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Principles and Developments in Soil Grouting: a Historical Review

Article in WSEAS TRANSACTIONS ON ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION · November 2021

DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

Principles and Developments in Soil Grouting: A Historical Review

DIMITRIOS CHRISTODOULOU1, PHILOTHEOS LOKKAS2*, IOANNIS MARKOU3,

ALEXANDROS DROUDAKIS4, IOANNIS CHOULIARAS5, NIKOLAOS ALAMANIS6
1
Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Thessaly, Larissa, GREECE
2
Emeritus Professor, University of Thessaly, GREECE
3
Department of Civil Engineering, Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, GREECE
4
Ph.D. Civil Engineer, Geosynthetic Engineering Specialist, Technical Support Manager, Thrace
Nonwovens & Geosynthetics, Xanthi, GREECE
5
Professor, General Department of Larissa, University of Thessaly, GREECE
6
Department of Agriculture – Agrotechnology, University of Thessaly, Larissa, GREECE

Abstract: - Grouting includes a range of processes that involve the injection of wet or dry materials into the
ground to provide improved engineering properties. Common aims are to increase strength or stiffness or to
reduce permeability within the mass of ground treated. The simplest process in concept is the permeation of the
pore spaces with a fluid grout which then sets, and provides the desired properties. Jet grouting employs
erosion and mixing using high energy jets, to attack a wide-ranging set of soils and applications. This paper,
mainly, addresses permeation grouting for the improvement of soils, in terms of strengthening or reduction of
permeability, and compensation grouting for the displacement of structures during subsurface exploration. The
historical evolution of these two grouting processes is described leading up to present-day practice. Reference
is made to grouting materials, methods of injection, equipment, limitations and verification for each type of
grouting. The grouts used to make permeation grouting are mainly suspensions and chemical solutions. The
suspensions penetrate well into soils with granulometry up to coarse sand. On the contrary, the chemical
solutions penetrate satisfactorily in finer formations up to fine sands or coarse sludges. Because some chemical
solutions are toxic or generally harmful to the environment and humans, an effort has been made internationally
in recent years to replace them with inorganic fine-grained suspensions.

Keywords: Permeation Grouting, Cement Suspensions, Microfine Cements, Sands, Injectability, Penetrability
of Suspensions.

Received: May 25, 2021. Revised: October 9, 2021. Accepted: October 26, 2021. Published: November 29, 2021.

1 Introduction (2020), cement grouting technique is more efficient

The design related on the shear behavior of a soil than compaction method [10].
material is of particular interest because it has a The term “injection” means the passage, under
direct impact on practical problems of bearing pressure, of a fluid material to the required depth
capacity [1, 2], stability of slopes and embankments from the soil surface. The injection material, which
[3, 4, 5] as well as permanent seismic movements of is either a suspension of solid granules in water or a
slopes [6, 7, 8]. The safe construction and operation solution of chemicals, displaces the water from the
of many technical projects often requires the soil pores and coagulates or solidifies in a relatively
improvement of the properties and mechanical short period of time.
behavior of the soil formations that appear in their In general, permeation groutings aim at increasing
area. Various methods are used to improve the soils, the shear strength, the density and the stiffness,
such as: the lowering of the well horizon, the along with a reduction of the compressibility and the
vibrational condensation, the dynamic condensation, soil permeability. An appropriate injection program
the preloading and the injections. The category of may: (a) be performed as part of the preliminary
injections includes: (a) permeation grouting, (b) fieldwork prior to the commencement of project’s
compensation grouting, (c) condensation injections construction, (b) be part of the construction of the
and (d) high pressure vein injections. Permeation main project, or (c) designed and executed ex post
groutings are one of the oldest methods for when unforeseen circumstances arise during the
improving soil formations and have a wide range of construction and/or operation of a project.
applications [9]. According to Sudheer Kumar et. al.

E-ISSN: 2224-3410 175 Volume 18, 2021

 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

The grouts used to perform permeation groutings, defined as the transmission process of a fluid
based on their composition, can be divided into: (a) material under pressure, to the required depth from
Suspensions, (b) Solutions, (c) Emulsions and (d) the soil surface. The injection material, which is
Foams. either a suspension of solid granules in water or a
In the category of suspensions belong these of clay solution of chemicals, displaces the water from the
and bentonite, the mixtures of bentonite-cement, soil pores and coagulates or solidifies in a short
pozzolanic-cement, Portland cement and fine- time. Injections are generally intended to either
grained cements. increase the shear strength, density and stiffness of
Typical representatives of chemical solutions are the soil or to reduce compressibility and
sodium silicate, aminoplastics, phenoplastics, permeability.
acrylics and acrylamides.
The most popular emulsions are asphalt, a 2.1 Injection Categories
combination of asphalt - soap - casein in water, and There are many criteria by which injection methods
asphalt with a suitable filler such as clay in water, can be classified; they are related to the type of
which have been applied to soil stabilization and injection, the application cases, the ‘grid’ of the
waterproofing problems. injection points and the sequence of the
Foams include cement or clay-cement suspensions manufacturing steps. The categories of injections as
that can undergo a physical or chemical defined by European standards EN12715: 2000 and
modification that creates air bubbles within them. EN12716: 2000 are as follows:
Practically, and in terms of Engineering
applications, the distinction has prevailed in the 2.1.1 Permeation Grouting
following types of grouts: (a) Cement grouts, (b) The use of permeation grouting is a method of
Fine cement grouts, (c) Fuel solutions and (d) improving the properties and mechanical behavior
Resins. Cement suspensions are low cost and of the soil. The method is generally expensive and
environmentally friendly, but have a limited scope its choice depends on the relative cost with respect
which reaches up to the coarse sands. On the to other alternative solutions. It is based on the
contrary, chemical solutions can penetrate fine- replacement of water (or air) of soil voids or rock
grained sands or coarse-grained sludges, but they mass cracks by a grout, that is pressed under low
are more expensive and some of them are pressure, so as not to disturb the soil formation. It is
considered harmful to the environment and humans. the oldest method of injection and is usually applied
With the aim of replacing these chemical solutions to relatively small areas of soil that are far from the
with suspensions that are harmless to the soil surface. The method is used in technical
environment, but also equally effective in terms of projects, aiming at controlling underground flows,
their penetration into soil formations, efforts have increasing the shear strength of soil formation,
been made to develop new suspension-type reducing deformation or subsidence and filling gaps
materials based on fine-grained cements. The MC- [9].
500 is the oldest fine-grained cement in the
literature and appeared on the international market 2.1.2 Compensation Grouting
in the early 1980s. The volume of applications of This type of grouting is divided into two sub-
fine-grained cements has been systematically categories: a) Compaction and b) Fracturing
increased over the last 20 years. Due to stricter Grouting.
environmental protection laws and lower costs In Compaction grouting, a very thick and durable
against chemical solutions, fine-grained cements grout is injected into loose soils, forming grout
appear to be gradually replacing chemical solutions “bulbs” that move and compact the adjacent soil,
in the field of impregnation injections. Fine-grained without penetrating the soil voids. The evolution of
cements have been used mainly to control Compaction grouting began in the mid-1930s, but
groundwater flows and/or to improve soil strength, its systematic use began in the late 1960s. It is
in applications including dams, tunnels, landfills, applied only to certain types of soils and is based on
bridges and large construction projects. the creation of a “bulb”, consisting of injection
material, whose volume increases as new injection
material is injected into the soil under high pressure.
2 Injections in General This material has a high viscosity and acts as a
The improvement of soil properties and mechanical three-dimensional "jack", displacing the soil grains
behavior can be accomplished on site by performing and resulting finally to its compaction. They are
an appropriate injection program. Injection is mainly used in technical landslide restoration

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

projects and/or in order to strengthen the soil shape would be formed after some days of
adjacent to tunnel excavations. solidification [11].
In Fracturing groutings, a high-density, low- Based on the different methods of fluid injection,
viscosity grout is injected into the soil formation, jet-grouting technology can be classified into three
causing it to fracture and eventually move from its basic types: a) single fluid system (only grout), b)
original position. Due to the fracture they cause, double fluid system (grout and air), or c) triple fluid
they are also characterized as uncontrolled system (water, grout, and air). The single fluid
injections. Fracturing grouts are only used to repair system utilizes grout as the cutting jet as well as to
subsidence. achieve cementation of the eroded soil. In the
double-fluid system, a compressed air shroud is
2.1.3 Jet Grouting introduced around the grout jet to enhance the
Jet grouting is a soil treatment technique for cutting distance of the grout jet. In the triple-fluid
stabilizing soft ground by mixing cement slurry with system, water is used for the cutting jet together
in-situ soil. Jet grouting has been widely used for with a compressed air shroud, and grout is injected
soft ground modification in various underground separately through a lower nozzle at much smaller
projects to form base seals and buried grout struts pressure to mix with the eroded soil. The adoption
for deep excavations, structural support around of a lower viscosity fluid such as water (in
tunnel eyes at the entrance and departure sites of comparison with that of grout) allows the cutting
tunnel boring machine, as well as sealing of leaking distance to be further enhanced, especially in
joints in diaphragm walls [11]. High pressure jet cohesive soils [11].
injections have been used in Japan since about 1970.
They first appeared in Europe in the 1980s and have 2.2 Historical background on Permeation
recently begun to gain recognition as technically Grouting
acceptable solutions in the United States and The first application of injections mentioned in the
elsewhere. This is a technique that uses special international literature is credited to the French
drilling heads equipped with nozzles that spray engineer Charles Berigny, who in 1802 used grouts
water and injection material at high speed under of clay and calcium oxides to stabilize stone walls in
high pressure. Water first corrodes the soil material the port of Dieppe, which had lost their strength due
and then mixes with injection material. Thus, a new to corrosion between the stones. Through this
material is created (mixture of soil and injection method, named by him "procédé d’ injection", the
material) that has the desired properties. More stabilization and reduction of the permeability of the
specifically, the jet grouting involves the injection local alluvial deposits was achieved. Portland
of cement slurry under high pressure from a nozzle cement was first injected in England in 1838 by
fixed on a rotating monitor into the ground. The Marc Isambard Brunel to build the first Thames
resulting high speed fluid jet erodes the in-situ soil tunnel, and in France by Collin (1839) to fill cracks
and simultaneously mixes it with cement slurry to in the body of the Grosbois Dam [12, 13]. At the
form a soil-cement column. Some applications have beginning of the 20th century, due to the
indicated that the shear strength of the soil-cement introduction of high-pressure pumps and pressure
column could reach to several megapascal [11]. Jet gauges, the ability to control the permeation
grouting was initially patented in 1968, under the pressure and the flow of grout increased
name Chemical Churning Pile (CCP) method, which considerably, resulting in a significant improvement
is the fore runner of the single fluid system. With on the equipment for performing an injection
further improvement of the installation process and program [13]. The development of railway networks
supporting equipment, alternate systems were in the first half of the last century led to the
developed, including the double fluid system, triple widespread use of cement injections, especially for
fluid system, multi-fluid method (SSS-MAN), the repair and strengthening on the foundations of
Rodin Jet Pile (RJP) and Metro Jet System (MJS) railway bridges to cope with the increased loads of
(11). The appropriate procedure is as follows: a trains. With James Greathead as a pioneer, between
high-speed fluid (water jet or grout jet) is injected 1900 and 1930, mechanical systems and pumps
through small diameter nozzles into the subsoil to were developed, capable of pumping high-pressure
erode the surrounding soil, while the nozzles are cement injection material deep into the ground.
rotated and lifted towards the ground surface at a Through this way, problems related to the large
constant speed. The eroded soil is simultaneously dams that began to be built at that time and
mixed with the injected grout to form the admixture, particularly problems of controlling the
and a soil-cement column with a quasi-cylindrical underground flows and strengthening the supports

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

of the dams were solved [9]. Along with the AC-400 as their main representative. Soletanche in
development of the injection’s technique with 1957 developed a "hard" silicate solution using an
cement grouts, the first injection materials based on organic ester capable of delivering sand resistances
chemicals in solution form began to appear. The of 2–3 MPa [12]. From 1980 onwards, a shift was
first application of injections using a chemical realized in technological development, towards a
solution (concentrated sodium silicate) was limitation on the use of chemical solutions, along
attributed to Jeriorsky, who introduced a "two- with the development of new non-toxic materials,
stage" injection method and for this reason he was consisting of inorganic components that are less
awarded a patent in 1886 [12, 13]. In 1909 Lemaire harmful to the natural environment [13, 16]. In this
and Dumont proposed a "one-step" chemical context, the effort to explore and develop new fine-
injection method with a dilute solution of silicon grained cements, which were and are still widely
and acid, which, however, in application, presented used in injections, was included.
significant practical problems. In 1925, the
Dutchman Joosten perfected the "two-stage" method 2.3 Grouts for Permeation Injections
based on sodium hydrated silicate and extended its In the literature there are several sources, in which
scope to soils with fine sand granulometry. The the grouts are classified into categories based on
system introduced by Joosten was widely used in different criteria (purpose of use, practical
the construction of the Berlin Underground in the application, etc.). However, the most popular
1930s. An important impetus to the application of categorization of grouts is based on their rheology
injections was given in 1933 by the invention of the and cost [17]. According to EN 12715: 2000, they
"tube-à-manchette" (TAM) by the Swiss engineer are distinguished as follows:
Ischy, which allows the permeation of grouts with
different properties, in any order at any step of time 2.3.1 Suspensions
in the same drilling [12, 13]. In 1934 Mayer They are mixtures of water and solids with a grain
developed a "one-step" method by which he was size greater than 0.1 μm. They are the most
able to control the curing time of the silicate economical solution compared to the grouts
suspension by helping to solve some of the practical mentioned in the other categories and can be used to
problems of Joosten's method. Reports of cement reduce permeability and increase the strength of soil
grouts injections are also related to the construction formations. The viscosity of the suspensions
of the Estacada Dam barrier wall in Oregon, USA increases dramatically during curing and takes a few
(1910-1912). The construction of the Hoover Dam hours up to a few days to obtain satisfactory
(1932–1936), however, was the first large-scale strength. They generally exhibit Bingham-type
application of cement injections for stabilization and rheological behavior. Grouts of this type are the
contributed decisively to the development of the suspensions of clay and bentonite, the mixtures of
existing knowledge for the time. A significant bentonite-cement, pozzolans-cement, pure Portland
improvement in grout quality was provided by the cement and fine-grained cements.
colloidal mixer invented in 1934 by J.P. Morgan and
was marketed in England in 1937 by Colcrete. The 2.3.2 Solutions
rapid mixing achieved, resulted in the removal of air They result from the dissolution of suitable
from the grout, improved hydration and increased chemical compounds in water and depending on the
the amount of fine cement grains. This resulted in type of chemical compound used to prepare them,
the possibility of making grouts with a lower water they are divided into: True Solutions and Colloidal
to cement ratio (W/C), with less exudation and Solutions. The actual solutions contain solids which
higher strength. This type of mixer is still used present a size of molecules that mechanically cannot
today [12]. During World War II (1939-1945) there be separated from water. They show a very low
was, as expected, a slowdown of growth in the field viscosity that remains constant up to the hardening
of injections. After its end, however, a rapid of grout, which occurs extremely abruptly (from a
progress was made, especially in the field of few seconds to an hour). Resins belong to this
chemical solutions. Very important is the invention category. The resins have a viscosity ranging from 2
of an acrylic chemical solution (AM-9) by Mello, to 10 cP, behave like Newtonian fluids and
Hauser and Lambe in 1953, which presented a generally undergo significant shrinkage, which leads
slightly higher viscosity than water, had the ability to a reduced strength. There are several types of
to penetrate muddy soils and provided excellent resins. Some of them, like phenoplastics,
curing time [13, 15]. In the early 1980s, this solution aminoplastics, polymers (foam materials) and
was replaced by less toxic chemical solutions with polymethyl acrylates (PMAs) are still used, while

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

acrylamides and lignosulfonates have not been purpose of reducing the cost of injections, while the
recently used in applications due to their toxicity use of admixtures such as fly ash, slag silica fume
[13]. and addition of chemical improvers (i.e. water
Colloids are characterized by granules of solids that reducers, superplasticizers, coagulation accelerators
are larger in size than molecules but smaller than the etc.) aims to improve some properties. The
solids in grouts (0.001μm<d<0.1μm). Their following sections list all the ingredients used in the
viscosity varies according to the admixtures used. manufacture of cement grouts and additionally
At the beginning, the viscosity is low and gradually indicate how they act on the properties of grouts.
increases during the hardening, which, can last from
several minutes up to a few hours. The modern 3.1 Water
composition of silicate solutions mainly requires the The quality of the water, used to make the cement
dissolution of sodium silicate in water with an grouts, should be controlled from the beginning
inorganic (sodium aluminate) or organic (esters) because it is an important parameter of their
hardener. A typical silicate solution with a composition. Generally, drinking water is
composition of 50-60% sodium silicate, 8-10% considered suitable for the preparation of cement
hardener and 30-42% water has a viscosity between grouts [12, 20]. According to Van der Stoel [13], the
10 and 200 cP and behaves like a Newtonian fluid. pH value is the regulatory factor on the basis of
The strength of these solutions depends on the which the choice should be made. This is based on
silicon content (higher content increases the the fact that the acidity of the water affects the
strength) and the type of hardener. In general, these setting time of the grouts. He argues, in fact, that
grouts do not have high strengths and for this reason when pH values range from 6 to 8, the effect of
are used only to reduce the permeability of soil acidity is considered negligible. Also, water, which
formations. contains sulfates (> 0.1%), chlorine (> 0.5%),
Some researchers also place fine-grained cement sugars, suspended solids especially organic, or
grouts in this category [13], while there are several presents a high alkali content, is dangerous,
sources that refer to solutions similar to the especially for applications with high strength
rheological behavior of fine-grained cement with requirements in the presence of steel. Weaver
high water to cement W/C ratios during the first (1991) [21], finally, proposes the use without testing
hours after their preparation. [18, 19]. whether the water is pure, i.e. without a salty, saltish
or bitter taste).
2.3.3 Mortars
These are very dense grouts that consist of 3.2 Cement
components similar to those of grouts, have a high Cement is a mortar, which, when mixed with water,
angle of internal friction and are most commonly can thicken and harden both in air and in water. It is
used for compaction or cavity filling injections. mainly an excellent hydraulic mortar, which
combines high hydraulicity and strength. Common
Portland cements are mainly used for permeation
3 Suspension - Type Grout grouting. The raw materials, which are necessary for
Components the preparation of the main phases of Portland
As mentioned in the previous paragraph, cements, are those that contain the oxides of
suspension-type grouts can even be soil-water calcium (CaO), silicon (SiO2), aluminum (Al2O3)
mixtures. These grouts are the most economical and iron (Fe2O3). Limestone gives CaO, while clay
solution, but at the same time they show many gives SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3. Marls contain all four
important disadvantages such as the inability to oxides in varying amounts depending on their
develop strength along with the difficulty of composition. Furthermore, silica sand contains SiO2
penetration. The most popular suspension - type and bauxite Al2O3. The main phases of Portland
grouts are those based on cement, whose main type cements are the following [22]:
components are the common Portland cement and  C3S silica
water. Depending on the needs of each application  Calcium silicate C2S
(high initial strength, resistance to chemical  C3A alumina
environment) it is possible to use different types of  Aluminum-iron calcium C2 (A, F)
cement (aluminum, slag, etc.) instead of common The above phases are not present in the cements
cement. In addition, it is possible to add to the completely pure, but with small admixtures of MgO,
grouts some solids (sand, clay) with the main TiO2, K2O, Na2O, Mn2O3 etc. Portland cement

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

consists of clinker and gypsum (or gypsum and 3.3 Additives

anhydride), which are collected in a very fine The term additives refers to natural or artificial
powder with a special surface of Blaine 2200-6000 materials that are added to cement grouts to improve
cm2/gr. The amount of gypsum that grinds together certain properties and/or reduce their manufacturing
with the clinker depends on the fineness and type of costs. In the international literature they appear
cement and is necessary to regulate the setting. under various terms and mainly with the term
However, for reasons of volume stability, the “fillers” and are divided into non-active materials
amount of cement must be limited. Clinker is a that are inert (sands, clays) and pozzolans and
product of firing (shells or extruders) of blast chemical property improvers that are active
furnaces and the materials from which it is made are ingredients [24].
usually limestone and clay or marls that contain
both materials. To improve the proportions of the 3.3.1 Sands
firing mixture, silica sand and iron oxides can be It is added to pure cement suspensions for the
added [22]. Cements have standard mechanical, purpose of making economical grouts, especially in
chemical and physical properties, which are cases where a high solids content, a low water
determined by performing standard tests. According content and a relatively high shear strength are
to the European Standard EN 197-1: 2000, these required.
properties are: strength after 2, 7 and 28 days, the Sands with a grain size between 5 and 0.075 mm are
initial setting time and the swelling after setting. preferred, but in cases where the permeation length
Important properties of Portland cements are also or distance is greater than 300 meters the maximum
Blaine fineness, density and loose weight. The most grain size should be reduced to 0.5 mm while the
important property for choosing the right cement for ratio of sand to cement should not be higher than
injections is its fineness, which is expressed by the 3:1, so that the grains of sand remain in suspension
special Blaine surface (in cm2/gr and m2/gr). The and do not precipitate [24].
finer the cement is ground, the larger the surface to In general, in cases where large gaps are required to
react with water and therefore the reaction be filled, a sand-to-cement ratio of up to 10:1 is
(hydration) takes less time. The cement grains react suggested [17].
with the water on their surface and this reaction
proceeds gradually towards the center, until the 3.3.2 Clays
grain is completely hydrated. If the fineness is low, The small grain size, the ability to absorb water, but
the cement grains are not fully hydrated, while in also to form dense structures even in small contents,
cements with very high fineness we have the led to the use of clays in cement suspensions as it
appearance of cracks in the hardened cement paste. reduces exudation [24]. Different types of clays can
The German Regulations define only a lower limit be used (natural clay, kaolin, illite, etc.), but the
(minimum limit) for fineness at 2200 cm2/gr [22]. In most common clay in the field of injections is
general, in common Portland cements the fineness bentonite, which has a water absorption capacity of
ranges from 350 to 800 m2/gr [17]. However, the more than 500% (5 times its weight) [25].
fineness is not enough to ensure the optimal choice The use of bentonite improves the resistance to
of cement, but should be combined with the exudation under pressure, increases stability and
knowledge of its granulometric curve. Most penetration, but also increases viscosity and
common cements have a maximum grain diameter cohesion [26], significantly reduces the rate of
ranging from 50 to 200 μm, thus limiting the scope resistance [24] and the final strength of grout [27].
of application of cement injections in coarse-grained Bentonite is added to the cement suspensions in pre-
soils with D10 ≥ 1 mm and k ≥ 5·10-2 cm/sec and in hydrated form (suspension in water) and always
rocks presenting cracks of thickness α ≥ 160 μm before the introduction of other ingredients into the
[23]. Due to these limitations, arose the need for the mixture. Otherwise, the grout presents strong cracks
production of new fine-grained cements that would while the ability to stabilize the suspension is
be the basis for the preparation of grouts with dramatically reduced [26].
improved properties, able to penetrate into finer There are several types of bentonite, but in the field
formations. In the following paragraphs, issues of permeation injections, montmorillonite silicate is
related to the aforementioned materials are considered to be the most effective choice [17, 27].
developed in detail.
3.3.3 Pozzolans
Pozzolans are silicate and aluminosilicate materials,
which usually do not exhibit cementing properties

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
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on their own, but have the potential - in the presence mixes. The fly ash, being a cementitious coal
of free calcium in the cement - to take part in the combustion by-product, promises high volume
hydration process [24]. They are distinguished in utilization in grouting applications by addition of
natural and artificial pozzolans, the most important other mineral admixtures when necessary. The fly
of which are the following: ash grouts provide required engineering
performance in improving ground stability by
Slag increasing strength and shearing resistance as well
It is an artificial pozzolan, which is a non-metallic as reducing the permeability of soils treated with
by-product of iron ore processing. The main type of enhanced technical, rheological, durability and
slag used in the preparation of suspension type economic advantages over sand and cement grouts.
grouts is the blast furnace slag and participates as a The fly ash grout is also cost-effective when
cement substitute in grouts in up to 45% [26]. It alternative suspension, emulsion or solution
takes an active part in the hydration process of the materials are considered. Fly ash grout composite
cement and can react with other additives to make formed of various combinations of high-volume fly
ettringite. However, in the absence of other ash, cement, lime and high range water reducing
ingredients it hydrates very slowly and for this chemical admixture has been investigated to define
reason it should always be used in combination with short-term engineering performance in terms of
cement. This reduced slag hydration capacity is physicochemical (chemical compound analysis, unit
ideal for increasing the initial setting time and, weight, void ratio, specific gravity, linear shrinkage,
therefore, slag is used to control the setting time of hydraulic conductivity) and mechanical properties
fine-grained cements. In addition, it is added to (unconfined compressive strength and flexural
cement grouts to react with calcium hydroxide in strength), excluding durability as the long-term
order to reduce the porosity of the suspension mass engineering performance. The overall short-term
and improve the resistance to chemicals [26]. engineering performance indicates high volume fly
ash utilization potential in grouting applications.
Fly ash (FA)
It is a low-cost artificial pozzolan, which comes Silica fume (SF)
from the cleaning of the flue gases in the chimneys This type is a by-product of the production of
of the coal combustion plants for the production of silicon or silicon-containing alloys with a content of
electricity. There are two types of ash (C and F), at least 75%. The proper disposal of silica fume, as
which differ in their chemical composition an industrial waste, is one of the major issues for
depending on the type of coal used for combustion. environmentalists since leaving it directly in the
The use of ash in cement grouts slightly reduces environment may cause severe health problems. On
exudation, improves resistance to exudation under the other hand, the amorphous structure, high SiO2
pressure and permanence [27] and slows down the content, and large specific surface area make the
hydration process and the rate of resistance silica fume reactive to the alkali product of cement
development [26]. In fine-grained cement grouts it to produce the additional amounts of calcium-
presents the same effect as slag, but leads to grouts silicate-hydrate (CSH) phase, enhancing the
of lower resistance to unobstructed compression. It bonding of solid phase and improving the strength
has to be noted that the participation of type C fly of cement-silica fume binary system considerably.
ash in the grouts at a rate of more than 15% by Silica fume is a fine-grained powder (grain size
weight of cement, leads to their rapid deterioration <1μm) and is used in cement grouts to improve the
[26]. penetration and permanence and also to reduce the
In addition to many environmental benefits, fly ash permeability of the grout [26]. Furthermore, through
utilization provides end-products with superior the use of silica fume it is possible to improve the
engineering and physical qualities as well as stability, the resistance to exudation under pressure,
economic benefits, considering the utilization but also the strength of the grout by reducing the
potential in construction-related applications such as porosity of its mass. The use of silica fume as a
cement production and concrete products in the substitute for cement is proposed in a content of up
form of highway pavement concrete, structural to 10% by weight of dry cement [27]. Furthermore,
concrete, and roller compacted concrete, bricks, the particles of silica fume are 100 to 150 times
blocks and paving stones; artificial lightweight smaller than the cement grains and because silica
aggregate, structural fills or embankments, fume particles have near-perfect spheres, they can
stabilization of waste materials, mineral filler in occupy the micro voids in the matrix and provide a
asphalt paving, flowable/structural fill and grouting much denser structure, which in turn may decrease

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

the permeability of the system and therefore grout with a W/C ratio of 1:1 containing a liquidator
increase its resistance to the aggressive environment has comparable rheological properties to a cement
[29, 30]. Apart from pozzolanic activity and filling grout without a liquidator and a W/C ratio of 3:1 or
effect of silica fume, this material may affect the 4:1 [25].
hydration kinetics [31, 32] this is because silica Materials with even greater potential to affect the
fume particles may prepare more nucleation sites, a rheological properties of cement grouts are the
process that accelerates the hydration reactions of Superplasticizers (SP) or High Range Water
cement and contributes towards a decrease of the Reducers (HRWR).
setting times [33]. Therefore, silica fume, as an Van der Waals forces, that are attractive along with
additive, can partially be replaced with cement, electrostatic forces that are attractive or repulsive,
which could result in promoting the performance of are exerted between the cement grains suspended in
the cement, contributing to waste recycling of silica the water. Of these forces, only electrostatics can be
fume, and also reducing the production demand for neutralized and this is influenced by liquidators
cement, thus mitigating carbon emissions since it [28]. The drastic ingredients of the liquidators
has been reported that the production of one ton of adhere to the surface of the granules and either alter
cement, on average, generates 0.7 to 1 tons of the electrical charge of the granules by making the
carbon dioxide [34]. electrostatic forces purely repulsive (naphthalene
sulfonate and formaldehyde sulfonate melamine
Natural pozzolan products) or separate the granules, creating chains of
It is found in nature in various rock formations or various polymers.
can arise from clays and shales. Known types of Many commercially available liquidators possibly
natural pozzolan are Theraic earth and Trasi, for exhibit combined effects in cement grouts. Thus,
which their successful use in cement grouts has been according to their properties the liquidators can
reported [26]. In particular, they react with calcium accelerate coagulation or hardening, or, vice-versa,
hydroxide to produce secondary ettringite, thus decelerate coagulation, as it happens in the case of
yielding grouts with improved durability. In superfluidizers (EN 934-2: 2001, ASTM C 494-04).
addition, the use of these materials slows down the More information on the use and action of fluidizers
rate of their strength and reduces the heat released and superfluidizers is provided by Eklund (2005)
by hydration reactions. The latter effect is [28].
considered desirable in cases where large amounts
of grout are required [26]. Accelerators
These are mainly inorganic salts that are used to
3.3.4 Chemical Property Improvers increase the rate of resistance for the suspension,
The term “chemical property improvers” refers to speeding up the hydration process. These materials
chemicals that are added in small quantities to are divided into two main categories: coagulation
cement injections to improve their specific accelerators and curing accelerators.
properties. In the international literature these In practice, most materials of this type cause both
materials appear in various terms, but in recent effects (e.g. calcium chloride) and for this reason it
years the terms "admixtures" (EN 934-2: 2001) or is not easy to include a product in one of the two
"chemical admixtures" (ASTM C 494-04) have categories. Sodium silicate (water glass), calcium
prevailed. The main types of chemical property chloride, sodium aluminate are mentioned as typical
improvers are: coagulation accelerators, and potassium carbonate
and sodium carbonate are mentioned as typical
Liquidators or Plasticizers curing accelerators [25]. The dose of the accelerator
They are the main and most widespread category of must be calculated accurately, as an incorrect use
chemical improving properties of concrete and can cause side effects such as slowing of
grout. In the international literature but also in coagulation or excessive hydration. Also, the choice
scientific standards (EN 934-2: 2001, ASTM C 494- of the appropriate accelerator should be based on the
04) it is possible to be found with the term "water type of cement used. For example, calcium chloride
reducers". The liquidators improve the rheological is reported to act as a retarder on slag-based grout
properties of the grouts causing a reduction in their and aluminum cements. In many cases, accelerators
viscosity and coherence, thus enabling the can affect the permanence of the suspension, while
preparation of grouts with lower ratios of water to chloride-containing accelerators cause corrosion of
cement (W/C) under the same rheological the steel in the reinforced concrete [28].
characteristics. It is typically reported that a cement

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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

Retarders minerals and thus do not cause adverse

Retarders have the opposite effect on grout behavior environmental effects.
compared to accelerators. In particular, they cause
an increase in the time required to start the 4.1 Definition
hydration process. Typical retarders are sugars, For the reinforcement of soils, characterized as
citric acid and lignosulfonates. In general, the use of medium or fine-grained sands, various types of
injectors is not very widespread [25]. solutions have been developed in the last thirty
years that are able to penetrate effectively into soil
Flow regulators or viscosity enhancers formations with a permeability coefficient of up to
These are chemicals that have the ability to regulate 10-4 cm/sec. These solutions, which are mainly
the flow properties of grouts and adapt them to the chemical, have significant disadvantages associated
requirements of the projects. They are distinguished with high cost, unsatisfactory durability and
in the high molecular weight materials, that create environmental impact due to their toxic behavior
grouts with "short duration" flow (gel grouts that [14, 35, 36]. On the other hand, mortars developed
remain insoluble in water), and in the low molecular on the basis of common cements can penetrate
weight materials, that create grouts with "long effectively into coarse-grained soils (e.g. gravelly
duration" flow (grouts in a liquid state for a and coarse-grained sands) with a permeability of 10-
satisfactory period of time). In general, flow 1
cm/sec [35]. Therefore, in order to achieve
regulators form grouts with shear thinning behavior. satisfactory penetration with the least possible
Grouts with this type of rheological behavior, flow impact on the natural environment, the use of fine-
when under pressure and harden sharply when at grained cements for the preparation of suspensions
rest. In this way, the grout shows increased that are capable to permeate fine-grained formations
resistance to exudation under pressure, which can be has been proposed in recent years [9, 18, 38].
improved up to 10 times [26]. There are several
types of viscosity improvers (polyacrylic polymers, 4.2 Categorization of Fine-Grained Cements
polyvinyl alcohol, etc.), but the most common and The categorization of cements into "fine-grained"
effective type is welan gum. It is a high molecular along with their clear separation is based on the
weight biopolymer which is typically added to establishment of certain criteria and standards that
cement suspensions with a content of 0.1% - 0.2% are applied. The Norwegian standard separates the
by weight of cement [26]. fine-grained cements into: microfine with d95 <30
μm and ultrafine with d95 <15 μm [25]. In the USA,
according to the ACI Committee 552, fine-grained
4 Fine-grained Cements cements are those that show a maximum grain size,
Common cement-based suspensions -as defined by dmax = 15 μm [45], while the European standard EN
the various standards (ASTM C 150-04, EN 197-1: 12715: 2000, defines as fine-grained (microfine
2000, etc.)- are capable of penetrating coarse- cements) those with d95 <20 μm and Blaine fineness
grained soil materials effectively (e.g. gravel and > 8000 cm2/gr. Finally, in Britain, ultrafine cements
coarse-grained sands) with a permeability of 10-1 are defined those having a maximum diameter of
cm/sec and above [35]. Various types of chemical grain dmax < 6 μm [12].
solutions are used to reinforce lower permeability
soils (up to 10-4 cm/sec) that can penetrate into soil 4.3 Methods of Preparation
formations such as fine sands and sludges. The preparation of suspensions from fine-grained
However, it has been shown that materials of this cements is carried out by two methods: the dry and
type have significant disadvantages, such as high the wet grinding process [46]. Most fine-grained
cost, unsatisfactory durability, low strength and can cements are produced by the dry method and are
also cause environmental pollution due to their products of grinding Portland common cement, blast
toxicity [15, 35, 36, 37]. In the last thirty years, new furnace slag or some pozzolan. Grinding takes place
materials have been developed, which are presented in special mills, in which the size of the maximum
as a counter-proposal to the use of chemical grain is reduced [26]. The second method of making
solutions for the above problems. These are fine-grained cements, referred to in the literature as
extremely fine-grained cements whose suspensions the wet method, grinds the cement in mills in the
have the ability to penetrate and reinforce even fine- presence of water, on site.
grained sands [18, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. The Efforts in this direction have led to the production of
main advantage of these materials over chemical suspensions called Microsol [35] and Cemill [47],
solutions is that they are composed entirely of although there are other standard methods of

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

preparing suspensions, such as Ahrens (1997) [48] literature. The MC-500 is the oldest fine-grained
and Huang et al. (2002) [46]. However, Cemill cement in the international literature and is
suspensions appear to have a very short workability produced by the Japanese cement company Onoda
and require a complex manufacturing process, while Cement. Following the absorption of the company
Ahrens suspensions do not exhibit satisfactory by Taiheiyo Materials, this product is available in
rheological properties and result from extremely the market of Southeast Asia and Australia under
slow process [26]. Naudts and Landry in 2003 [49] the brand name Alofix MC, while in the USA under
introduced the PASREM grinding machine which the name MC-500. It is a mixture of finely ground
enables the preparation of suspensions in a short Portland cement and slag in a ratio of 4:1 [50],
period of time along with satisfactory rheological which consists only of minerals and has a specific
properties. In general, the wet method allows the gravity of 3.0 ± 0.1 gr/cm3. Its manufacturers
production of the desired amount of suspension by recommend its combined use with the NS-200
reducing waste, favors more accurate project hyperplasticizer at a dose of 2% by weight of dry
budgets and requires much lower costs compared to cement. From Figure 1 it yields that MC-500 /
the preparation of fine-grained cements with the dry Alofix MC based cement suspensions can achieve
method. However, it does not allow the production penetration comparable to that of chemical
of materials with a maximum grain size of less than solutions. SuperFine and SuperFine-L are fine-
18μm [49]. grained, slag cements manufactured by the Japanese
company Nittetsu. They have an average grain size
4.4 Fine-grained Cements as Commercial of 3 μm and a specific gravity of 3.0 gr/cm3 and
Products 2.92 gr/cm3, respectively [21]. The use of Nittetsu
A significant number of commercially available SuperFine has been reported by several researchers
fine-grained cements has been developed in recent [51, 52, 53]. Clarke introduced later the MC-500 to
years. Specific information on the production the U.S.A. under the trade name M5 and then
method and composition of these fine-grained manufactured M1 and M3 cements [54, 55, 56],
cements is not available from the producers. Table 1 giving them the trade names MC-100 and MC-300
below gives the trade names of some fine-grained respectively. MC-100 is a fine-grained slag, while
cements and their characteristics, based on the MC-300 is a fine-grained Portland cement [57, 58,
existing information from the international 59].

Table 1. Trade names and characteristics of fine-grained cements

Commercial Manufacturer Country of Fineness by Feature Size
Designation origin Blaine m2/kgr Granules μm
* MC–500 / Alofix MC Taiheiyo Materials Japan > 800 dmax = 15
$
MC–300 DeNeef > 1300 dmax < 40
U.S.A.
#
MC–100 (Taiheiyo Materials) > 1200 dmax = 8
$
Microblend A Microblend >1200 dmax < 20
Canada
Microblend AF Solutions Inc. > 1200 dmax < 20
*
Spinor A6 d98 = 6
* Ciment d’ Origny
Spinor A12 France > 1000 d98 = 12
(Holcim Group)
*
Spinor A16 1200 d98 = 16
MC 20 RS Holcim Brazil Brazil d98 = 20
*
Fine Hard Mitsubishi Materials Japan 1260 dmax = 12
Micromix 1200 dmax = 10
#
Mikrodur R-F 1200 d95 = 16
#
Mikrodur R-U 1600 d95 = 9.5
#
Dyckerhoff AG Germany
Mikrodur R-X 1900 d95 = 6
$
Mikrodur P-F 1200 d95 = 16

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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

$
Mikrodur P-U 1600 d95 = 9.5
$
Microcem A Addiment 1400 d95 = 9
Germany
$
Microcem B (Sika AG) 1500 d98 = 8
Type V Premium 1710 d90 < 5
U.S Grout U.S.A.
Type V Standard 1510 d90 < 8
*
Superfine > 900 dmax = 10
*
Nittetsu Cement Co. Japan
Superfine-L > 900 dmax = 10
Micro A 1010 d98 = 20
Ube Industries Ltd.
Micro N Japan 990 d98 = 20
Cement Division
Micro S 1020 d98 = 20
$
Rheocem 650 > 625 d95 < 15
$ BASF Construction
Rheocem 800 Switzerland > 800 d98 < 15
Chemicals
$
Rheocem 900 > 900 d98 < 10
$
Ultrafin 12 Cementa AB 2200 (ΒΕΤ) d95 = 12
Sweden
$
Ultrafin 16 (HeidelbergCement) > 800 d95 = 16
Micro Matrix Halliburton U.S.A. > 900 d98 = 15
$ #
Cement based on: Portland, slag, * Portland + slag

Fig. 1: Comparison of the penetration of MC-500 / Alofix MC cement suspensions with other grouts [60]

The U.S. Company Grout prepares cement-based doses of 1.5% and 2.5% by weight respectively of
injection materials by both dry and wet methods. dry cement is required. The specific materials are
The fine-grained cements Type V Premium and the basis for the production of suspensions with a
Type V Standard have a specific weight of 2.63 ratio W/C of 0.6:1 and 0.8:1, respectively, following
gr/cm3 and 2.70 gr/cm3 and an average grain size of the wet method and a very specific process in terms
2.50 μm and 4.0 μm, respectively. Their chemical of the manner and time of mixing and stirring. The
composition includes 55% Thera earth and 45% use of Type V Premium cement is noted in their
super grounded type IV Portland cement. In the dry research efforts by Henn et al., (2001) [51] and
state, their combined use with a hyperplasticizer in Henn et al., (2005) [52]. Important references in the

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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

international literature are related to the Spinor Addiment company. These are fine-grained pure
cements (A6, A12 and A16) of the French company Portland cements that have a specific weight of 3.20
Soletanche-Bachy [16, 61]. Their main gr/cm3. The Swedish company Cementa AB is also
representative is the fine-grained cement A12, active in the production of fine-grained cements,
which is slag having a specific weight of 2.94 introducing on the market the fine-grained cements
gr/cm3. The manufacturer proposes the use of a Ultrafin 12 and Ultrafin 16 with a specific weight of
superplasticizer in a dosage of 3% by weight of dry 3.10 - 3.20 gr/cm3. The Norwegian company Elkem
cement along with W/C ratios from 1:1 to 3:1. ASA Materials proposes the product Ultrafin 12 as a
Spinor A12 can also be used for the preparation of basis for the preparation of fine-grained suspensions
Microsol grouts, which are prepared by the wet available in the market under the brand name
method. It is also reported that MC 20 RC fine MultiGrout System. The Cemill designation
cement is manufactured in Brazil by Holcim Brazil identifies the wet method by which cement
[62]. suspensions are prepared on site using Portland
A significant part of the international market is conventional cement as a base. The method was
occupied by fine-grained cements under the brand proposed by De Paoli et al. (1992b) [47] and aims at
name Mikrodur, which are sold by Dyckerhoff AG. developing an on-site production process of fine-
These are products consisting of either pure grained material using common cement. This
Portland (with the mark P) or pure slag (with the process made it possible to produce not only
mark R). Finosol products are also available from unstable grouts (Cemill-I), but also fixed grouts
the same company, which are suspensions resulting using bentonite (Cemill-S). These objectives were
from the mixing of blast furnace slag, clinker, achieved with a special device, which has two
coagulation and admixtures controller in field functions: (a) achieves very strong dispersion of
applications. cement granules without the addition of a
Characteristic of these suspensions is the individual corresponding anticoagulant and (b) implements a
preparation of their ingredients before the final progressive procedure of elaborating the coarse
mixing. Depending on their fineness, Mikrodur and cement fraction until it reaches the desired levels of
Finosol materials are divided into F (Fine), U fineness without the need for this coarse material to
(Ultrafine) and X (EXtrafine). Mikrodur and Finosol be removed [47]. Regarding the chemical
cements have been used in various research efforts composition of fine-grained cements, it is
[35, 63, 64, 65]. Products of the company BASF emphasized that, mainly, they consist of the same
Construction Chemicals are the fine-grained oxides as Portland cements, but in different
cements under the brand name Rheocem, which are proportions. Another element, which promotes the
based on pure Portland cement. Depending on their use of fine-grained cements for permeation
fineness, they are divided into products 650, 800 injections, is the fact that they are composed of
and 900 [66]. The manufacturer recommends their inorganic and non-toxic materials, an element that is
use in combination with the plasticizer Rheobuild particularly beneficial in preventing environmental
2000PF in a dosage ranging from 1.0% to 3.0% by pollution. Table 2 below gives typical chemical
weight of dry cement. Henn et al. (2001) [51], used compositions of commercially available fine-
in field applications, suspensions based on the fine- grained cements, while Table 3 lists characteristic
grained Microcem A and Microcem B cements of cases of use for fine-grained cement grouts.

Table 2. Typical chemical compositions of fine-grained cements

Chemical SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO SO3

Ingredient (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%)
MC–100 35.4 16.0 0.3 43.3 3.5 0.3
MC–300 17.9 4.9 3.5 61.6 2.6 2.4
MC–500 29.0 13.2 1.2 49.2 5.6 1.2
Fine Hard 31.6 13.6 0.7 46.4 6.1 1.6
Micro A 28.8 11.3 1.0 48.9 5.4 1.4
Micro N 30.9 12.9 0.5 44.3 6.3 1.6
Micro S 26.9 10.4 1.4 51.1 4.6 2.0
Spinor A12 31.0 9.5 1.3 44.0 6.5
MC 20 RS 24.3 7.7 2.0 52.7 3.8 3.7

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Micro Matrix 20.4 6.4 2.7 62.3 1.0 3.3

Table 3. Typical cases of use for fine-grained cement grouts

Soil
Reference Cement Work Target
Formation
MC–500 Railway tunnel Loose volcanic gravel *C, #S
Shimoda and
MC–500 Tunnel Fine sand S
Ohmori, 1982
MC–500 Dam Branched granite S
Moller et al., 1983 MC–500 Tunnel Branched granite C
Clarke, 1984 MC–500 Tunnel Branched granite C
Dasika, 1985 MC–500 Building Sand S
Medium - fine sand
Winter et al., 1986 MC–500 Building S
with fines (6-18%)
Legendre et al., 1987 Microsol Oil well Thin sand layer C
Brand et al., 1988 MC–500 Landfill Fine sand C, S
Weaver et al., 1992 MC–500 Landfill Branched dolomite C
Clarke et al., 1992 MC-100+MC-300 Dam Branched rock mass C
Ballivy et al., 1997 Spinor A12 Tunnel Gneiss and limestone S
MC-100+MC-300
Clarke et al., 1997 Dam Branched rock mass C
MC-500
Tunnels
Van der Stoel, 1999 Microcem Sand layers S
subway
Ultrafin 12 Coal storage Rock mass C, S
Tolpannen and
Rheocem 900 Gas storage Rock mass C, S
Syrjanen, 2003
Rheocem 650 Athletic Center Rock mass C
Pallardy et al., 2003 Spinor A12 Road tunnel Rock mass C
Abreu et al., 2005 MC 20 RS Bridge Soil S
Hognestad and Hard rock mass
Rheocem 800 Railway tunnel C
Frogner, 2006 (limestone)
*C: Groundwater control, #S: improved strength of soil formation

commencement of a project’s construction, (b)

5 Conclusions be a part of the construction of the main project,
1) From the above review, it has been emerged that or (c) be designed and executed as a “treatment”
geotechnical engineering both in research and when unforeseen circumstances arise during the
design but mainly in its application and construction of a project.
construction has played and still plays an 4) Injections are generally intended either to
extremely important role for the infrastructure increase the shear strength, density and stiffness
not only in Greece, but all over the world. of the soil or to reduce compressibility and
2) This paper reviews constituent materials, permeability.
properties and applications of grouts for soil 5) The grouts used to make permeation injections
grouting and especially permeation grouting. are mainly suspensions and chemical solutions.
The effectiveness of grouting process requires 6) The suspensions penetrate satisfactorily in soils
proper skills, understanding, meticulous with granulometry up to coarse sand.
attention and intuitive perception. 7) Chemical solutions penetrate satisfactorily in
3) The improvement of properties and the more fine-grained formations up to fine-grained
mechanical behavior of soil formations can be sands or coarse-grained sludges.
achieved on the spot by performing an 8) Because some chemical solutions are toxic or
appropriate injection program. The injection generally harmful to the environment and
program may: (a) be performed as a part of the humans, an effort has been made internationally
preliminary field work prior to the in recent years to replace them with inorganic
fine-grained cement-based suspensions.

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 Dimitrios Christodoulou, Philotheos Lokkas,
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DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

9) Finally, the interesting applications of the above 2021 / Published on line: 06 March 2021, ©
science in the field of soil improvement increase Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany.
both the knowledge of students along with their [7] Alamanis N., Dakoulas P., “Simulation of
theoretical background and enhance their random soil properties by the Local Average
training. Subdivision method and engineering
applications”, Energy Systems, Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12667-019-00362-y.
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Dimitrios Christodoulou, and Theodoros 2019, © Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany.
Chrisanidis, “Significant Foundation [8] Alamanis N., Dakoulas P., “Effect of spatial
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DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

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WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Ioannis Markou, Alexandros Droudakis,
DOI: 10.37394/232010.2021.18.18 Ioannis Chouliaras, Nikolaos Alamanis

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Holtz R.D. and Juran I., Editors, New Orleans, D. Christodoulou had the idea of writing this article. In
Louisiana, U.S.A., ASCE, New York, U.S.A., fact, together with Ph. Lokkas, organized the research
along with the methodology of the paper and actively
Geotechnical Publication No. 30, Vol. 1, 1992,
participated in literature review.
pp. 526-540. Ph. Lokkas organized the research along with the
[59] Schwarz L.G. and Krizek R.J., “Effects of methodology of the paper and participated in both the
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cement grout”, Proceedings, Conference on I. Markou had the original idea of dealing with this
Grouting, Soil Improvement and Geosynthetics, subject and succeeded in financing the research. He
Borden R.H., Holtz R.D. and Juran I., Editors, actively participated in literature review.
New Orleans, Louisiana, U.S.A., ASCE, New A. Droudakis contributed to the writing of literature
York, U.S.A., Geotechnical Publication No. 30, review.
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[60] www.parchem.com.au
[61] Bouchelaghem F. and Vulliet L., Sources of Funding for Research Presented in a
“Mathematical and numerical filtration- Scientific Article or Scientific Article Itself
advection-dispersion model of miscible grout The research effort reported herein is part of the research
propagation in saturated porous media”, project (PENED) which is co-financed by E.U. –
International Journal for Numerical and European Social Fund (80%) and the Greek Ministry of
Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, John Development – GSRT (20%).
Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Vol. 25, 2001, pp. 1195-
1227. Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0
(Attribution 4.0 International, CC BY 4.0)
This article is published under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License 4.0
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/deed.en_US

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