MR'S TAHSEEN’S LEARNING SYSTEM

Geography
1.1

Pakistan lies in a temperate zone and its climate is as varied as the country's
topography—generally dry and hot near the coast and along the lowland plains of
the Indus River, and becoming progressively cooler in the northern uplands and
Himalayas.
 Pakistan is located in South Asia, sharing borders with several countries:

To the northwest, it shares a border with Afghanistan.

To the north, it shares a border with China.
To the northeast, it shares a border with India.
To the east, it shares a border with India and touches the Arabian Sea.
To the southwest, it shares a border with Iran.
Pakistan's geographical coordinates are approximately between 24° and 37° N
latitude and 60° and 77° E longitude. Its strategic location places it at the
crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East.

Climate: Climate refers to the long-term patterns of temperature, humidity,

precipitation, wind, and other atmospheric conditions in a particular region.
Climate is determined by factors such as latitude, altitude, proximity to large
bodies of water, and topography. Climate classifications include tropical,
subtropical, temperate, continental, polar, etc.

Biomes: Biomes are large geographical areas characterized by certain climates and
ecosystems. They are typically defined by the predominant vegetation and adapted
animal life. Common biomes include forests (such as tropical, temperate, and
boreal forests), grasslands, deserts, tundra, aquatic (including freshwater and
marine biomes), and chaparral.

Each biome has unique characteristics:

Tropical Rainforest: Found near the equator, with high temperatures and rainfall.
Rich biodiversity.

Temperate Deciduous Forest: Moderate temperatures with distinct seasons,

characterized by trees that shed their leaves in the fall.

Taiga (Boreal Forest): Found in colder northern regions, dominated by coniferous

trees.

Desert: Low precipitation, high temperatures during the day, and cooler
temperatures at night.

Grasslands (Savanna, Prairie, Steppe): Dominated by grasses rather than large

trees, with varying levels of precipitation.

Tundra: Found in polar regions, with very cold temperatures, permafrost, and low
vegetation.
 Aquatic Biomes: Include freshwater (lakes, rivers, wetlands) and marine (oceans,
coral reefs) ecosystems, each with its own characteristics based on factors like
salinity, depth, and temperature.

Understanding the location, climate, and biomes of a region is crucial for studying
its ecology, biodiversity, and environmental processes.
What is weather and climate?
Ans: Daily atmospheric condition of an area is called weather. 30 years of average
weather conditions of an area is called climate.
Topic: Monsoon Winds.
Q Explain why the monsoon winds develop? (4)
Ans: During summer low air pressure is developed over Pakistan. While high air
pressure prevails over sea (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea) so moist
(humid/wet) wind from Indian Ocean and Arabian Sea blow towards land to fulfill
the low air pressure. Wind from Indian Ocean reaches Pakistan after crossing
India called primary monsoon. Monsoon winds from Arabian Sea are called
secondary Monsoon which causes less rain. These winds cause rain from July to
September. The amount of rain decreases from northern area to Southern areas.
Q Explain the importance of the arrival of the monsoon to people who live and
work in urban areas. (4) J 2011
Ans: Benefits: Climate became pleasant provide better living and working
conditions. Reduce air pollution and dust from atmosphere. Provide water for
drinking, gardens and live stock.
Problems: May cause flooding, harms property. People cannot reach working place
due to heavy rain so decreases production of country.
Q Three types of rain is experienced in Pakistan monsoon, depression and
convection. (I) explain why rising air is needed to produce rain. (ii) For each of
three types explain how rising air is produced in Pakistan.
Ans: (I) Rising air is needed to produce rain because rising air cools at high
altitude and condensation take place. Clouds are formed and rain occurs.
(ii) Rising air is produced in three ways in Pakistan. Firstly summer monsoon
winds rise up along the northern hills and mountains. Secondly rising air occurs in
depression which is low air pressure cloud system. Air rises due to low air pressure
in depressions and clouds forms due to condensation. Thirdly warm air rises
because of convection. Heated land warm-up the air and it rises up, high altitude
causes cooling, condensation take place and clouds are formed. This causes thunder
storm and rainfall.
Q In the Indus plain the summer rainfall is not always reliable. What problems are
caused (I) if the rainfall arrives earlier. (ii) If the rainfall arrives late. (iii) If
amount of rain varies considerably from one year to another? J2002 (6)
Ans: (I) early arrival of monsoon means prolonged rainy season may cause floods.
 Harvesting of Rabi crops may be affected. The sowing of Kharif crops may be
affected. (ii) Late arrival of summer rain means less than usual rain will create
drought conditions. It will badly affect crops in barani areas.
(iii) If amount of rain varies then farmer will be unable to plan sowing of crops
which depend upon rain. Irrigation method will be needed in case of low rain and
excessive rain can after sowing may damage young plants.
Topic: Western depression.
Q Explain why western depression causes rainfall during winter. (4) N2000.
Ans: The western areas receive rain in winter from western depression. These
depressions are low air pressure system developed on Mediterranean passes
through Turkey, Iran and Afghanistan and enter Pakistan causes rain in Pakistan
from December to March. Since Pakistan is at tail end brings light rain. The
amount of rain decreases from north to south of Pakistan and From West to East.
Q Name the areas which receive high rain in both summer and winter.
Ans: Murree, Rawilpindi and Jhelum in northern Punjab. Peshawar in K.P.K.
Quetta in Balochistan.
Q Why western depression are more useful for agriculture than monsoon?
Ans: Monsoon rainfall varies in timing, amount and distribution occurs in heavy
showers so it is absorbed in soil and mostly water is drains off. Vapor-transpiration
rate is high in summer. While rain due to western depression occur in light shower
absorbed by soil. Evapo-transpiration rate is low in winter. Western depression is
useful for Rabbi Crops. Monsoon is useful if water is stored in dams and barrages.
Q What are advantages and disadvantages of winter rainfall in northern areas? (6)
J2011.
Ans: Advantages: Winter rainfall provides water in rivers and fills reservoirs.
Provide water for irrigation and hydro-electricity production. Water became
available for Rabi crops. Winter rain is in light shower so absorbed in soil.
Snowfall increases tourism. Later melting of this snow provides water in rivers on
melting.
Problems: Mostly snow falls in winter, rivers and lakes are frozen, temperature is
too cold for growth of crops and plants may cause floods, land sliding, roads are
closed or became slippery. Farmers are forced to adopt transhumance way of
livestock.
Q Why does snowfall instead of rain in winter? (1)
Ans: Low climatic temperature and high altitude of northern mountains and
western mountains are the main reason.
Q Name three climatic hazards which may occur in Pakistan. (3)
Ans: Floods, draughts, dust storms and thunder storms.
Topic: Cyclones.
Q Which name is given to the very violent storms which occasionally hit the coastal
areas of Pakistan?
Ans: Cyclones.
 Q Which areas are affected by tropical cyclones? (2)
Ans: Coasts of Sindh and Balochistan.
Q What effect do cyclones may have on the economy and lives of the people who
live in the coastal areas? (5)
Ans: Cyclones are low pressure system with heavy rain and strong winds. Strong
winds create high sea waves which cover large coastal area with sea water.
Flooding may cause in several areas. Crops are destroyed, animals are drowned,
communication is disrupted, many human lives are lost, power cuts off, people
have to be evacuated, and industry may close down in these conditions. Mud houses
are destroyed. Lightening can also damage property.
Thunders storms:
Q In which part of the year thunder storm are experienced?
Ans: Thunder storms are experienced in April to June, and in the month of
October and November.
Q Which part of Pakistan experience thunder storm?
Ans: Only northern and north-western part of Pakistan experience thunder
storms. I.e. Rawalpindi and Peshawar.
Q Explain the advantages and disadvantages of thunderstorm.
Ans: Advantages: Supply water, reservoirs are filled with water and increase
hydro-electricity production.
Disadvantages: May cause floods which damage and block roads. High winds
damage buildings and trees. Loss of power supply reduces production, disrupt
flights and fishing activities. Soil erosion caused by rain effects roads and railway
lines.
Q What type of rainfall does Murree receives in May-June and Oct-November?
How does it formed? (4)
Ans: Murree receives rain due to convectional rain in these months. The land is
heated which warms up the layers of air close to the surface. Warm air rises up and
cools to the surface. Warm air rises up and cools down at high altitude and
condensation take place. Clouds are formed and rain occurs (take place).
Convectional rainfall is accompanied by thunder and lightning. The rainfall is
small in amount. October and November are driest months.
Q Why no convectional rain occurs in lower Indus plain?
Ans: A temperature inversion layer does not allow condensation to take place at
the high of 1600 meters as a result warm air descends and no rainfall occurs.
Q How relief rainfall occurs (take place) in hilly areas?
Ans: Moist wind is blocked by mountain so air moves up and cooled down cause’s
condensation and rainfall occurs on wind ward side. On the other side of mountain
called leeward no rain occurs because as wind crosses the mountain its altitude
decreases and it warms down. Leeward side is called rain shadow area.
Q Explain why Peshawar receives a higher annual rainfall than Quetta. (4) N2000.
Ans: Quetta receives rainfall mainly in winter from western depression. Quetta
does not get rain from the summer monsoon winds. Peshawar is a rain fed area and
gets western depression rain in winter and also receives rain from monsoon in
summer. Peshawar is located at higher altitude than Quetta so moist winds easily
reach their.
Q Explain why Sialkot has over 250 mm of rain in July and August? (4) J2002
Ans: The summer monsoon blow with full strength in July and August. Monsoon
originates from the Bay of Bengal and enters Pakistan after crossing India. Sialkot
is located near foothill of Sub-Himalayas on the eastern most side so receives good
rainfall from monsoon.
Q Why Hyderabad receives less rain than Sialkot in July-August?
Ans: Hyderabad is located in the south of Pakistan and receives secondary
monsoon from Arabian Sea with less moisture. There is no mountain range across
monsoon winds to make wind rise up so condensation cannot take place. While
Sialkot is in northern Punjab at foot hill of Sub-Himalayan range receives primary
monsoon. Sialkot receives some rain due to convectional rain while Hyderabad
receives no convectional rain due to temperature inversion layer.
Q Why Jacobabad is known as thermal pole of the subcontinent?
Ans: In summer maximum temperature reaches 53 C due to continental effect and
shortage of rainfall. Jacobabad is out of range of western depression and monsoon
winds are blocked by Suleiman range and Kirther range. No convectional rain
occurs due to temperature inversion layer.
Topic: Climatic factors.
Q State the main factors which influence climate of Pakistan.
Ans: Following are factors affect climate of Pakistan.
(1) Latitude or distance from the equator which means that as we go northward
temperature will decrease. (2) Distance from sea means places away from the sea
are hot in summer and cool in winter. (3) Altitude or height above sea level means
temperature decreases with height. Mountainous areas are cooler than plain areas.
(4) In Pakistan summer monsoon rain and in winter western depression brings
rain.
Q Three types of storm which occur in Pakistan are thunder storms, dust storms
and snow storm. State location of an area where it is most likely to occur.
Ans: (I) Thunder storm usually occurs in northern hilly regions and northern
Punjab. (2) Dust storm common in region adjoining deserts such as lower Punjab,
Upper Sindh and parts of Balochistan. (3) Snowfall is common in northern High
Mountain over 6000 meters.
(ii) State time of year when thunder storms, dust storms and snow storm are most
likely to occur.
Ans: (1) Thunder storm occurs in April-June and October-November. (2) Snow
storm occurs in winter season from December to March. (3) Thunder storm occurs
due to excess heating and convection. Air close to land is heated up and become
light and rises up. Rising air forms clouds due to condensation and thunder storm
 is formed.
Q Explain why dust storms and snow storm take place at time of year in the area
you have mentioned?
Ans: (1) Dust storm which creates due to low air pressure. Strong wind blow
surrounding to fill vacuum and pick up sand and dust with them so dust storm is
created. (2) Snow storm develops in high mountain regions in winter due to low
temperature precipitation is in the form of snow, if accompanied by strong wind
snow storm is formed.
Q Describe the characteristics of winter climate in northern areas. (3) J2000
Ans: The northern areas experience low temperature because of height which
varies in altitude. Winter is long and cold with temperature below 5°C depending
upon altitude (height). Valley bottom are comparatively warm. Mountain range is
permanently covered with snow. In general at an altitude of 5000 meters the
temperature remains below freezing point throughout the year. Rain and snow in
winter is due to western depression. Rainfall decreases from west to east and north
to south.
Topic: Effects of climate on life and economic activities.
Q In what ways does the winter climate make life difficult for people who live in
mountain areas?
Ans: snow covers ground so farming cannot be done, nothing grows so shortage of
food and fodder is created. Water freeze so fishing is difficult, shortage of drinking
water is created. Roads are blocked; power and telephone lines may cutoff. No
tourism is practiced because less income, air service is restricted due to fog.
Damage to buildings may cause due to land sliding and avalanches. Pipes are
damaged due to frozen water. Indoor activities are done so heating of houses are
needed.
Q Describe the characteristics of the summer climate of Thar Desert affect the way
that area is used. (3)
Ans: In Thar Desert summer season is very hot and long. June is hottest month.
Day time temperature in above 50° C. Nights are not so hot. Rainfall is below
125mm annually mostly during monsoon. In south it is little higher 250 mm due to
nearness to sea. Desert storms are common in summer.
Q Explain how summer climate of Thar Desert affect the way that area is used. (3)
Ans: Due to high temperature and low rainfall crop growing is impossible.
Livestock rearing like sheep, goat, camel and cattle rearing is common. Nomadic
way of livestock is practiced, people move in search of water and fodder. Evapo-
transpiration is high. In southern part crops like millet, pulses are cultivated when
rainfall is suitable.
Q Describe an account for the main features of the climate experienced along the
coastal areas of Pakistan. (6)
Ans: Coastal areas of Pakistan receives moderate climate due to nearness to the
sea. Summer season is hot but not as interior Sindh. Summer is long and highly
 humid. Mean June temperature is 31°C. Rajasthan winds brought hot spells in
early summer. Winter is mild, warm and shot. Occasionally Quetta winds bring
short spells of cold season. The western half of the coastal area receives less rain
than 125mm. Most of it falls in winter due to western depression. Eastern half
(Sindh coast) gets more rain than 250 mm which mostly occurs during summer due
to monsoon.
Topic: Floods.
Q Why do many rivers in Pakistan are flooded in July? (3)
Ans: In July the summer monsoon enters Pakistan and causes heavy rainfall which
increases flow of water in rivers. Melting of snow is higher due to rising
temperature may cause floods in rivers.
Q State an advantage of flood.
Ans: Flood water carry alluvial material which is spread over land affected by
flood increases fertility, dams and barrages are filled by water, flood water fills
inundation canals, recharge ground water and flourish fishing industry.
Q How floods can be controlled?
Ans: Dams and barrages can store water. Dykes and embankments along river
banks prevent overflow of water from rivers. Flood monitoring and early warning
system are developed. Diversion canals reduce pressure of floods. River channel
can be widened and forestation in northern areas.
Q How and why economy of an area be affected by flooding?
Ans: Standing crops and orchids are washed away, loss of food supply, farmers are
unable to use land until water is drained away, mud houses are damaged and cattle
is swept away, communication is disrupted, roads and bridges are damaged,
telephone and electricity services are affected. Railway track is damaged. Mud and
bricks roads become unusable. People are evacuated from flood hit areas.
Emergency food, shelter and medical aid is needed which is a Burdon on economy.
Funds are needed for rehabilitation and rebuilding. Industries are closed down,
exports are reduced and tax collections decline.
Topic: Droughts.
Q What are causes of drought?
Ans: Lack of monsoon rain, dry and hot winds reduce moisture in soil,
deforestation reduce rainfall. Water is wasted due to mismanagement and unlined
canals, overgrazing of land reduces transpiration and rainfall. Global climate
changes have changing climate of Pakistan.
Q What are effects of droughts?
Ans: Tharparkar in Sindh and parts of Balochistan are affected by drought. People
and livestock die due to shortage of water and hunger. Crops are destroyed due to
shortage of water. People migrate to other areas. Lot of funds is needed to set up
camps to provide food shelter. In drought conditions soil dries and blow away by
winds so crop cultivation is effected in future, bring diseases, famine and death.
 Q.1. What is land stretch of Pakistan?
Ans. Pakistan lies between the latitude of 24 – 36.75 north and between the
longitudes 61-75.5E.
The land of Pakistan stretches over 1600km north to south and 850km wide from
east to west.
Q.2. How much land of south east Asia is occupied by Pakistan?
Ans. About 18.78% of the total south Asian land is occupies by the state of
Pakistan.
Q.3. What is the average height of Shiwalk range?
Ans. The average height of Shiwalik range is 600-900m of attitude (height from sea
level) extend over the southern part of Hazara and Murree and include the hills of
Rawalpindi and the Pabbi Hills.
Q.4. What is the average height of the Pir Panjal Range?
Ans. The average height of 4200-4500meters. Murree and Hazara Hills form a
part of it. In winter the peaks are covered with snow and summers are present.
Q.5. What is the average height of Safed Koh Range?
Ans. The average height of Safed Koh Range is 3600meters above sea level. They
are called White Mountains because their peaks are always covered with snow.
Q.6. Where has the Warsak Dam been built?
Ans. Warsak Dam has been built or river Kabul. It is located 20miles away from
Peshawar. The dam is used to generate electricity.
Q.7. Where the Kirthar Range is located?
Ans. The Kirthar ragne is located in the south of Suleman Range. Its height
decreases towards the southern end and area scattered.
Q.8. Name four doabs of Punjab?
Ans. There are four Doabs in Punjab. The land lying between any two rivers
bording them.
Q.9. Name the four temperature zones of Pakistan?
Ans. Four temperature zones of Pakistan:
i. High land (Northern and Noth-Western Mountains)
ii. Low land (upper and lower Indus Basin)
iii. Balochistan Plateau and Thar Desert.
iv. Coastal Area.
Q.10 Define environment?
Ans. Environment: The environment means “The natural conditions, such as air,
water and land, in which people, animals and plants live”.
Q.11. What is environmental Pollution?
Ans. To pollute means to make air, water, soil etc unfit for use. Following are the
main pollutants:
i. Air. Oil and fuel, coal, radiations, smoke.
ii. Water. Industries waste, poor sewage.
iii. Soil. Plastic bags, trash, empty cans.
 Q.12. what is Smog?
Ans. Smog. Smag is the combination of smoke and fog which has become a
common sight in big cities, busy highways and industrial waste. Smog is dangerous
for health. It causes skin diseases, respiration problems, and poor visibility. It
results in accidents in winter.
Q.13. What % of population land should be covered of forests and why?
Ans. As per international standard 25% of total land of a country should be
covered by forests. The pollution reduces and environment becomes pleasant.
Q.14. Describe the location of Pakistan?
Ans. i. Pakistan is locaterd in South Asis.
ii. It lies between 24-36.75 north latitude and 61-75.5E longitude.
iii. It stretch over 1600 north to south and 850km wide from east to west.
Q.15. Name the neighbours of Pakistan with their direction?
Ans. India, China, Afghanistan and Iran are the neighbouring countries of
Pakistan.
i. India : India is locatedin the east.
ii. China : China is located in the north east.
iii. Afghanistan : Afghanistan is located in the North West.
iv. Iran : Iran is located in the west of Pakistan.
Q.16. give the geographical importance of Pakistan?
Ans. i. Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean form the southern borderline of
Pakistan.
ii. Karachi is one of the world`s most important sea ports.
iv. Pakistan is located in the midst of very three important countries of Pakistan.
India, China and Russia.
 1.1 (B) Causes of seasonal variations in precipitation
Pakistan lies on the western margin of one of the major climatic regions of the
earth, the monsoon region. The winds in winter are north-east to south-west, and
the reverse, south-west to north-east, in summer. The causes of the reversal of the
wind system, and of the pulsating character of the monsoons, are varied and
complex. The summer monsoon brings maritime influences and rain, but there are
annual fluctuations or pulsations in the strength of the monsoon current. Cyclones
in the monsoons cause rainfall, but their frequency is variable. Similarly, the paths
of the cyclones vary with the position and strength of the Inter-tropical Front, and
this again results in variable rainfall.

The climate of Pakistan is more ‘continental’ than that of other parts of the sub-
continent, which come under a more typical monsoon regime. The rainfall in most
parts of Pakistan is insufficient and its usefulness for agriculture is further reduced
by its variable nature. Moreover, the efficiency of the rainfall is reduced because it
takes place in the late summer months when, because of the high temperatures,
much of it is evaporated.

The Seasons
Pakistan has the same four seasons found in the rest of the sub-continent, but their
duration is somewhat different. In Pakistan the seasons may be distinguished as
follows: Cold Weather Season (mid-December to March); Hot Weather Season
(April to June); Monsoon Season (July to September); and Post-Monsoon Season
(October to min-December).

Cold Weather Season

The cold weather season is charaterized by high barometric pressure, somewhat
low temperatures, and small precipitation from shallow western disturbances. In
the month of January, which typifies the climatic conditions of this season, mean
pressure generally decreases from 1035 millibars in the north-west at Drosh to
1015.2 millibars in the south. The mean monthly temperature is below 40oF in the
mountainous areas and varies from about 65oF in the south.

The generally fine weather of this season is occasionally affected by disturbances

from the west, which form along the Mediterranean Front, and reach Pakistan
after travelling across Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. With the advent of the cool
season, the incidence and intensity of these disturbances increase, and they move
southward. The winds along the cold fronts of these depressions lower the
temperature. The minimum temperature occasionally falls below freezing even in
the parts of the plain, to 28oF in Lahore, for example. It is still lower in the Potwar
Plateau, the cis-Indus plains, and the hilly areas.

Rainfall during the months December-March increases northwards and

westwards. Over the middle and lower Indus Plain it is 1 inch or less, in the upper
Indus Plain it ranges from 3-5 inches, and in the north and north-west, it rises to 10
inches or more.

Hot Weather Season

High temperature and aridity are the main characteristics of the hot weather
season. With the approach of the season, the day temperature begins to rise. In
May-June, it reaches its peak when, over large areas, the mean maximum daily
temperature varies between 105oF and 114oF. Southern and south-western parts of
Pakistan register higher temperatures than elsewhere. Jacobabad is the hottest
place in the sub-continent with the highest recorded temperatures of 126oF in May
and 127oF in June. The hill resorts and the Sind-Makran coast are areas of
 comparatively low temperature, but Karachi experiences short spells of high
temperatures (108oF.) when winds from the Rajasthan Desert are drawn to low
pressure troughs in the north Arabian Sea.

As the season approaches, pressure falls. A trough of low pressure begins to appear
in April, when most of the Indus Plain has a mean pressure of 996 millibars.
Relative humidity drops from about 50 per cent in the early morning to 25 percent
or less in the afternoon. Rainfall is small, varying from 1 to 3 inches over the plains
to 4 to 5 inches in the Himalayan sub-montane areas and parts of the Potwar
Plateau. The rainfall is associated with the westerly disturbances, which have by
now swung to more northerly latitudes, causing thunderstorms over the hills and
widespread dust-storms over the plains.

The Monsoon Season

The establishment of low pressure over the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent in May
and June attracts winds from the Indian Ocean, which ‘burst blowing’ over the
land about the middle of June as the south-west monsoons. The monsoons gain in
strength until July, remain constant to the end of August, and then begin to
slacken. The monsoon-current reaches Pakistan about the beginning of July and is
well established by the middle of that month. In some years, the monsoon remains
active even in September.

The tropical cyclones or ‘lows’ formed along the Inter-tropical Front at the head of
the Bay of Bengal move in a north-westerly direction over northern India and enter
Pakistan. Their tracks vary with the position of the Inter-tropical Front. Some,
after reaching the central parts of India or Rajisthan, re-curve north and north-
westward. Others continue westward and bring rains to the lower Indus Plain.

The effect of the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoons over Pakistan is felt from the
end of June. However, these monsoons penetrate only the coastal areas, and result
in the formation of status clouds, with very little rain.

During the month of July, the mean monthly temperature exceeds 90oF over most
of the Indus Plain and western Baluchistan. Pressure in the low, centered on
Multan-Jacobabad, is 996 millibars. Average rainfall during the monsoon season in
the Indus Plain decreases from 25 inches in the north, to 5 inches or less in the
south.

The Post Monsoon Season

This season is a transitional period between the monsoonal regime and cool-season
conditions, and is also known as “the season of retreating monsoons.” In October,
maximum temperatures range from 94o to 99oF with 60oF as the normal
minimum. There is a further fall of about 10oF in maxima and minima in
 November. The high pressure begins to establish itself over Pakistan in mid-
November. The absence of any active wind system results in general dryness, and
October and November are the driest months.

The Climatic Elements

Temperature
Pakistan extends north-south over a considerable expanse of latitude (24oN to
37oN). This, together with the diversity of terrain, result in a diversity of
temperatures at any given time. Seasonal differences in temperature are also
substantial, due more to the high temperatures of summer than extreme cold in
winter.

Temperatures in the hottest month are very high, except in mountainous localities.
In the plains the hottest month is June, in the hill stations, July. In Hilly areas
summer temperatures like winter temperatures, are influenced by altitude and the
“face” of the terrain, and thus vary considerably from place to place. For example,
the mean temperature of the hottest month is 7.8oF. at Drosh (4,806 ft.) 78.5oF. at
Murree (7,445 ft.), 87.8oF. at Quetta (5,213 ft.) and 100.4oF. at Nushki (3,416 ft.).
The difference between the extreme maximum and extreme minimum of the month
is great.

In the PLAINS temperatures in the hottest months are uncomfortably high. The
mean monthly temperature for June at most stations in the plains is 100oF or
more. The extreme maximum generally rises above 117oF. Jacobabad is the
thermal-pole of the sub-continent, where the mean maximum for June is 119.4oF.,
and the mean minimum, 90.7oF. It is probable that nowhere else in the world are
there agricultural populations cultivating crops in such intense heat. The day-time
heat is sometimes relieved by cooler nights, and the temperature at Jacobabasd can
fall to 70oF. at night in June.

In the COASTAL AREAS the summers are milder. Karachi has a June mean
maximum of 95oF. and a mean monthly minimum of 85oF. Stratus cloud cover
reduces the daily maxima.

Absolute Maximum and Minimum Temperatures

for the Hottest Month, June/July, in degrees F.
Station Absolute Maximum Absolute Minimum
Drosh 113 53
Murree 95 42
Parachinar 103 45
Nushki 120 57
Fort Sandeman 107 62
 Quetta 105 41
Hindubagh 109 48
Peshawar 122 56
Lahore 119 65
Multan 121 69
Jacobabad 127 70
Hyderabad 122 68
Karachi 116 72

Temperatures in January, the coldest month, are low in the Northern and North-
Western mountains. Chitral has a mean maximum of 47.7oF. and a mean
minimum of 29.7oF. in January the coldest month. These areas are snowbound
until April. Stations in the western mountainous areas experience somewhat
similar temperature in January.

January Temperatures at Mountain Stations (degrees F.)

Station Absolute Max. Mean Max.
Absolute Min. Mean Min.

Drosh 62 44.8 10 32.3

Murree 65 43.4 12 31.1
Parachinar 68 50.1 3 28.8
Quetta 68 51.4 9 27.0

January temperatures in the upper Indus Plain are moderate and pleasant. At
Lahore, for example, the mean maximum is 75.2oF. and the mean minimum is
50.7oF. These figures increase in the lower Indus Plain, reaching 87.3oF. and
64.8oF. in Karachi.

Pressure and Winds

In summer, the land becomes heated and a low pressure area is created in south-
western Pakistan. In the month of July, atmospheric pressure (reduced to 32oF and
mean sea-level) is lowest (994.7 millibars.) in the vicinity of Multan, and rises
north-wards (Lahore, 996.0 millibars) and southwards (Karachi, 997.7 millibars).
This low pressure area attracts winds from the Indian Ocean. As previously
explained, some cyclonic storms migrate to this low all the way across northern
India from the Bay of Bengal. Although their moisture content decreases as they
move westward, it is these storms which bring most of Pakistan’s rainfall. Winds
sucked in from the Arabian Sea bring less moisture because these air streams have
originated over Arabia, and have a lower moisture content. Nevertheless, they do
produce some rain in the western mountains.

In winter the temperatures over the land are relatively low, and a high pressure
area is established. The pressure generally decreases from north to south. In
January, the pressure is 1022.6 millibars at Peshawar, 1017.4 millibars at Lahore,
and 1017.3 millibars at Karachi. Thus, while the prevailing direction of the winter
monsoons over the sub-continent as a whole is almost from north to south. Because
these winds blow from the land toward the sea, they are generally dry.

Rainfall
The mean annual rainfall of Pakistan is 40 inches or more in the northern
mountainous region (Murree, 64.6 inches). Local variations, characteristic of
highly differentiated terrain, are recorded in this area. Areas in the extreme north-
west, largely sheltered from the monsoonal effect, receive only 20-25 inches
(Chitral, 23.1 inches; Drosh, 25.9 inches). The Himalayan Piedmont receives 30-40
inches and the 20-inches isohyet (line joining places receiving the same amount of
rainfall) lies somewhat north of Lahore (19.3 inches), veering north-west. The
amount of rainfall decreases sharply toward the southern part of the upper Indus
Plain. It is less than 5 inches in the Indus corridor, and the northern parts of the
lower Indus Plain (Sukkur, 3.6 inches). The Kachhi-Sibi re-entrant is one of the
driest areas (Jacobabad, 3.5 inches; Sibi, 5.6 inches). The rainfall again increases
southward toward the coast (Hyderabad, 6.1 inches; Karachi, 8.2 inches). On the
Makran Coast, it is over 5 inches (Pasni, 5.2 inches; Lasbela, 7.7 inches), increasing
over the central ranges of Baluchistan (Quetta, 7.7 inches; Fort Sandeman, 15.0
inches). Elsewhere in Baluchistan, it varies from less than 5 inches (Nokkundi, 1.95
inches) to about 10 inches (Panjgur, 4.8 inches, Kalat, 9.2 inches).

With the exception of some areas in the north and north-west, rainfall is
concentrated in the three months (July to September) of the summer monsoon.
Table 4 shows summer monsoon rain as a percentage of total rainfall for selected
stations. Winter rainfall (December to March) is much smaller in amount.

Summer Monsoon Rainfall (July – September)

as a Percentage of Total Rainfall
(Averages, 1931-60)
Summer Monsoon Rainfall (July – September)
as a Percentage of Total Rainfall
(Averages, 1931-60)
 Station % Station % Station %
Drosh 11 Rawalpindi 60 Multan 59
Parachinar 34 Murree 52 Bahawalpur 68
Quetta 12 Jhelum 67 Sukkur 67
Hindubagh 19 Khushab 58 Hyderabad 82
Kalat 21 Sialkot 70 Karachi 78
Peshawar 27 Lahore 66 Lasbela 55

Variability of Rainfall
The rainfall of Pakistan, like that of some other marginal areas of monsoon
climate, is markedly variable in the amount and timing of its incidence, and in its
areal distributions. Over a large area of Pakistan most of the rainfall is associated
with monsoon depressions. A secondary source is the passage of western
disturbances. In the coastal areas, tropical storms from the Arabian Sea, and
thunderstorms associated with thermal instability produce some rainfall. Each of
these sources of rainfall is in itself of a variable character.

The monsoon activity is of a ‘pulsating’ nature. The monsoon blows in

‘intermittent bursts’. Areas of Pakistan receiving 50-75 percent of their rainfall
from the monsoon have above normal variability. The above-normal variability
increases from north-east to south-west over Indus Plain. Below-normal variability
is indicative of the comparatively steady influence of the western disturbances, and
occurs where winter precipitation is 50-100 percent of the annual total. The
tropical storms from the Arabian Sea area are markedly variable in their
incidence, and have erratic paths. They contribute to high variability of the coastal
strip. Jacobabad, the area of greatest in temperature, also registers the greatest
fluctuation between average and absolute maximum rainfall.

The mean annual number of rainy days varies from 89 at Murree to less than 10
(Sukkur, 6.5). It is obviously larger at wetter places, and in localities receiving
rainfall in both the winter and summer months.

Efficiency of Precipitation
It has been shown that rainfall over most of Pakistan is low, markedly variable in
character, and occurs mainly in the summer months when temperatures are high.
High temperatures cause great evaporation and transpiration (giving out of
moisture by the leaves of trees and plants). Thus, the unusefulness or efficiency of
the rainfall for plant growth is reduced.

A measure of the efficiency of precipitation, known as the ‘moisture index’, has

been devised by Thornthwaite. When applied to Pakistan, Thornthwaite’s formula
 reveals that, with the exception of a narrow strip of land along the N.W.F.P. –
Kashmir border and a small area around Parachinar. Pakistan has a negative
moisture index. This indicates that aridity or insufficiency of moisture for plant
growth is a basic characteristic of Pakistan’s physical environment.

A critical isopleth (line joining, places having the same moisture index,
temperature and rainfall) dividing semi-arid from arid areas, runs from south of
Lahore to north of Peshawar, and thence to a point north-west of Quetta. To the
north of this line, moisture conditions are semi-arid to dry sub-humid. The vast
area to the south of this line is arid. Aridity is highest in two distinct areas, the
desert lowland of north-western Baluchistan, and the area around Jacobabad.

A more detailed examination of the moisture balance, by months, indicates that

only in a few rainy hill areas, such as Murree, there is no month of water
deficiency. In the dry areas, water deficiency is commonly experienced for 9 to 10
months and, in some cases, 12 months.

Climate Divisions
A detailed scheme of climatic divisions for Pakistan is as such: The four major
divisions are : Sub-Tropical Continental Highlands, Sub-Tropical Continental
Plateau, Sub-Tropical Continental Lowlands, and Tropical Coastlands.

Sub-Tropical Continental Highlands

Sub-tropical continental highlands include the outer and middle Himalayas, the
north-western hills (including Chitral, Swat, Waziristan, Zhob and Loralai), and
the Baluchistan hills (Quetta, Sarawan, Central Makran and Jhalawan). They are
characterized by cold, snowy winters, cool summers, winter and spring rains, and
frequent fog.

The outer Himalayan area, which includes Murree and Hazara, receives rainfall
throughout the year, with two maxima, one in late summer, and the other in spring.
In the rain-shadow of the outer Himalayas, precipitation decrease. In Chitral and
Swat, the summer rains become scanty, and bout two-thirds of the annual total
falls from December to April. In the Kohat and Waziristan areas, the rainfall
generally decreases toward the south. In the Zhob-Loralai area, both winter-spring
and summer rains diminish, producing a total of about 10 inches. Quetta and the
Sarawan area have a dry climate, with a mean annual total of 5-10 inches,
occurring mostly in winter and spring. North and north-west winds, known as
gorich, blow from October to February, and are piercingly cold. In the Makran-
Jhalawan area rainfall is still lower, under 5 inches a year. From Kohat south, the
annual temperature range is pronounced : the winters are cold and the summer
hot.
 Sub-Tropical Continental Plateau
This embraces north-western Baluchistan and is markedly dry and hot. Hot and
dusty winds prevail almost continuously from mid-May to mid-September. Most of
the scanty rainfall takes place in January and February (Nokkundi, 1.95 inches).
Extreme heat, dryness, and dust are the chief characteristics of this climatic
division.

Sub-Tropical Continental Lowlands

These include the entire Indus Plain, with the exception of the coastal areas. The
climate is characterized by high summer temperatures, aridity, and late summer
monsoon rains. The annual range of temperature is high. The northern
submontane area and the Potwar Plateau are wetter than the rest of the Indus
Plain and receive more winter rain. The Thal Desert, the Kacchi-Sibbi Plain and
the south-eastern desert are the driest areas. Thunderstorms are a prominent
feature, especially in the Peshawar Plain, and dust storms are frequent during
summer.

Tropical Coastlands
The tropical coastlands are dominated by sea breezes throughout the summer. The
annual and diurnal temperature ranges are low and humidity is high. The mean
annual temperature is over 90oF., and the rainfall over 7 inches. May and June are
the hottest months, with a secondary maximum after the cloud cover dissipates in
October. At Karachi, relative humidity exceeds 50 percent throughout the year,
and 80 percent at night from April to October. From May to September, it is least
60 percent during the day. The Lasbela coastal plain with rainfall maxima in both
summer and winter, is the transitional area between the Makran coast and the
Karachi-Sind coastal belt. Westward, most of the rain takes place in winter, while
from Karachi north-eastward most of the rain occurs in summer.

Three types of rain are experienced in Pakistan: Monsoon, Depression, Convection.

a) Each of these three types of rain is associated with rising air.Explain why rising
air is needed to produce rain. Ans: Rising air is needed to produce rain because
rising air cools at high altitude and condensation take place. Clouds are formed
and rain occurs. b) For each of the three types, explain how rising air is produced
in Pakistan. Ans: Rising air is produced in three ways in Pakistan. Firstly, summer
monsoon winds rise up along the northern hills and mountains. Secondly rising air
occurs in depression which is low air pressure cloud System. Air rises due to low
air pressure in depressions and clouds forms due to condensation. Thirdly warm
air rises because of convection. Heated land warm-up the air and it rises up, high
altitude causes cooling, condensation take place and clouds are formed. This causes
thunder storm and rainfall. c) For each of the three types of rain referred to in (a):
 i. state the time of the year when it usually occurs in Pakistan; Ans: Moonsoons
rainfall begin in July and August. Western depression are cyclones which cause
rainfall from December to March whileconvectional rainfall occurs at the
beginning of summer usually In the month of May / June.)

1.1 (C)
The global distribution and characteristics of ecosystems
The distribution of large-scale ecosystems
biomes is determined by climate. Latitude, air pressure and winds are important
factors that determine the climate of a place.

Types of biomes
The map shows the distribution of the global ecosystems or biomes.

The main biomes: tundra, taiga (coniferous forest), temperate deciduous forest,
temperate grassland, chaparral or evergreen hardwood (mediterranean), desert,
tropical rainforest, savanna grassland.
Characteristics of biomes
Tundra - found near the North and South poles. Very few plants and animals can
survive here.
Taiga (coniferous forest) - found in Scandinavia, Russia and Canada. Evergreen
trees thrive in this cool temperate climate.
Temperate deciduous forest - found across Europe and in the USA. These trees lose
their leaves every year and thrive in mild and wet conditions known as a temperate
maritime climate.
Temperate grassland - found in Hungary, South Africa, Argentina and the USA.
Consists of grass and trees that thrive in a temperate continental climate of
moderate rainfall and mild conditions.
Chaparral or evergreen hardwood (Mediterranean) - found around the
Mediterranean Sea, around Perth and Melbourne in Australia and California in
the USA.
Desert - found near the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. Conditions here are very
hot and dry. Plants and animals are specially adapted to survive in the harsh
conditions.
Tropical rainforest - found near the Equator. The climate is hot and humid and
many different species can be found here.
Savanna grassland - found mainly in central Africa, southern India, northern
Australia and central South America. Long grasses and a few scattered trees are
found in these hot and dry conditions.
Ecosystems change gradually between the Equator and the Poles.

Ecosystems change going from the North Pole to the Equator: tundra, taiga,
temperate deciduous forest, evergreen hardwood, desert, savanna grassland,
tropical rainforest.