herring
Appeal to Force
▪ Also known as Argumentum ad Baculum or
Appeal to the “Stick”
▪ Occurs whenever an arguer presents a
conclusion to another person and tells that
person (either implicitly or explicitly) that
some harm will come to him or her if he or
she does not accept the conclusion.
Appeal to Force
▪ Example:

You have to take this medicine or else, your organ

will fail one by one, which will make you
bedridden and eventually die.
Appeal to Force
▪ Example:

Why would you allow yourself to get vaccinated?

If you take the vaccine, you will die after four
years.
Appeal to Force
▪ Example:

Doctor, of course you need to prioritize the

treatment of my daughter, or else I will withdraw
all my financial support to your foundation.
Appeal to Pity
▪ Also known as Argumentum ad
Misericordiam
▪ Occurs whenever an arguer attempts to
support a conclusion by merely evoking pity
from the reader or listener.
Appeal to Pity
▪ Example:

Nurse, please give me strong medicine now, so that I

can go home. I have children at home and I need to
take care of them. Who will take care of them if I
stay here in the hospital.
Appeal to Pity
▪ If the arguer succeeds in evoking pity from
the listener or reader, the latter is likely to
exercise his or her desire to help the arguer
by accepting the argument.
▪ The reader or listener may be fooled in
accepting a conclusion that is not supported
by evidence.
Appeal to the People
▪ Also known as argumentum ad populum
▪ Uses the desires of the people (to be loved,
esteemed, admired, valued, recognized, and
accepted by others) to get the reader or
listener to accept a conclusion.
▪ There are two approaches involved: direct
and indirect.
Appeal to the People (Direct Approach)
▪ Occurs when the arguer, addressing a large group of
people, excites the emotions and enthusiasm of the
crowd to win acceptance for his or her conclusion.
▪ Objective is to arouse a kind of mob mentality (since
individuals want to share in the camaraderie, and the
excitement, they find themselves accepting a variety
of conclusions with ever-increasing fervor).
▪ Often used by nearly every propagandist.
Appeal to the People (Direct Approach)
▪ An appeal to negative emotions can also generate
a mob mentality.
▪ Appeal to fear – also known as fear mongering, is
a variety of direct form of appeal to the people
that occurs when an arguer trumps up fear of
something in the mind of the crowd and uses that
fear as a premise for some conclusion.
Appeal to the People (Direct Approach)
▪ Appeal to Fear:
▪ The fear is not supported by any solid evidence,
and it usually rests on nothing more than irrational
suspicion created by repeating a message or rumor
repeatedly.
▪ As the message sinks in, it causes the crowd to feel
uneasy, and this alone may be enough to get a large
number to accept the arguer’s conclusion.
Appeal to the People (Direct Approach)
▪ Appeal to Fear:
▪ Examples:
▪ Pres. Duterte told the public to take the vaccine because
people around the world are dying of COVID because
they do not take the vaccine.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Arguer appeals not to the crowd as a whole but at one or
more individuals separately.
▪ Arguer focuses on some aspect of those individuals’
relationship to the crowd.
▪ Specific forms:
▪ Bandwagon Argument
▪ Appeal to Vanity
▪ Appeal to Snobbery
▪ Appeal to Tradition
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Bandwagon Argument:
▪ Has the following general structure:

“Everybody believes such and such or does

such and such; therefore, you should believe
or do such and such too.”
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Bandwagon Argument:
▪ Examples:
1. Everyone nowadays is on a keto diet. Therefore,
you should go on a keto diet, too.
2. Practically everybody believes that tawa-tawa
extracts can cure dengue, so you should take
tawa-tawa extracts.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Bandwagon Argument:
▪
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Vanity:
▪ Often involves linking love, admiration,
or approval of the crowd with some
famous figure who is loved, admired, or
approved of.
▪ Used by advertisers, parents
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Vanity:
▪ Examples:

1. Of course you want to look as strong and beautiful

as Jennifer Lopez. That means you will want to buy her
training app.

2. Mother to child: You want to grow up and be like

Superman, don’t you? Then eat your vegetables.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Snobbery:
▪ The crowd that the arguer appeals to is a
smaller group that is supposed to be
superior in some way.
▪ If the listener wants to be part of this
group, then he or she will do a certain
thing, think a certain way, or buy a certain
product.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Snobbery:
▪ Examples:

Having nose lift is not for everyone. Only

those with considerable means can have one.
To show the world that you are among the
select few, you will want to nose lift to
enhance your physical image.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Tradition:
▪ The arguer cites the fact that something
has become a tradition as grounds for
some conclusion.
▪ The claim that something is a tradition is
basically synonymous with the claim that a
lot of people have done it that way for a
long time.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Tradition:
▪ Examples:

Traditionally, hospitals have done payment

first policy so we should follow it.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Tradition:
▪ The fact that something has been done in
a certain way for a long time does not by
itself justify it being repeated in the
future.
▪ There are some appeals to tradition that
have conclusions that are true for other
reasons.
Appeal to the People (Indirect Approach)
▪ Appeal to Tradition:
▪ Examples:

Traditionally, health professionals wear

complete sterile surgical attire when entering
the operating room during operation.
Appeal to the People
▪ In summary:
▪ In the direct approach, mob mentality
produces an immediate feeling of
belonging. A united crowd evokes a sense
of strength and security.
▪ In indirect approach, the same thing
happens, but the context and technique
are subtler.
Argument Against the Person
▪ Also knows as argumentum ad hominem
▪ Involves 2 arguers: one advances a certain
argument and the other responds by
directing their attention to the person
instead of the argument.
▪ The 2nd person commits an argument
against the person.
Argument Against the Person
▪ Three forms:
▪ ad hominem abusive
▪ ad hominem circumstantial
▪ Tu quoque
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem abusive:
▪ second person responds to
the first person’s argument
by verbally abusing the first
person.
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem abusive:
▪ Example:
"I can't believe you're recommending this
treatment! You're just a quack who cares
more about making money than actually
helping your patients. You're probably too
incompetent to even understand what's really
wrong with me."
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem abusive:
▪ Example: Why would I listen
to this teacher, he even
doesn’t know when to have
his hair cut.
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem abusive:
▪ Example: "You're just a nurse, what
do you know about family planning?
You probably didn't even go to
medical school. Your opinion on this
matter is worthless compared to a
real doctor's."
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem circumstantial:
▪ Respondent attempts to discredit
the other’s argument by alluding to
certain circumstances that affect the
opponent, which in turn shows that
the opponent is predisposed to
argue the way he or she does.
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem circumstantial:
▪ Example:
I will not allow that doctor to operate on my
child. I know that his wife died of cancer and
he cannot even save her.
Argument Against the Person
▪ ad hominem circumstantial:
▪ Example:
▪ Nurse Ivy is discussing about family
planning and a man discredits what she is
saying because they are 9 siblings in their
family.
Argument Against the Person
▪ Tu quoque (“you too”):
▪ Second arguer attempts to make the
first appear to be hypocritical or
arguing in bad faith.
▪ Accomplishes this by citing features
in the life or behavior of the first
arguer that conflicts with the
latter’s conclusion.
Argument Against the Person
▪ tu quoque:
▪ Example:
Doctor, you're always telling me to quit
smoking, but I see you smoking outside the
hospital all the time! If you don't take your
own advice, why should I listen to you?
Argument Against the Person
▪ tu quoque:
▪ Example:
"You're lecturing us about the importance of
punctuality, but you're late to every meeting
yourself! Why should we bother being on time
if you can't even manage it?"
Argument Against the Person
Note:
Argument Against the Person
(Fallacy of) Accident
▪ Committed when a general rule is applied to a specific
case it was not intended to cover.
▪ Typically, the general rule is cited (either directly or
indirectly) in the premise and then wrongly applied to
the specific case mentioned in the conclusion.
▪
(Fallacy of) Accident
Example:
Freedom of speech is a constitutionally
guaranteed right. Therefore, John Q. Radical
should not be arrested for his speech that
incited the riot last week.
(Fallacy of) Accident
Example:
Zoe promised to meet Ethan for coffee, but while she
was walking to the local Starbucks, a pedestrian
collapsed on the sidewalk right in front of her and she
stopped to administer CPR. Since people are obligated
to keep their promises, it was wrong for Zoe to miss
her appointment with Ethan.
Straw Man (Fallacy)
▪

▪
Straw Man (Fallacy)
Example:
Person A: "We should implement stricter
regulations on the use of pesticides to protect the
environment and public health."
Person B: "So you're saying we should ban all
pesticides and let pests destroy our crops, leading
to food shortages and starvation?"
Straw Man (Fallacy)
Example:
Person 1: We should minimize the use of antibiotics because it
can lead to the antibiotic resistance of bacteria.

Person 2: Do you mean, we will just let our children die of

infections?
Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
▪

▪
Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
Example:
Person A: "We need to improve access to mental health
services in our community to address the rising rates of
depression and anxiety."
Person B: "But mental health services are already available in
our city. People just need to take better care of themselves
and stop being so lazy."
Missing the Point (Ignoratio Elenchi)
Example:
Corruption in Philhealth is rampant nowadays.
Our only alternative is to abolish the system
altogether
Red Herring (Fallacy)
▪

▪
Red Herring (Fallacy)
Example:
Environmentalists are continually harping about the
dangers of nuclear power. Unfortunately, electricity is
dangerous no matter where it comes from. Every year
hundreds of people are electrocuted by accident.
Since most of these accidents are caused by
carelessness, they could be avoided if people would
just exercise greater caution.
Red Herring (Fallacy)
Example:
There is a good deal of talk these days about the
need to eliminate pesticides from our fruits and
vegetables. But many of these foods are essential
to our health. Carrots are an excellent source of
vitamin A, broccoli is rich in iron, and oranges
and grapefruit have lots of vitamin C.
Red Herring (Fallacy)
Red Herring vs. Straw Man
▪

▪
 05/11/2024

INFORMAL
FALLACIES

Content
1. Fallacies in General
2. Fallacies of Relevance
3. Fallacies of Weak Induction
4. Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Illicit
Transference
5. Fallacies in Ordinary Language

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Fallacies of Weak
Induction
LESSON 3

Fallacies of Weak Induction

▪ Occurs when the connection between the
premises and conclusion is not strong enough to
support the conclusion.
▪ The premises provide at least a shred of evidence
in support of the conclusion, but the evidence is
not nearly good enough to cause a reasonable
person to believe the conclusion.

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Fallacies of Weak Induction

1. Appeal to Unqualified Authority
2. Appeal to Ignorance
3. Hasty Generalization
4. False Cause
5. Slippery Slope
6. Weak Analogy

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

▪ Also known as Argumentum ad Verecundiam
▪ Variety of the argument from authority. Occurs when
the cited authority or witness lacks credibility.
▪ Reason why a person lacks credibility:
▪ Lack of requisite expertise
▪ Biased or prejudiced
▪ Have a motive to lie or misinform
▪ Lack requisite ability to perceive or recall

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Appeal to Unqualified Authority

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

▪ Example:
▪ Dr. Bradshaw, our family physician, has stated that the
creation of muonic atoms of deuterium and tritium
hold the key to producing a sustained nuclear fusion
reaction at room temperature. In view of Dr.
Bradshaw’s expertise as a physician, we must conclude
that this is indeed true.

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Appeal to Unqualified Authority

▪ Example:
▪ Richard Gonzales, CEO of AbbVie pharmaceuticals,
testified before Congress that AbbVie was not inflating
the price of its most popular drugs, and that the
massive price increases were justified by increased
development costs. Therefore, we must believe what
he says, when he spent twenty times as much on self-
enriching stock buybacks.

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

▪ Example:
▪ Old Mrs. Furguson (who is practically blind) has
testified that she saw the defendant stab the victim
with a bayonet while she was standing in the twilight
shadows 100 yards from the incident. Therefore,
members of the jury, you must find the defendant
guilty.

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Appeal to Unqualified Authority

▪ Example:
▪ The county tax collector issued a press release stating
that property tax revenues are higher this year than
last. Therefore, we conclude that these revenues are
indeed higher this year.

Appeal to Unqualified Authority

▪ In deciding whether a person is a qualified authority
one should keep two important points:
▪ The person might be an authority in more than one
field.
▪ There are some areas in which practically no one can
be considered an authority (politics, morals, religion)

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Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Also known as Argumentum ad Ignorantiam
▪ When the premises of an argument state that
nothing has been proved one way or the other
about something, and the conclusion then makes
a definite assertion about that thing.
▪ Issue usually involves something that is incapable
of being proved or something that is not yet been
proved.

Appeal to Ignorance

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Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Example:
▪ People have been trying for centuries to provide
conclusive evidence for the claims of astrology, and no
one has ever succeeded. Therefore, we must conclude
that astrology is a lot of nonsense.
OR
▪ People have been trying for centuries to disprove the
claims of astrology, and no one has ever succeeded.
Therefore, we must conclude that the claims of astrology
are true.

Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Exceptions:
▪ Investigators are qualified
researchers
▪ Relates to courtroom procedure.

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Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Example (Exception 1):
▪ Teams of scientists attempted over
several decades to detect the
existence of the luminiferous aether,
and all failed to do so. Therefore, the
luminiferous aether does not exist.

Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Remark:
▪

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Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Example (Exception 1):
▪ No one has ever seen Mr. Andrews
drink a glass of wine, beer, or any
other alcoholic beverage. Probably
Mr. Andrews is a nondrinker.

Appeal to Ignorance
▪ Example (Exception 2):
▪ Members of the jury, you have heard
the prosecution present its case against
the defendant. Nothing, however, has
been proved beyond a reasonable
doubt. Therefore, under the law, the
defendant is not guilty.

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Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)

▪ Hasty generalization

Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)

▪

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Hasty Generalization

Hasty Generalization
▪ Example:
▪ Attorney Michael Avenatti stole thousands of dollars
from his client, Stormy Daniels, and attorney Jason
Kurland ripped off his clients, who were lottery
winners, for tens of millions. Also, attorney Thomas
Giardi stole millions of dollars in settlement funds
from his clients. The conclusion is obvious that
today’s lawyers are just a bunch of thieves.

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Hasty Generalization
▪ Example:
▪ The Tesla Model X Plaid electric vehicle costs
more than $100,000, and so does the Audi RS e-
tron and the Porsche Taycan GTS. It must be the
case that all electric vehicles these days cost
more than $100,000.

Hasty Generalization
▪ Remark:
▪

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Hasty Generalization
▪ Example:
▪ Ten milligrams of substance Z was fed
to four mice, and within two minutes
all four went into shock and died.
Probably substance Z, in this amount, is
fatal to mice in general.

Hasty Generalization
▪ Example:
▪ One hundred thousand voters from
Orange County, California, were surveyed
on their choice for governor, and 68
percent said they intend to vote for the
Republican candidate. Clearly the
Republican candidate will be elected.

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False Cause
▪

False Cause

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False Cause
▪
▪

▪
▪
▪

False Cause
▪
▪

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False Cause
▪ Example:
▪ During the past two months, every time
that the cheerleaders have worn blue
ribbons in their hair, the basketball team
has been defeated. Therefore, to prevent
defeats in the future, the cheerleaders
should get rid of those blue ribbons.

False Cause
▪
▪

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False Cause
▪ Example:
▪ There are more laws on the books
today than ever before, and more
crimes are being committed than ever
before. Therefore, to reduce crime, we
must eliminate the laws.

False Cause
▪
▪

▪
▪

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False Cause
▪ Example:
▪ The quality of education in our grade
schools and high schools has been
declining for years. Clearly, our teachers
just aren’t doing their job these days.

False Cause
▪
▪

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False Cause
▪ Example:
▪ A fair coin was flipped five times in a
row, and each time it came up heads.
Therefore, it is extremely likely that it
will come up tails on the next flip.

False Cause
▪
▪

▪
▪
▪

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Slippery Slope
▪
▪

Slippery Slope
▪
▪

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Slippery Slope

Slippery Slope
▪ Example:
▪ Immediate steps should be taken to outlaw pornography
once and for all. The continued manufacture and sale of
pornographic material will almost certainly lead to an
increase in sex-related crimes such as sexual assault and
incest. This in turn will gradually erode the moral fabric of
society and result in an increase in crimes of all sorts.
Eventually a complete disintegration of law and order will
occur, leading in the end to the total collapse of
civilization.

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Slippery Slope
▪ Example:
▪ Attempts to outlaw pornography threaten basic civil
rights and should be summarily abandoned. If
pornography is outlawed, censorship of newspapers
and news magazines is only a short step away. After
that there will be censorship of textbooks, political
speeches, and the content of lectures delivered by
university professors. Complete mind control by the
central government will be the inevitable result.

Weak Analogy
▪

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Weak Analogy
▪ Basic Structure from Analogy:
Entity A has attributes a, b, c, and z.
Entity B has attributes a, b, c.
Therefore, entity B probably has attribute z also.

Weak Analogy

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Weak Analogy
▪ Example:
▪ Amber’s dog is similar in many ways to Kyle’s cat. Both
like being petted, they enjoy being around people,
they beg for food at the dinner table, and they sleep
with their owners. Amber’s dog loves to romp on the
beach with Amber. Therefore, Kyle’s cat probably loves
to romp on the beach with Kyle.

Weak Analogy
GOOD ARGUMENT FALLACIOUS ARGUMENT
The flow of electricity through a The flow of electricity through a
wire is similar to the flow of water wire is similar to the flow of water
through a pipe. Obviously a large- through a pipe. When water runs
diameter pipe will carry a greater downhill through a pipe, the
flow of water than a pipe of small pressure at the bottom of the hill is
diameter. Therefore, a large- greater than it is at the top. Thus,
diameter wire should carry a when electricity flows downhill
greater flow of electricity than a through a wire, the voltage should
small-diameter wire. be greater at the bottom of the hill
than at the top.

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INFORMAL
FALLACIES
Content
1. Fallacies in General
2. Fallacies of Relevance
3. Fallacies of Weak Induction
4. Fallacies of Presumption, Ambiguity, and Illicit
Transference
5. Fallacies in Ordinary Language
Fallacies of
Presumption, Ambiguity,
and Illicit Transference
LESSON 4
Fallacies of Presumption
▪ Arise not because the premises are irrelevant to
the conclusion or provide insufficient reason to
the conclusion or provide insufficient reason for
believing the conclusion but because the premises
presume what they purport to prove
Fallacies of Presumption
1. Begging the Question
2. Complex Question
3. False Dichotomy
4. Suppressed Evidence
Begging the Question
▪ Also known as petitio principii
▪ Committed whenever the arguer creates the
illusion that inadequate premises provide
adequate support for the conclusion by leaving
out a possible false (shaky) key premise, by
restating a possibly false premise as the
conclusion, or by reasoning in a circle.
Begging the Question
▪ One way of committing this fallacy is by leaving a
possibly false key premise out of the argument
while creating the illusion that nothing more is
needed to establish the conclusion.
▪ The reason why such premises are left unstated is
because the arguer is not able to establish their
truth.
Begging the Question
▪ Example:
▪ Murder is morally wrong. This being the case, it
follows that abortion is morally wrong.
▪ We know that humans are intended to eat lots of fruit
because the human hand and arm are perfectly suited
for picking fruit from a tree.
▪ Clearly, terminally ill patients have a right to doctor-
assisted suicide. After all, many of these people are
unable to commit suicide by themselves.
Begging the Question
EXAMPLE MISSING PREMISE
▪ Murder is morally wrong. This being the ▪
case, it follows that abortion is morally
wrong.
▪ We know that humans are intended to eat ▪
lots of fruit because the human hand and
arm are perfectly suited for picking fruit from
a tree.
▪ Clearly, terminally ill patients have a right to ▪
doctor-assisted suicide. After all, many of
these people are unable to commit suicide
by themselves.
Begging the Question
▪ In most cases of this fallacy, most people who are
predisposed to believe the conclusions are likely
to accept the argument as a good as one. This
then begs the question:
“Why does this fallacy work?”
▪ Because the arguments they use tend to reinforce
preexisting inclinations and beliefs.
Begging the Question
▪ The second form of petitio principii occurs when
the conclusion of an argument merely restates a
possibly false premise in slightly different
language.
▪ The premise supports the conclusion, and the
conclusion tends to reinforce the premise.
Begging the Question
▪ Example:
▪ Capital punishment is justified for the crimes of
murder and kidnapping because it is quite legitimate
and appropriate that someone be put to death for
having committed such hateful and inhuman acts.
▪ Anyone who preaches revolution has a vision of the
future for the simple reason that if a person has no
vision of the future he could not possibly preach
revolution.
Begging the Question
▪ The third form of petitio principii involves circular
reasoning in a chain of inferences having a first
premise that is possibly false.
▪
Begging the Question
▪ Example:
▪ Verizon has the best wireless service. After all, their
service has the clearest sound. And we know this is so
because customers hear better with Verizon service.
And this follows from the fact that Verizon has digital
technology. But this is exactly what you would expect
given that Verizon has the best wireless service.
Begging the Question
▪
Begging the Question
EXAMPLE EXPLANATION
No dogs are cats. Therefore, no cats are dogs.

London is in England and Paris is in France.

Therefore, Paris is in France and London is in
England.

Rome is in Germany or Rome is in Germany.

Therefore, Rome is in Germany.
Begging the Question
▪
Complex Question
▪

▪
Complex Question
COMPLEX QUESTION IMPLICIT ARGUMENT (IF YES)
Have you stopped cheating on You were asked whether you have
exams? stopped cheating on exams. You
answered, “Yes.” Therefore, it follows
that you have cheated in the past.

You were asked where you hid the

Where did you hide the marijuana you were smoking. You
marijuana you were smoking? replied, “Under the bed.” It follows
that you were in fact smoking
marijuana.
Complex Question
COMPLEX QUESTION IMPLICIT ARGUMENT (IF NO)
Have you stopped cheating on You were asked whether you have
exams? stopped cheating on exams. You
answered, “No.” Therefore, you
continue to cheat.

Where did you hide the You were asked where you hid the
marijuana you were smoking. You
marijuana you were smoking? answered, “Nowhere.” It follows that
you must have smoked all of it.
Complex Question
COMPLEX QUESTION COMPONENT QUESTIONS
Have you stopped cheating on Did you cheat on exams in the
exams? past? If you did cheat in the past,
have you stopped now?

Were you smoking marijuana? If

Where did you hide the
you were smoking it, where did
marijuana you were smoking?
you hide it?
Complex Question
▪

▪
Complex Question
▪

▪
Complex Question
▪ Example (Leading Question):
▪ Tell us, on April 9, did you see the defendant
shoot the deceased? (leading question)

▪ Tell us, what did you see on April 9?

(straight question)
False Dichotomy (False Bifurcation)
▪

▪
False Dichotomy
▪ Example:
▪ Either you let me attend the Polo G concert
or I’ll be miserable for the rest of my life. I
know you don’t want me to be miserable for
the rest of my life, so it follows that you’ll let
me attend the concert.
False Dichotomy
▪ Example:
▪ Either you use Ultra Guard deodorant or
you risk the chance of perspiration odor.
Surely you don’t want to risk the chance of
perspiration odor. Therefore, you will want
to use Ultra Guard deodorant.
False Dichotomy
▪ Example:
▪ Either we adopt a one-world government ,
or regional wars will continue forever. We
certainly can’t tolerate constant war.
Therefore, we must adopt a one-world
government.
False Dichotomy
▪

▪
Suppressed Evidence
▪
▪

▪
Suppressed Evidence
▪ Example:
▪ “Feed you Happy.” (An ad for Carl’s Jr.
burgers)

How does this commit the fallacy?

Suppressed Evidence
▪ Example:
▪ Most dogs are friendly and pose no threat
to people who pet them. Therefore, it
would be safe to pet the little dog that is
approaching us now.
Suppressed Evidence
▪ Example:
▪ The U.S. military has fewer battleships, M1
rifles, and horse-drawn howitzers today
than it did in 1940. Therefore, the U.S.
military is a less effective fighting force
today than it was in 1940.
Suppressed Evidence
▪ Example:
▪ The Second Amendment to the Constitution
states that the right of the people to keep
and bear arms shall not be infringed. But a
law controlling handguns would infringe the
right to keep and bear arms. Therefore, a
law controlling handguns would be
unconstitutional.
Suppressed Evidence
▪