NOTE TAKING

Note taking is act of jotting down the main points of a lecture in order to help the
student in reading, recalling and evaluating the contents of the note at a letter stage.

Note taking is done by the student while the lecture is going on.

Note taking is different from dictation. It is initiated by the student because it is

useful for research, reference, and examination.

`NOTE MAKING
Note making has to do with reading in a text with a view to obtaining a good
understanding of the material so that the ideas are documented for easy recall
during tests and examinations.

Reading and making notes are concurrent actions, requiring physical,

psychological and mental preparedness.

In the process of reading, main ideas are identified, supporting detail and the
structure are marked off, and the major divisions and sub-divisions are jotted
down.

Note taking and note making are related in that they involve jotting down of the
main ideas/points in a learning process. However, they differ in terms of the
sources of the note. Note taking is form oral discourse (lecture) while note making
is form written discourse.

SKILLS INVOLVED IN NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

In note taking/making, some essential skills are required. These skills include:

i. Attentive listening to a lecture

ii. Active and constructive reading of a written text.
 iii. Recognizing/understanding the major divisions of a lecture/text.
iv. Distinguishing the major points from supporting from supporting details.
v. Recognizing/understanding digressions/explanation.
vi. Using intelligible abbreviations and symbols.
vii. Summarizing the content of a lecture/text in a useful outline for mat.
viii. Encoding the content of a lecture/text in graphic form.

TECHNIQUES FOR NOTE TAKING AND NOTE MAKING

Note taking and note making demand the utilization of certain useful techniques.
These techniques include:

i. Using outlines
ii. Using abbreviations
iii. Using symbols
iv. Using diagram/charts
Using outlines
An outline is a formal and sketchy statement of the content of a discourse to be
written.it is a graphic writing containing the outlay of an oral or written discourse
for fast and effective reading and revision.

There are two kinds of outline:

The sentence outline: this is written in complete sentences.

The topic outline: this is made in phrases.

Using abbreviations
Note taking and Note making involve the use of abbreviations to allow for brevity
and fast writing to be able to follow a talk as it is being delivered. There are three
main abbreviations:
 i. Conventional abbreviations – e,g, i.e, NB, etc, no, Km, Cm
ii. Subject abbreviations – Co2, H2o
iii. Personal abbreviations – this varies according to an individual
Note: for personal abbreviations, an index of their full meanings should be
placed at the end of the note for easy reference.

Using symbols

Symbols are also used in note-taking/making. Most of the symbols are

mathematical signs.

They contain a variety of meanings. Some of them include:

Plus +

Minus –

Identical with, equal =

Not equal ≠

Greater than >

Less than <

At @

Diagrams/charts

These are visuals which show relations among the items in given information in a
text. They also supplement information provided in a text.
 An example of a diagram is presented below:

USE OF ENGLISH

ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES

LISTENING FOR SPEAKING FOR READING FOR WRITING FOR

ACADEMIC ACADEMIC ACADEMIC ACADEMIC
PURPOSES PURPOSES PURPOSES PURPOSES

READING
Reading is one of the four basic languages/communication skills. The others are
listening, speaking and writing.

MEANING OF READING
Reading is the ability or process of recognizing written codes or symbols and
assigning meaning to them. It is a receptive language skill being that when we
read, we receive information or knowledge; it is however, an active exercise that
requires high mental alertness and concentration; it is a cognitive/psychological
process that involves word recognition. The first step in and a major component of
reading process is word recognition.

Word recognition is the act of identifying words in print and being able to give
meaning to them. It is the ability of the reader to recognize written words through
letters within words. Reading requires the active involvement of the mind for
comprehension.
Comprehension means that what is read is understood and has become a part of the
body of knowledge the reader has come to possess. The ability of the reader to
retain or store up or remember what has been comprehended or understood.

PURPOSE OF READING
People have many different purposes for reading. Some of them include the
following:

1. To learn
2. To gain general knowledge
3. To get specific piece of information
4. To keep up with current issues
5. To entertain oneself or for relaxation
6. To study for examination
7. To carry out researches or conduct experiment

TYPES OF READING
The following are some of the types of reading. They include:

i. Intensive reading
ii. Extensive reading
iii. Critical reading
iv. Recreational reading
 INTENSIVE READING
Intensive reading is the close study of a reading material such as a textbook on any
subject, a journal article, a novel, etc. it is reading that is done for the in-depth
understanding of what is read. The reader pay close attention to details and the
accuracy of facts and opinions. Intensive reading usually refers to the reading of
books on subjects in your discipline or field of study because when you read
textbooks and other written materials in your course of study. Intensive reading is
very important to every student who must achieve academic goals. Students have
to acquire and put into practice relevant reading skills to achieve those goals.

EXTENSIVE READING
This is the types of reading of written materials outside one’s discipline. It is the
type of reading we engage in when we read newspapers, magazines, fiction as well
as books in fields of study other than our own. It simply means to read widely.
Extensive reading is as important to the student as intensive reading: Extensive
reading exposes the reader to a wide variety of reading materials; it broadens
his/her knowledge; It increases his/her reading speed; it gives him/her pleasure;
and it develops his/her vocabulary.

CRITICAL READING
Critical reading is where one reads with the intention of evaluating the view point
of the writer, his/her use of facts, opinions and his/her prejudices about the subject-
matters. The critical reader wants to know why the author takes a certain
viewpoint, wants to differentiate between facts and opinions and compares his/her
viewpoints or prejudices with the authors own. Critical reading is part of intensive
reading.
 RECREATIONAL READING
This is simply reading for pleasure. It is the type of reading we engage in at our
leisure. It involves reading story books, newspapers, magazines, thrillers and such
materials. It gives the reader a number of advantages just like the other types of
reading. The reader gains general knowledge develops proficiency in the language
and builds up self-confidence. A recreational reading is a part of extensive reading.

READING TECHNIQUES
We can apply certain steps or techniques in reading a text. The popular reading
technique is the SQ3\R technique which requires that one does not jump into
reading of a text without first taking some preliminary steps. It is the step taken
that the abbreviation SQ3R stands for. The meaning is given below.

S stands for survey

Q stands for question

R stands for read

R stands for recall

R stands for review

1. The survey step is the first one to be taken in the reading of text that we have
just come across. To survey a new text is to take a quick look at some parts
of the text such as its title, name of the author, its table of content for
headings and sub-headings, a few lines of its introduction. During this gives
the reader a general idea of what the text is about and prepares his/her mind
about what to find in the text surveying involves a fast reading speed
because at the stage the reader pays no attention to details; he/she merely
glance for the general knowledge.
2. The question steps requires that the reader, now having a general idea about
the text, should raise relevant questions in his/her mind about the possible
direction of the view point, argument. Opinion or information to be found in
the text. For example, one can ask, ‘’what is the author going to say about
the subject matter?,’’ ‘’what do I know about the subject matter?’’ etc. The
general question one asks can make one mentally alert as one begins to read
properly.
3. Reading stage: the reader now take time to read the text. At this stage,
attention should be paid to both main points and details. Also, the reader
should adopt good attitudes that will enhance concentration and
comprehension. These include taking a good reading position, adopting a
good reading speed, cleaning the mind of distractions and choosing a quite
environment.
4. The recall stage: after a close study of the text, it is very important to do a
recall of the main points of the text. To do this, the reader should close the
text and try to remember the key issues the author has discussed in the
readers own words. If the reader has understood the view points of the
author, he should use his own words express those viewpoints. He/she
should summarize them without paying attention to the details. Trying to
recall the points in the author’s words is what we popularly refer to as
cramming which is not reliable.
5. The last step is the review. At this stage, the reader goes back to the text to
view again to ascertain what he/she has been able to recall. He/she opens the
text and glances through for specific information or main points that have
been recalled. The exercise reinforce memory retention.
Other reading techniques that have been proposed for students to adopts
are the OKHR and PQRST techniques.
The OKHR stands for:
O- Overview; K-Keywords; R-Read; R-Re-Read; R-Recall; R-Review.
The PQRST Stands for:
P- preview; Q- question R-read; S-summarize; T- test.
These are not so different from the SQ3R technique. Survey, overview and
preview mean the same thing all aimed at getting a general idea before the
close reading.
Students/readers are highly encouraged to adopt these steps in their reading
tasks. If they select any of the technique and follow the steps religiously,
they will discover their comprehension levels improving much.
READING SPEED
We can adopt different reading speed for different reading purposes.
However, it is advised that we should be able to read at least 200 words per
minutes (WPM). This means we can and should read much faster than a
mere 200 wpm as the need arises. Different reading speed are normal speed,
study speed rapid (Fast) speed. At a normal speed, a good reader makes
between 250 and 400 Wpm. The speed is adopted when one read under
normal air circumstances without being under any pressure or obligation,
like where one read in the course of the semester before examination at a
study speed, between 200 and WPM can be read. This is where text is being
read closely for test or examination purpose. At a rapid speed, between
400and 600 WPM can be read. This is adopted when one read for pleasure
or what he is already familiar with.
 THE GOOD/ EFFICIENT READER
The efficient reader is one who exhibits the following qualities as he/she
Read:
1. CONCENTRATION: he/she is well able to pay close attention to he/she
tasks. He is not distracted by physical or non-physical noise. He chooses a
conducive reading environment and does not allow his/her mind to stray
during reading
2. MENTAL ALERTNESS: he/she has a sharp mind that enables him/her to
follow the train of thought of the write. Hi is also able to aritically evaluate
the view points of the writer in relation to what he already knows or head
before,
3. SPEED: he/she reads at a good speed of between 200and600 WPM. The
efficient reader does not read slowly knowing that reading slowly equally
.8
Times you can make out the meaning of some strange word from the way
they have been used with the words whose meaning you know.
SKIMING AND SCANNING
These are fast reading speeds. A reader adopts them at different stages
reading and for different purpose.
SKIMMING: is a very reading speed. It is the process of glancing/reading
very quickly through a text which you have come across for the first time in
order to get a gist of the text, to know what the text is generally above to see
organization of the text and survey or overview or preview of the text.
SKIMMING: is also a very reading speed. It is to read quickly through a
text that you are fairly familiar with in order to locate a certain piece of
information. In scanning, the read con go to specific parts of the text to
 retrieve the information being sought because he/she had read the text as a
whole previously.
MEANING OF DICTIONATY
The dictionary is not a reading text. It is a reference text. That means that
one should use the dictionary to refer, to find out a specific piece of
information. From time to time, one comes across difficult word cannot
make meaning of even though effort is made to do so. In such cases, the
dictionary comes in handy. However, it is necessary to use the dictionary for
the confirmation of certain information about words.
USES OF THE DICTIONARY
The uses of the dictionary include the following
1. To find the measure and usage of word
2. To find the spelling of word
3. To find the pronunciation of word
4. To find the part of speech of word
5. To find the tense forms of word
6. To find the syllabification of word
7. To find the stress pattern of words
8. To find the etymology of word
9. To find the collocation of words.
Shows down comprehension.
4. FLEXIBILITY: flexible about speed about at which he/she reads and so
adjusts. Reading speed to reading purpose. He/she reads different texts for
different purposes and at different speeds.
5. MEANING CONSTRUCTION: the different reader reads meaning in a
text rather than just reads words. His/her looks for key or main points and
does not waste his /her time looking for meaning of individual words.
6. COMPREHENSION AND RETENTION: the efficient reader gains high
comprehension levels and retains what has been understood.
7. SILENT READING: He/she does not say out the words of the text being
read but quickly recognizes them in his/her mind. He/her has good word
recognition ability and so, does not waste time trying to say words in order
to recognize them.

BAD READING HABITS TO BEHAVOIDED

The following are reading habits to be avoided:
1. Head movement: do not move your head about as you read, keep it in
place. It is your eyes that should make few movements taking in words in
groups at a time.
2. Vocalization/ sub- vocalization: do not say the words of the text you are
reading aloud or even murmur them. To say them aloud is to vocalize, to
murmur them is to sub- vocalize. Both habits slow down speed reduce
comprehension.
3. Finger-printing: do not point your finger at the words in the text you are
reading. It makes you want to read every word of the text whereas you
should pay attention to content words that convey the meaning of the
text. Keep your head still and let your eyes move in fixations reading the
words in groups.
4. Back-skipping/regression: do not read backward, read forward. To
back-skip means to go back to a line of the text you read already because
you think you have not understood the point.
 To regress is also to go back to a line of the text already read. Back-skipping
is a conscious act whereas regression is an unconscious act. Both of them are
the result of lack of concentration.

5. Unnecessary use of the dictionary: do not interrupt the flow of your

thought by going to the dictionary to look up every difficult word you
come across as you read. Many

LANGUAGE

Preamble:

Language is a nation most obvious and most important attribute.

There is no such thing as common linguistic basis. Language is of much

importance to man than anything. Man employs language such that this thoughts,
wishes and communication are realized through it.

Language to man is indispensable.

DEFINITIONS OF LANGUAGE
Bolinger (1975) defines language as: “a system of vocal auditory communication,
interacting with the experiences of its users, employing conventional signs
composed of arbitrary patterned sound units and assembled according to set rules”.

Block and Trager (1986) defined language as “a system of arbitrary vocal

symbols by means of which a social group cooperates”.

Quirk (1962) defines language as: “a human instrument of expression through

sound as released by the vocal cords”.
Gimbson (1984) sees language as a system of conventional signal used for
communication by a whole community.

Burchielf (1989:36) defines language as: “any of the numerous system of

precisely defined symbols and rules for using them in representing instructions and
data”.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE

1. It is biological innate: language is acquired as the child grows from

childhood without anybody teaching the. It is an acquired behaviour from
generation to generation.
2. It is conventional: all human language is codified. They have a code, a kind
of unspoken or unwritten public agreement by the community which uses
the language that certain things should be done in certain ways. In other
word, every language has a grammar, this means the description of the ways
in which the language use pattern of structure to convey meaning.
3. It is dynamic: language is subject to change from generation to generation.
All languages are creative and open ended. This means that new words can
come in to being and some die out. This change is sometimes fast 0r slow,
radical or superficial but it goes on all the times.
4. It is complex and systematic : language has multiple structures to enable it
communicate infinite number message, made up of small number of vocal
singles.
5. It is culture bound: A group of people constituting a community can develop
their own language in term of signs or codes which they all agree to. This is
responsible for the different languages in the world
6. It is unique: Every language is unique to its speakers. Although there may be
historical linkages of one language to the other but we still find some
peculiarities that can distinguish one language from the other.
7. It is creative: it can be used in creating imaginary situations as in literary
work as well as capable of being used to communicate different experiences
in different situations.
8. It is arbitrary/ non-arbitrary: this is to say that there no scientific explanation
as to why a particular object is called, for instance a stone should be called a
stone why and how? But people just agree among themselves and use it like
that giving arbitrary names to object, things, places and concepts e.t.c is
common or peculiar to all languages.
9. Language species specific: it is only human beings that use language. This
mark the sharp difference between human beings and animals in
communication process.
10. The medium of language is a system of speech sound: this is to say
language is vocalization. Meaningful and organized noise / sound is
verbalized. It is therefore feature of all human beings.

THE FUNCTION OF LANGUAGE

1. It Function as a vehicle of transmitting man’s culture and societal norms and
values from the older to the younger generations so as to succeed in
perpetuating that particular culture.
2. Language enables its speakers to relate to their environment, to describe and
identify natural and cultural objects and to organized and co-ordinates their
activities.
3. It plays an immense role in civilization of any society. Every society that has
developed a civilization in human history, has hinged this on language.
4. We use language to express ideas. Language is a way of “Expressing one’s
fastidiousness, elegance and imaginativeness”. It is clear that language is an
indispensable tool for man to communicate his feelings, ideas and desires.
5. It plays an immense role in the transmission of knowledge. Whether it is
done orally or in written form, language is involved.
6. It unites people together. People’s language is their pride because it is that
which gives them their oneness, their uniqueness and their identity. In fact,
language cannot therefore be divorced from people. Thus, without a
language there will be no people. It is one of the factors that determine
ethnicity.
7. Language plays a vital role in the development of science and technology.
It is the surest and fastest means through which every technological break-
through is made available to society. Technological advancement will be
impossible if students lacks the communication skills to undertake
specialized training in science and technology throughout the ages, language
communication has been an important instrument in the propagation and
development of technological ideas.
8. The political life of society of man cannot function without the use of
language. Language is the standard bearer and slogan spreader of political
ideals. Language age has hidden powers to stimulate political action. One of
the goals of politician is to persuade their audience of the validity of the
politician’s basic claims and this can be done through the use of language to
achieve this basic end.
9. The dramatic function is another role of language. It is the ability of
language to cure people of their problems, pains, worries and fears.
Language is therefore seen as a tension receiver because it serves as a means
 of diffusing tension from the human worlds which is full of worries and its
problem into the world which is full of worthy experience.
10.Language is used for ritualistic purposes, magical use of words, spells and
religious life. It is the only means by which man prays to God. It is generally
held that God Almighty has endowed man with the mental ability to use
language in order praise him.
THE ROLE/USES OF ENGLISH IN NIGERIA
English Language occupies a uniquely dominant position in Nigeria.
It is not only for learning but also for living. It is basic to the life and
function of the country that it can be easily referred to as one of the major
Nigerian languages. It takes a pride of place in the educational system of
Nigeria. It has remained as one of the strong legacies of our colonial past
and the veritable link with outside world.