UNIT -I

Meaning and scope of climatology; Composition and structure of atmosphere;

Insolation; Heat budget of the earth

Climatology is a scientific discipline that focuses on the study of climate, including its patterns,
variations, and long-term changes. It encompasses various aspects of Earth's climate system,
including the atmosphere, oceans, land surfaces, ice, and their interactions. By investigating
past, present, and future climates, climatology provides valuable insights into the complex
dynamics and processes that govern weather patterns and climate phenomena.

Meaning of Climatology:

Climatology is compounded of two Greek words, klima + logos; klima means slope of the
earth, and logos means a discourse of study. Here slope of the earth refers to our conception of
latitude. According to Critchfield, climatology is the science that seeks to describe and explain
the nature of climate, how it differs from place to place, and how it is related to man’s activities.

Climatology, as the study of climate, seeks to understand the prevailing atmospheric conditions
and weather patterns in a specific region or over a particular time period. It goes beyond short-
term weather forecasting and focuses on long-term trends and averages. By analyzing climate
data, climatologists aim to identify patterns, cycles, and anomalies to enhance our
understanding of the Earth's climate system.

Scope of Climatology:

1. Climate Classification and Zoning: Climatology involves the classification and

zoning of different climatic regions across the globe. By considering factors such as
temperature, precipitation, atmospheric pressure, and wind patterns, climatologists
delineate climate zones, such as tropical, temperate, arid, and polar regions. This
classification aids in characterizing and comparing various climates and understanding
the factors that influence them.
2. Climate Data Analysis and Observation: Climatology heavily relies on the collection
and analysis of climate data. Observational data, including temperature, rainfall, wind
speed, and solar radiation, are obtained from meteorological stations, weather satellites,
and other monitoring systems. Climatologists use statistical techniques to analyze and
interpret this data, identify trends, and detect changes over time.
3. Climate Modeling and Simulation: To gain a deeper understanding of climate
processes and make predictions, climatologists develop mathematical models and
computer simulations. These models simulate the behavior of the atmosphere, oceans,
land surfaces, and other components of the climate system. By incorporating physical
laws and feedback mechanisms, these models help explore various climate scenarios,
project future climate changes, and assess their potential impacts.
4. Climate Change and Variability: Climatology plays a critical role in studying climate
change and variability. Climatologists investigate natural and human-induced factors
that contribute to changes in Earth's climate system. This includes studying greenhouse
gas emissions, deforestation, land use changes, and other human activities that
influence the climate. By analyzing historical climate records and utilizing climate
models, climatologists assess the extent of climate change, its causes, and the potential
consequences for ecosystems, societies, and economies.
5. Paleoclimatology and Historical Climate Reconstruction: Climatologists also delve
into paleoclimatology, the study of ancient climates and past climate changes. By
examining natural archives such as ice cores, tree rings, sediment cores, and coral
records, scientists can reconstruct past climate conditions and investigate long-term
climate variability. This historical perspective provides valuable insights into natural
climate cycles, such as ice ages, and aids in understanding the baseline against which
current and future climate changes can be compared.
6. Climate Impact and Risk Assessment: Climatology is crucial for assessing the
impacts and risks associated with climate change. By combining climate models, socio-
economic data, and ecological information, climatologists evaluate the potential
consequences of climate change on ecosystems, agriculture, water resources, public
health, and infrastructure. This assessment helps inform adaptation strategies, disaster
preparedness, and policy decisions aimed at mitigating climate-related risks.
7. Applied Climatology: Climatology finds practical applications in various fields. For
example, agricultural climatology studies the relationships between climate and
agriculture, helping farmers optimize crop selection, planting schedules, and irrigation
strategies. Urban climatology focuses on the impact of climate on cities, including heat
islands, air quality, and energy demands. Climatology is also relevant to sectors such as
transportation, tourism, renewable energy, and natural resource management.
8. Climate Policy and International Agreements: Climatology plays a significant role
in shaping climate policy and international agreements. The Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change (IPCC), comprised of climate scientists and experts, assesses
scientific findings and provides policymakers with essential information about climate
change. This scientific guidance influences global climate agreements, such as the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Paris
Agreement, which aim to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and address climate
change impacts.

In summary, climatology is a multidisciplinary field that investigates Earth's climate

system and its various components. By analyzing climate data, developing models, and
conducting research, climatology provides valuable insights into climate patterns,
change, and variability. This knowledge is crucial for understanding the past, present,
and future of our climate, informing decision-making, and developing strategies to
mitigate and adapt to climate change.
 Composition and structure of atmosphere

Introduction
The Earth's atmosphere plays a vital role in supporting life and influencing our planet's
climate. It atmosphere is a mixture of many gaseous and contains huge numbers of solid and
liquid particles, collective called aerosols. The atmospheric pressure at the sea level is 1034
gram per cm2 .

Composition of the Atmosphere:

The Earth's atmosphere is primarily composed of gases, suspended particles, and water
vapor. The three major components of dry air are nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), and argon
(0.93%). These gases, collectively known as permanent gases, form the bulk of the atmosphere
and are crucial for supporting life processes.
Apart from the permanent gases, the atmosphere contains variable components. Carbon
dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), ozone (O3), and water vapor (H2O) are among the most
significant trace gases in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, has increased due
to human activities, contributing to global warming and climate change. Methane, another
potent greenhouse gas, is primarily emitted from agricultural activities and fossil fuel
extraction. Ozone, though present in small amounts, plays a vital role in filtering harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation in the stratosphere.
Particulate matter suspended in the atmosphere includes dust, pollen, soot, and aerosols.
These particles have diverse sources, both natural and anthropogenic, and can influence air
quality, weather patterns, and climate. Aerosols, for instance, can act as cloud condensation
nuclei, affecting cloud formation and precipitation processes.

Structure of the Atmosphere:

The Earth's atmosphere is divided into distinct layers based on variations in temperature
with increasing altitude. The troposphere, closest to the Earth's surface, extends up to an
average altitude of about 10-15 kilometers. This layer contains most of the atmospheric mass,
water vapor, and weather phenomena. The troposphere experiences a decrease in temperature
with height, known as the lapse rate, which is essential for convection and cloud formation.
Above the troposphere lies the stratosphere, extending from the tropopause to
approximately 50 kilometers. Unlike the troposphere, the temperature in the stratosphere
increases with height due to the presence of the ozone layer. Ozone molecules absorb UV
radiation from the sun, causing the temperature to rise. This layer acts as a protective shield
against harmful UV rays, preventing them from reaching the Earth's surface.
Beyond the stratosphere, the mesosphere extends to about 85 kilometers. Temperatures
in this layer decrease with height, reaching extremely low levels. The mesosphere is crucial for
the study of meteors and other high-altitude phenomena.
The thermosphere, extending up to 600 kilometers, experiences an increase in
temperature with altitude due to the absorption of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) radiation. This
layer contains the ionosphere, where ionization of atmospheric gases occurs, enabling the
propagation of radio waves and influencing global communication systems.
The exosphere is the outermost layer, stretching into space. It consists of sparse gas
molecules that can escape into the vacuum of space due to their high kinetic energy. The
exosphere merges with the magnetosphere, where interactions with Earth's magnetic field and
solar wind are significant.

Significance for Climate and Human Activities:

Understanding the composition and structure of the atmosphere is crucial for comprehending
climate processes and assessing the impact of human activities. Greenhouse gases, such as
carbon dioxide and methane, trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to the greenhouse effect and
global warming. Human activities, including the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation, have
significantly increased the concentrations of these gases, contributing to climate change.
The ozone layer in the stratosphere plays a critical role in protecting life on Earth from harmful
UV radiation. Depletion of ozone due to human-made substances, such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), led to the formation of the Antarctic ozone hole. International efforts, like the Montreal
Protocol, have successfully reduced the production and consumption of ozone-depleting
substances, aiding in the recovery of the ozone layer.
The composition of the atmosphere also influences air quality, with pollutants such as nitrogen
oxides (NOx), sulfur dioxide (SO2), and particulate matter significantly impacting human
health and ecosystems. Understanding the sources, transport, and chemical reactions of these
pollutants is crucial for effective air pollution management strategies.
Additionally, knowledge of the atmospheric structure allows us to study weather patterns and
atmospheric circulation. Variations in temperature, pressure, and moisture in different
atmospheric layers drive the formation of weather systems, such as cyclones, hurricanes, and
monsoons. Monitoring atmospheric conditions and their changes over time aids in weather
prediction and climate modeling, contributing to disaster preparedness and mitigation efforts.
Conclusion (approximately 100 words) The composition and structure of the Earth's
atmosphere play a vital role in shaping climate processes and supporting life. From the
composition of gases and suspended particles to the distinct layers and their interactions, the
atmosphere's complexity requires thorough understanding. This knowledge is fundamental for
addressing climate change, air pollution, and weather forecasting. As college professors and
students in climatology, it is our responsibility to continue exploring and researching the
atmosphere to gain insights into the intricate dynamics of our planet's life-sustaining blanket

Heat budget of the earth

INCOMING SHORTWAVES solar radiation
The earth receives most of its energy from the sun through shortwave solar radiation. The
solar energy radiated towards the earth’s surface is taken as 100% or 100 units. Out of the
total incoming solar radiation entering the earth’s atmosphere 35% is sent back to space
through scattering by dust particles (6%), reflection from the clouds (27%) and from the
ground surface (2%), 51% is received by the earth’s surface (received as direct radiation), and
14% is absorbed by the atmospheric gases (ozone, oxygen etc) and water vapour in different
vertical zones of the atmosphere. The 51% solar energy received by the earth comprises 34%
as direct solar radiation and 17% as diffuse day light. The heat budget of the atmosphere
comprises 48% of solar radiation wherein 14% is received as through absorption of the short
wave incoming solar radiation and 34% is received from the outgoing long wave terrestrial
radiation.
OUTGOING LONGWAVE terrestrial radiation and heat balance
After receiving energy from the sun the atmosphere also radiated energy out of its surface
into the atmosphere through long waves. The terrestrial radiation is also called ‘effective
radiation’ because it helps in heating the lower portion of the atmosphere. 23% energy (out
of the 51% energy which the earth has gained from the sun) is lost through direct longwave
outgoing terrestrial radiation out of which 6% is absorbed by the atmosphere and 17% goes
directly to space. About 9% of the terrestrial energy is spent in convection and turbulence and
19% is spent through evaporation which is added to the atmosphere as latent heat of
condensation. Thus, the total energy received by the atmosphere from the sun (14%) and
earth (34%) becomes 48% which is reradiated to the space in one way or the other.
Terrestrial Heat Balance
Energy received Energy lost
51% (i) 23 through radiation
(ii) 9% through convection and turbulence
(iii) 19% through evaporation
Total = 51%

Atmospheric Heat balance

Energy received Energy lost
(i) 14% through absorption of
Incoming solar radiation
(ii) 6% through effective radiation 48% through radiation into the space
From the earth
(iii) 9% through convection
And turbulence from the earth
(iv) 19% through evaporation
Total = 48%

Energy sent back to space= 35%+17% (through radiation from the earth)+ 48% (through
radiation from the atmosphere)= 100

Short wave solar radiation Long wave terrestrial radiation

-6% (space) Total solar radiation = 100% -17 -48

(Space)

-2%

-27% +9 +19%
Radiation from the Earth
Reflected from the Earth
Reflected from the Earth

Turbulence
clou
Scattered Radiation

+14 Evaporation
radiation
Direct

Convection

Absorption

+17% Received as + 34% Received through -23 -9 -19

diffuse day light direct radiation

Fig. Radiation or heat balance of the earth and the atmosphere.

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KEY WORDS

HEAT The energy that we received from the sun is in the form of light and heat.
Budget is the total of income and expenditure.
The energy that we received from the sun is in the form of short wave and the reflected outgoing
terrestrial radiation is in the form of long waves.
RADIATION is the process of transmission of energy from one body to another without the aid of a
material medium- solid, liquid or gas. Through this process of the transfer of heat, there is no warming
of the medium.
Shorter the waves higher the frequency, short wavelengths are more energetic than long wavelengths.

Conduction: The transfer of heat through a material without the movement of the material itself.
It occurs due to the collision and vibration of molecules.

Advection: The transfer of heat or matter by the flow of a fluid (such as air or water). It involves
the physical movement of the fluid carrying heat or particles with it.

References

Singh Savindra: Physical Geography, Prayag Pustak Bhawan, Allahabad

Lal D.S : Fundamentals of Climatology, Chitanya Publishing House, Allahabad.