METEROLOGY

Fundamental principles of climatology

◦ Climatology - Definition:
◦ Climatology is formed by combination of two Greek words, Klima - and logos. ‘Klima’ means
slope of the earth. The concept of slope is related to Latitude, logos means study.
◦ Hence climatology can be defined as the scientific study of climate.
◦ Climatic conditions are related to location of place with respect to Latitude. So it is study of the
varieties of climates found on different parts of the world.
 Nature, Scope and Objectives of Climatology :

◦ Different types of climatic conditions are found in different parts of the world.
◦ Climatology seeks to explain the causes of different types of climates, their specific & general
locations, reasons for their variations, their effects on natural vegetation, and the processes that
produce different climates.
◦ Climatology also study & detailed analysis of the interactions of the weather & climate
elements with human societies.
◦ Hence the ultimate goal of climatology is to discuss various climatic elements as well as factors
that control the distribution of climate on the surface of the Earth.

◦ Climate has direct psychological and physiological impact on man. Growth of crops & vegetation / forest
is associated with climate.

◦ Impact of climatic elements on human life :

◦ The elements of weather & climate have great impact on human life. Temperature, pressure, direction
and velocity of wind, humidity, cloud amount and precipitation.
◦ 1) Temperature :
◦ Some scientists feel that the countries in the tropical belt are backward due to excessive solar radiation in
this region.
◦ Solar rays stimulate our cells, and are useful for us. But excessive amount of insolation causes cells to
break down. The amount of solar radiation in summer in Tropical countries is far more than that is
required for our body.
◦ This has direct impact on the health of people and their efficiency two work. On the other hand almost all
industrially advanced countries of the world are in the temperate belt where the mean annual temperature
is about 110 °C, and mean summer temperature near 180°C. e.g. Temperature in the major metropolitan
cities like New York, London, Paris.

◦ 2) Humidity - Relative Humidity :

◦ Sultry weather is a result of high temperature combined with high relative humidity. Such type of
weather has an adverse impact on our physical and mental efficiency. Extreme dry weather during winter
is also harmful to our body. Our physical comfort and efficiency are closely related to temperature and
relative humidity.
◦ 3) Strong wind - storms :
◦ Civilizations and culture have more developed in the areas of adverse climatic conditions. e.g. U.K.,
France, Germany, Japan & part of the U.S.A. - are industrially advanced countries. People in this region,
with the help of science and technology found innovative ideas to face the severe storms and other
climatic hazards. (Need is the mother of invention) which occur in these areas.

◦Sub-divisions of Climatology :
◦ There are three major sub divisions of climatology
◦ 1) Physical Climatology
◦ 2) Regional Climatology
◦ 3) Applied Climatology
◦1) Physical Climatology :
◦ Temperature, pressure, wind, humidity, precipitation, insolation are the elements of weather and climate.
Physical climatology deals with the temporal (related to time) and spatial (related to area or places.)
variations of these elements and factors responsible for such variations in different part of the world.
◦ There are certain climatic factors as latitude, altitude, distance from sea, local relief, nature of surface,
winds etc. which control processes related to weather and climate. Physical climatology is directly related
to all these factors & weather processes, which cause different type of climate in different regions.

◦ Regional or Descriptive Climatology :

◦ It is related to identification of climatic characteristics of different regions and the classification of
climate. Regional climatology acts as a link between the problem in applied climatology and the physical
basis of climate.
◦ As this branch of climatology deals with area or region it is sub-divided into three categories on the basis
of their areal extent.

◦ a) Macro climate
◦ b) Meso climate
◦ c) Local climate
◦Applied Climatology :
◦ This branch of climatology deals with the use of the principles of
◦ climatology and their application for solving problems of the society and
◦ resources. It also studies the relation ship between environment and
◦ biosphere with the climate.
◦ This being applied branch of climatology it covers many
◦ interesting areas as
◦ 1) Air pollution
◦ 2) Climate & Agriculture
◦ 3) Climate change
◦ 4) Industries….etc

Earth radiation balance:

◦ The earth as whole does not accumulate or loose heat. It maintains its temperature. This can happen only
if the amount of heat received in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the earth through
terrestrial radiation.
◦ The insolation received by the earth is in short waves forms and heats up its surface. The earth after being
heated itself becomes a radiating body and it radiates energy to the atmosphere in long wave form. This
energy heats up the atmosphere from below. This process is known as terrestrial radiation.
◦ The long wave radiation is absorbed by the atmospheric gases particularly by carbon dioxide and the
other green house gases. Thus, the atmosphere is indirectly heated by the earth’s radiation.
◦ The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to the space. Finally the amount of heat received from
the sun is returned to space, thereby maintaining constant temperature at the earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere.
 Short wave solar radiation

◦ Consider that the insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is 100 per cent. While passing through
the atmosphere some amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed.
◦ Only the remaining part reaches the earth surface. Roughly 35 units are reflected back to space even
before reaching the earth’s surface.
◦ Of these, 27 units are reflected back from the top of the clouds and 2 units from the snow and ice-covered
areas of the earth.
◦ The reflected amount of radiation is called the albedo of the earth.
◦ The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51 units by the earth’s surface.

◦ The earth radiates back 51 units in the form of terrestrial radiation.

◦ Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34 units are absorbed by the
atmosphere (6 units absorbed directly by the atmosphere, 9 units through convection and turbulence and
19 units through latent heat of condensation).
◦ 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation +34 units from terrestrial radiation) are
also radiated back into space.
◦ Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere respectively is 17+48=65 units
which balance the total of 65 units received from the sun.
◦ This is termed the heat budget or heat balance of the earth.
◦ This explains, why the earth neither warms up nor cools down despite the huge transfer of heat that takes
place.
Latitudinal variation of insolation
◦ Insolation or Incoming Solar Radiation :
◦ As we all know, the sun is the primary source of energy for the earth. The sun radiates its energy in all
directions into space in short wavelengths, which is known as solar radiation.
◦ The earth’s surface receives only a part of this radiated energy (2 units out of 1,00,00,00,000 units of
energy radiated by the sun).
◦ The energy received by the earth’s surface in the form of short waves is termed as Incoming Solar
Radiation or Insolation.
◦ Three zones may be demarcated regarding the distribution of Solar energy on the surface of the earth as
detailed below.
◦ 1) LOW LATITUDE ZONE/ TROPICAL ZONE : The zone which extends between the Tropic of Cancer
and Capricorn is included in the low latitude zone. It is also called the tropical zone because all the places
in the region receive the maximum and minimum energy twice a year.
◦ 2) MIDDLE LATITUDE ZONES: The zone extending between 23 ½ O and 66 ½ O latitudes in both the
hemisphere is called the mid-latitude zone. The northern hemisphere receives the maximum energy
during the summer solstice and minimum energy during the winter solstice. The situation is reversed in
the southern hemisphere. All the places or receive energy throughout the year but the seasonal variation
increases with increasing latitudes.
◦ 3) HIGH LATITUDE ZONES: The region extending beyond 66 ½ O north and south latitude is called the
high latitude region. It is also called the polar region. Every place receives the maximum and minimum
insolation once a year but there are some places where insolation is absent for some days. The number of
absent days of solar insolation increasestowards the pole.

Seasonal variation of insolation

Solstice
◦ On 21st June, the northern hemisphere is tilted towards the sun. The rays of the sun fall directly on
the Tropic of Cancer. As a result, these areas receive more heat.The areas near the poles receive less heat
as the rays of the sun are slanting.
◦ The north pole is inclined towards the sun and the places beyond the Arctic Circle experience continuous
daylight for about six months.Since a large portion of the northern hemisphere is getting light from the
sun, it is summer in the regions north of the equator. The longest day and the shortest night at these
places occur on 21st June.
◦ At this time in the southern hemisphere all these conditions are reversed. It is winter season there. The
nights are longer than the days. This position of the earth is called the summer solstice.
◦ On 22nd December, the Tropic of Capricorn receives direct rays of the sun as the south pole tilts towards
it. As the sun’s rays fall vertically at the Tropic of Capricorn (23½° s), a larger portion of the southern
hemisphere gets light. Therefore, it is summer in the southern hemisphere with longer days and shorter
nights. The reverse happens in the northern hemisphere. This position of the earth is called the winter
solstice.

Equinox
◦ On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the sun fall on the equator. At this position, neither of
the poles is tilted towards the sun; so, the whole earth experiences equal days and equal nights. This is
called an equinox.
◦ On 23rd September, it is autumn season [season after summer and before the beginning of winter] in
the northern hemisphere and spring season [season after winter and before the beginning of
summer] in the southern hemisphere. The opposite is the case on 21st March, when it is spring in the
northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere.
◦ Thus, you find that there are days and nights and changes in the seasons because of the rotation and
revolution of the earth respectively.
◦ Rotation === Days and Nights.
◦ Revolution === Seasons.
Temperature
◦ The interaction of insolation with the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat which is measured
in terms of temperature. While heat represents the molecular movement of particles comprising a
substance, the temperature is the measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a place) is.
◦ Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution
◦ The temperature of air at any place is influenced by
◦ (i) the latitude of the place;
◦ (ii) the altitude of the place;
◦ (iii) distance from the sea, the airmass circulation;
◦ (iv) the presence of warm and cold ocean currents;
◦ (v) local aspects

◦ The latitude : The temperature of a place depends on the insolation received. It has been explained
earlier that the insolation varies according to the latitude hence the temperature also varies accordingly.
◦ The altitude : The atmosphere is indirectly heated by terrestrial radiation from below. Therefore, the
places near the sea-level record higher temperature than the places situated at higher elevations. In other
words, the temperature generally decreases with increasing height. The rate of decrease of temperature
with height is termed as the normal lapse rate. It is 6.5°C per 1,000 m
◦ Distance from the sea : Another factor that influences the temperature is the location of a place with
respect to the sea. Compared to land, the sea gets heated slowly and loses heat slowly. Land heats up and
cools down quickly. Therefore, the variation in temperature over the sea is less compared to land. The
places situated near the sea come under the moderating influence of the sea and land breezes which
moderate the temperature.
◦ Air-mass and Ocean currents : Like the land and sea breezes, the passage of air masses also affects the
temperature. The places, which come under the influence of warm air-masses experience higher
temperature and the places that come under the influence of cold air masses experience low temperature.
Similarly, the places located on the coast where the warm ocean currents flow record higher temperature
than the places located on the coast where the cold currents flow.

Global distribution of temperature

◦ The global distribution of temperature can well be understood by studying the temperature distribution in
January and July. The temperature distribution is generally shown on the map with the help of isotherms.
The Isotherms are lines joining places having equal temperature. Figure 9.4 (a) and (b) show the
distribution of surface air temperature in the month of January and July.
◦ In general the effect of the latitude on temperature is well pronounced on the map, as the isotherms are
generally parallel to the latitude. The deviation from this general trend is more pronounced in January
than in July, especially in the northern hemisphere. In the
◦ northern hemisphere the land surface area is much larger than in the southern hemisphere. Hence, the
effects of land mass and the ocean currents are well pronounced.
◦ In January the isotherms deviate to the north over the ocean and to the south over the continent. This can
be seen on the North Atlantic Ocean. The presence of warm ocean currents, Gulf Stream and North
Atlantic drift, make the Northern Atlantic Ocean warmer and the isotherms bend towards the north.
◦ Over the land the temperature decreases sharply and the isotherms bend towards south in Europe. It is
much pronounced in the Siberian plain. The mean January temperature along 60° E longitude is minus
20° C both at 80° N and 50° N latitudes. The mean monthly temperature for January is over 27° C, in
equatorial oceans over 24° C in the tropics and 2° C - 0° C in the middle latitudes and –18° C to –48° C
in the Eurasian continental interior.

◦ The effect of the ocean is well pronounced in the southern hemisphere. Here the isotherms are more or
less parallel to the latitudes and the variation in temperature is more gradual than in the northern
hemisphere. The isotherm of 20° C, 10° C, and 0° C runs parallel to 35° S, 45° S and 60° S latitudes
respectively.
◦ In July the isotherms generally run parallel to the latitude. The equatorial oceans record warmer
temperature, more than 27°C. Over the land more than 30°C is noticed in the subtropical continental
region of Asia, along the 30° N latitude. Along the 40° N runs the isotherm of 10° C and along the 40° S
the temperature is 10° C
Temperature inversion
◦ Meaning
◦ Under normal conditions, temperature usually decreases with increase in altitude in the
troposphere at a rate of 1 degree for every 165 metres. This is called normal lapse
rate.
◦ But on some occasions, the situations get reversed and temperature starts increasing
with height rather than decreasing. This is called temperature inversion.
◦ Temperature inversion: It is a reversal of the normal behavior of temperature in the
troposphere. Under this meteorological phenomenon a layer of warm air lies over the
cold air layer.
◦ It is caused in stac atmospheric conditions while some times, it occurs due
to horizontal or vertical movement of air.
◦ Temperature inversion is usually of short duration but quite common nonetheless.
◦
Favourable Conditions for Temperature
Inversion
◦ Long winter nights: Loss of heat by terrestrial radiation from the ground surface during night may
exceed the amount of incoming solar radiation.
◦ Cloudless and clear sky: Loss of heat through terrestrial radiation proceeds more rapidly without any
obstruction.
◦ Dry air near the ground surface: It limits the absorption of the radiated heat from the Earth’s surface.
◦ Slow movement of air: It results in no transfer or mixing of heat in the lower layers of the atmosphere.
◦ Snow covered ground surface: It results in maximum loss of heat through reflection of incoming solar
radiation.

Types of Temperature Inversion

◦ Temperature inversion occurs in several conditions ranging from ground surface to great heights. Thus
there are several kinds of temperature inversions.
◦ The following are classified on the basis of relative heights from the earth’s surface at which it occurs and
the type of air circulation:
◦ Non-Advectional
Radiation Inversion (Surface Temperature Inversion)
◦ Surface temperature inversion develops when air is cooled by contact with a colder surface until it becomes cooler
than the overlying atmosphere; this occurs most often on clear nights, when the ground cools off rapidly by
radiation. If the temperature of surface air drops below its dew point, fog may result.
◦ It is very common in the higher latitudes. In lower and middle latitudes, it occurs during cold nights and gets
destroyed during day time.
 Subsidence Inversion (Upper Surface Temperature Inversion)
◦ When a widespread layer of air descends, it is compressed and heated by the resulting increase in
atmospheric pressure, and as a result the lapse rate of temperature is reduced.
◦ The air at higher altitudes becomes warmer than at lower altitudes, producing a temperature
inversion. This type of temperature inversion is called subsidence inversion.
◦ It is very common over the northern continents in winter (dry atmosphere) and over the subtropical
oceans; these regions generally have subsiding air because they are located under large high-
pressure centers.
◦ It is also called upper surface temperature inversion because it takes place in the upper parts of the
atmosphere.
◦
◦ Advectional
Valley inversion in intermontane valley
◦ In high mountains or deep valleys, sometimes, the temperature of the lower layers of air increases
instead of decreasing with elevation along a sloping surface.
◦ Here, the surface radiates heat back to space rapidly and cools down at a faster rate than the upper
layers. As a result the lower cold layers get condensed and become heavy.
◦ The sloping surface underneath makes them move towards the bottom where the cold layer settles
down as a zone of low temperature while the upper layers are relatively warmer.
◦ This condition, opposite to normal vertical distribution of temperature, is known as Temperature
Inversion.
 Frontal or Cyclonic inversion
◦ When the warm and cold fronts meet, then the warm front rises up and being heavier the cold front sinks down. It
results in formation of Frontal Inversion.
◦ It has considerable slope, whereas other inversions are nearly horizontal. It often takes place in the temperate zone
and causes cyclonic conditions which result in the precipitation in different forms.
◦ A frontal inversion is unstable and is destroyed as the weather changes.
The relation between pressure belts and
planetary wind:
Factors affecting the air pressure
◦ There are three important factors affecting the air pressure. They are temperature of the air, altitude and
moisture. Briefly known as TAM, temperature (T), altitude (A) and Moisture (M) and rotation of
earth.
Humidity
◦ What is Humidity?
◦ Humidity is the amount of moisture or water vapour or water molecules present in the atmospheric gas.
The more water in the vapour, the higher the humidity. Humidity arises from water evaporating from
places like lakes and oceans. Warm water evaporates quickly. That’s why, you may find the most humid
regions near to warm water bodies in places like the Red Sea, the Persian Gulf, and Miami.
◦ Humidity and its types viz: specific, relative, and absolute humidity.
 Absolute Humidity
◦ The actual amount of the water vapour present in the atmosphere is known as the absolute humidity.
◦ It is the weight of water vapour per unit volume of air and is expressed in terms of grams per cubic metre.
◦ The absolute humidity differs from place to place on the surface of the earth.
◦ The ability of the air to hold water vapour depends entirely on its temperature (Warm air can hold more
moisture than cold air).

Relative Humidity
◦ The percentage of moisture present in the atmosphere as compared to its full capacity at a given
temperature is known as the relative humidity.
◦ Relative Humidity = [Actual amount of water vapor in air (absolute humidity)/humidity at saturation
point (the maximum water vapor air can hold at a given temperature)] X 100
◦ With the change of air temperature, the capacity to retain moisture increases or decreases and the relative
humidity is also affected.
◦ Relative humidity is greater over the oceans and least over the continents (absolute humidity is
greater over oceans because of greater availability of water for evaporation).
◦ The relative humidity determines the amount and rate of evaporation and hence it is an important
climatic factor.
◦ Air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be ‘saturated’. At this
temperature, the air cannot hold any additional amount of moisture. Thus, relative humidity of the
saturated air is 100%.
◦ If the air has half the amount of moisture that it can carry, then it is unsaturated and its relative humidity is
only 50%.
◦ Relative humidity can be changed in either of the two ways—
◦ By adding moisture through evaporation (by increasing absolute humidity): if moisture is added by
evaporation, the relative humidity will increase and vice versa.
◦ By changing temperature of air (by changing the saturation point): a decrease in temperature (hence,
decrease in moisture-holding capacity/decrease in saturation point) will cause an increase in relative
humidity and vice versa.

◦ Dew point
◦ The air containing moisture to its full capacity at a given temperature is said to be saturated.
◦ It means that the air at the given temperature is incapable of holding any additional amount of moisture at
that stage.
◦ The temperature at which saturation occurs in a given sample of air is known as dew point.
◦ Dew point occurs when Relative Humidity = 100%.
 Specific Humidity
◦ It is expressed as the weight of water vapour per unit weight of air.
◦ Since it is measured in units of weight (usually grams per kilogram), the specific humidity is not affected
by changes in pressure or temperature.

Effects of Humidity for( info ONLY not important )

◦ Bacteria and viruses spread easily in humid conditions because of which people often fall sick, especially from
respiratory issues. When the relative humidity goes above 60%, the viruses spread among people, and they get
ill.
◦ The rise in the moisture content of air leads to the rise in temperature because of which the evaporation rate of
sweat from our bodies slows. This slowdown leads to the following problems:
◦ 1. Overheating in our bodies
◦ 2. Exhausts easily, and
◦ 3. Consequences are lethal to health like Altered blood circulation, increased respiration rate, and sweating.
◦ 4. During humidity, higher levels of dust mites and fungi lead to allergies among people.
◦ 5. The spread of airborne chemical contaminants.
◦ 6. Detrimental to asthma sufferers.
◦
◦ What Method is Used to Determine Humidity?
◦ A hygrometer is mainly used to measure relative humidity. The basic hygrometer is a sling psychrometer
consisting of two thermometers connected by a chain and a handle.
What is a cloud?
◦ A cloud is an accumulation or grouping of tiny water droplets and ice crystals that are suspended in the
earth’s atmosphere.
◦ They are masses that consist of huge density and volume and hence it is visible to the naked eye.
◦ They play different roles in the climate system like being the bright objects in the visible part of the solar
spectrum, they efficiently reflect light to space and thereby help in the cooling of the planet.

How do Clouds form?

◦ Clouds form from water in the sky. The water may evaporate from the ground or move from other areas.
Water vapour may be invisible but it is always in the sky in some amount. Clouds form when an area of
air becomes cooler until the water vapour there condenses to liquid form. The water will condense around
dust, ice, or sea salt.
◦ What are the different types of clouds?
◦ They are classified primarily based on – their shape and their altitude.

◦ Based on shape, they are classified into three types:

◦ Cirrus
◦ Cumulus
◦ Stratus
◦ Based on their height or altitude they are classified into three types:
◦ High
◦ Middle
◦ Low
◦ 1) High Clouds
◦ They can reach above 6000 meters or 20,000 feet.
◦ They are also known as Cirrus Clouds.
◦ They are usually thin and are made up of ice.
◦ They often indicate fair weather and hence do not produce rain.
◦
◦ 2) Middle Clouds
◦ They form between 6,500 feet and cirrus level or from 2000 to 6000 meters.
◦ They are also known as “Alto” clouds.
◦ They frequently indicate an approaching storm.
◦ They may sometimes produce Virga, which is rain or snow that does not reach the ground.
◦ 3) Low Clouds
◦ They lie below 6,500 feet, which means from the surface to 2,000 meters.
◦ They are also known as Stratus Clouds.
◦ They may appear dense, dark, and rainy (or snowy) and can also be cottony white clumps interspersed
with blue sky.
◦ 4) Great Vertical Extent Clouds
◦ They are the most dramatic type.
◦ They are also known as Storm Clouds.
◦ They rise to dramatic heights, and sometimes well above the level of transcontinental jetliner flights.
 JETSTREAM
◦DEFINITION:
◦ “a strong narrow current concentrated along a quasi horizontal axis in the upper
troposphere or the stratosphere characterized by strong vertical and lateral
wind shear and featuring one or more velocity maxima is called the jet stream.”
◦ They originate due to differential heating of the earth’s surface and form at the
boundaries of adjacent air masses with significant temperature differences.
◦ The factors that influence the flow of the jet stream are the landmasses and
the Coriolis effect.

Characteristics of Jet streams

◦The circulation of Jet streams is from west to east
due to the effect of Earth rotation.
◦Generally, the circulation is observed between
poles and 20 degrees latitude in both the
hemispheres.
◦These are also called circumpolar because they
move around the poles in both the hemispheres.
◦Their circulation path on the trajectory is wavy
and meandering.
Characteristics of Jet streams
◦The maximum velocity of wind is recorded in the crest and trough
of the jet stream.
◦In winters, it flows along the southern slopes of the Himalayas and
shifts northwards in summer, flowing along the edge of the
Himalayas (early June).
◦And in late summers between July-August along the northern edge
of the Tibetan Plateau.
◦The periodic movement of the Jet Stream often indicates the onset
and subsequent withdrawal of the monsoon.
◦The northward movement of the subtropical stream is the first

◦
◦Types of Jet streams:

◦ The two major types are:

◦ The subtropical jet stream
◦ The mid-latitude or polar front jet stream

◦ Subtropical Westerly Jet stream:

◦ They move in the upper troposphere to the north of the subtropical high-pressure belt in both the
hemisphere that is above 30 degrees to 35-degree latitude.Their circulation from west to east and more
regular than the polar front jet stream.It flows through most of the year and is produced by the rotation of
the earth.
◦ Polar front Jet stream:
◦ They are formed above the convergence zone (40 degrees and 60 degrees latitude) of the surface polar
cold air mass and tropical warm air mass.The thermal gradient is steep because of the convergence of two
contrasting air masses.These move in an easterly direction and have a more variable position than the
subtropical jet
 Cyclone
◦ Cyclones are rapid inward air circulation around a low-pressure area.
◦ The air circulates in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and
clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
◦ Cyclones are usually accompanied by violent storms and bad weather.
◦ The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils of
a snake.
◦ It was coined by Henry Peddington because the tropical storms in the Bay of
Bengal and the Arabian Sea appear like coiled serpents of the sea.

How are Cyclones Formed?

◦ The formation of cyclones takes place in low-pressure areas. The vulnerability of the place where the
cyclone strikes depend on the topography, intensity and frequency of the cyclone.
◦ There are 6 factors that can be held responsible for the formation of the cyclone:
1. Ample amount of warm temperature at the surface of the sea.
2. Instability in the atmosphere.
3. How the Coriolis force is impacting the area so that low-pressure area can be created.
4. When the humidity is high in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere.
5. Disturbance in the pre-existing low-level area.
6. When the vertical wind shear is low.
◦In the above diagram, we see how cyclones are
formed.
◦The rising of warm air is shown using the
green lines while the cool air sinking is shown
using the red arrows.
◦A cyclone is formed when the warm, moist air
rises upward over the ocean. As this air moves
up, there is a formation of a low-pressure area
below.
 Classification
◦ There are two types of cyclones:

◦Tropical cyclones; and

◦Extra Tropical cyclones (also called Temperate cyclones
or middle latitude cyclones or Frontal cyclones or Wave
Cyclones).

1. Tropical cyclones develop in the region between

the Tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. They are
large-scale weather systems developing over tropical
or subtropical waters, where they get organized into

◦Tropical Cyclones
◦ Tropical cyclones are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move over to the coastal areas
bringing about large scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges.
◦ Tropical Cyclones are one of the most devastating natural calamities in the world.
◦ Tropical cyclones originate and intensify over warm tropical oceans.
◦ The conditions favourable for the formation and intensification of tropical storms are:
◦ Large sea surface with temperature higher than 27° C.
◦ Presence of the Coriolis force.
◦ Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
◦ A pre-existing weak low- pressure area or low-level-cyclonic circulation.
◦ Upper divergence above the sea level system.
◦Worldwide Terminology of Tropical Cyclones
◦They are given many names in different regions of the world – eg.they
are known as Typhoons in the China Sea and Pacific Ocean;
Hurricanes in the West Indian islands in the Caribbean Sea and Atlantic
Ocean; Tornados in the Guinea lands of West Africa and southern USA.;
Willy-willies in north-western Australia and Tropical Cyclones in the
Indian Ocean.

◦ Extratropical Cyclone :

◦Extratropical cyclones are referred to as mid-latitude depressions,

temperate cyclones, frontal depressions and wave cyclones.
◦These are active above the mid-latitudinal region between 35° and
65° latitude in both the hemispheres. The direction of movement is
from west to east and more pronounced in the winter seasons. It is in
these latitude zones the polar and tropical air masses meet and form
fronts
What is ENSO?
◦ The El-Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a periodic climatic phenomenon characterised by
fluctuations in the temperature of tropical Pacific Ocean waters in the central and eastern hemispheres.
Surface waters across a broad region of the tropical Pacific Ocean warm or cool by anywhere from 1°C to
3°C relative to normal over durations ranging from three to seven years.

Working of ENSO
◦ This alternating warming and cooling trend have a direct impact on rainfall distribution in the tropics, as
well as the weather in the United States and other areas of the world.
◦ The ENSO cycle has two extreme phases: El Nino and La Nina, with a third phase dubbed ENSO-neutral
in between.
◦ El Nino and La Nina, two natural climatic phenomena that occur in the tropical Pacific Ocean, have an
impact on weather patterns across the world.
◦ A La Nina event causes the water in the eastern Pacific Ocean to be colder than usual, whereas an El Nino
event produces warming or higher sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern tropical Pacific
Ocean.
◦ ENSO, or El Nino-Southern Oscillation, is the name given to these two phenomena when they occur
together.
 Impact of ENSO on the World
◦ The dissolved oxygen concentration of seawater is reduced during a long-term ENSO event.
◦ This encourages the creation of foul-smelling hydrogen sulphide and other gases, which blacken the “lead
paint” on ships and cause other discolourations.
◦ During El Nino, rain falls in unusually heavy amounts in some interior parts of South America, which are
ordinarily dry.
◦ The yields on the pastures and cotton fields in this area are well above average.
◦ The cooling of the Pacific seas is related to La Nina. In a La Nina year, there is usually plenty of rain and
temperatures are cooler than usual.
◦ La Nina has caused drought in Peru and Ecuador, significant floods in Australia, high temperatures in the
Western Pacific, Indian Ocean, and off the coast of Somalia, and proportionally higher monsoon rains in
India.

Impact of ENSO on India

◦ Weather and climatic patterns such as severe rainfall, floods, and drought are all influenced by ENSO. El
Nino causes global temperatures to rise, and La Nina causes global temperatures to fall. El Nino, for
example, is linked to dryness and a poor monsoon in India, whereas La Nina is linked to a robust
monsoon, above-average precipitation, and cooler winters.
◦ El Nino, which is marked by an increase in Pacific Ocean surface temperatures, is linked to lower-than-
normal monsoon rainfall in India. El Nino disrupts the flow of moisture-bearing winds from colder waters
towards India, wreaking havoc on the summer monsoon, which accounts for more than 70% of annual
precipitation.
◦ An El Nino of any severity can diminish monsoon rainfall and consequently have a big influence on the
local economy. Both the surface and deep ocean temperatures are rising, indicating that the mild El Nino
will continue for at least the next several months.
◦ The rainfall in Southeast Asia during the ‘La Nina Year’ is more than normal in northwestern India and
Bangladesh in particular. The Indian economy, which relies on the monsoon for agriculture and
industries, benefits in general.
◦ In India, it generally delivers colder winters than average. La Nina’s chilly air, which is connected with
this north-south trough, tends to spread further south towards India.
Thornthwaite Climatic Classification
◦ C. W. Thornthwaite, an American climatologist, presented his first scheme of classification of climates
of North America in 1931 when he published the climatic map of North America.
◦ Later he extended his scheme of climatic classification for world climates and presented his full
scheme in 1933.
◦ He further modified his scheme and presented the revised second scheme of classification of world
climates in 1948. In his 1948 concept; gave the potential evapotranspiration concept. His scheme is
complex and empirical in nature.
◦ In 1931, his classification looked similar to Koeppen. Like Koeppen, Thornthwaite also thought
that vegetation is the indicator of climate type.

◦ Two basic features of this classification are

◦ Precipitation Effectiveness; (P/E, where P is the total monthly precipitation and E is the total monthly
evaporation)
◦ Temperature Efficiency.
◦ On the basis of these two indicators, Thornthwaite divided the world into five humidity regions.
◦ A: Very Humid Rain Forest
◦ B: Humid Forest
◦ C: Semi Humid Grassland
◦ D: Semi-Dry Steppe
◦ E: Dry Desert
Design of Thornthwaite Climatic
Classification
◦ Thornthwaite’s design of climate classification is a combination of three letter alphabets.
◦ The first alphabet used in the major climatic classification is any one of the English capital letters
from A to E.
◦ The second letter used in the climatic classification is also an English capital alphabet superscript with
a dash. It denotes thermal provinces.
◦ The third letter in a combination of alphabets is denoted by a set of 8 small English alphabets
Based on the P/E index
◦ Based on the P/E index, Thornthwaite classified five humidity region:
◦ A: ( P/E index>128) – Wet-Rainforest.
◦ B: ( P/E Index 64 to 127) – Humid-Forest
◦ C: ( P/E index 32 to 63) – Subhumid-Grassland.
◦ D: (P/E index 16-32) – Semi Arid-Steppe
◦ E: (P/E index less than 16) – Arid-Desert
Temperature efficiency
◦ Temperature efficiency is calculated mean average temperature of through years.
◦ Based on Temperature efficiency – Thornthwaite has divided the world into six thermal provinces. They
are expressed as:
◦ A’ — tropical: (T/E index more than 128).
◦ B’ — Subtropical: (T/E index 64-127).
◦ C’ — Temperate: (T/E index 32 – 63)
◦ D‘ — Taiga: (T/E index 16-31)
◦ E’ — Tundra: (T/E index 1-15).
◦ F’ — Frost: (T/E index 0).

◦ On the basis of the distribution of seasonal rainfall the above types of humidity regions were further
divided into the following subdivisions:
◦ r = Heavy rainfall in all seasons
◦ s = Scarcity of rainfall in the summer season
◦ w = Scarcity of rainfall in the winter season
◦ d = Scarcity of rainfall in all seasons