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Paper 2: The landscape, people and economy of Pakistan

SECTION A: The Physical Environment

1.1 Location, climate and biomes

a) Position of Pakistan in South Asia and globally, and regional variations in climatic
zones (humid subtropical, desert/semi-arid, temperate and Mediterranean).

Location of Pakistan

Pakistan is located between latitudes 24◦ North to 37◦ North and extends from longitude
61◦ - 78◦ East, To its northeast side it shares a 585 km long border with China, while on its
west it shares a 2252 km long border with Afghanistan known as the Durand Line. To its
east, Pak shares a border with India. The Arabian Sea marks the southern border and The
Southwest, borders are shared with The Republic of Iran. Wahkhan is the narrow strip of
Afghanistan that separates Pak from Tajikistan. Pakistan stretches 1600 km from north to
south and 886 km from east to west.
Importance of Pak's location

● Northern mountains are so steep that they are called the root of the world -
strategic protection from foreign invasions
● Every type of physical feature like plate, dessert, glacier valley - tourist destination -
revenue
● Mineral Resources
● Arabian Sea in a central position for trading with south
● Asia 4 Far East “beyond the Middle East to the west.
● After the breakup of the USSR into the CAR Republic in 1991, it was found that these
states contain untapped mineral resources that can be transported through Pak to
other countries, giving Pakistan energy for domestic & Industrial uses.

(b) The nature and causes of seasonal variations in precipitation and temperature, including
the characteristics and causes of the Southwest Monsoon and Western Disturbances.

Climate is the average state of the atmosphere near the earth's surface over a long span of
time. It refers to many elements including temperature, precipitation, humidity, air pressure,
wind movement and direction. Geographical location (latitude, coastal or continental
position) and physical settings (e.g. mountains) influence the climate of any country.

Seasonal variations
Season is the climatic type, at any place, associated with a particular time of the year. The
change of season is mainly due to the change in angle of the earth's axis in relation to the
position of the sun at a particular place.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEASONAL VARIATIONS in temperature in PAKISTAN

Latitudinal effect; Latitude and the angle of sun: The term ‘angle of the sun’ refers to the
position of the Earth in relation to the sun. Latitudinal position determines the amount of
heat received by the Earth. The area closer to the Equator receives relatively direct rays of
the sun resulting in high temperature. Southern Pakistan is closer to the Equator than
Northern Pakistan.
Continental effect: It is a general term covering the climate of those areas protected from or
unaffected by maritime influence. Maritime influence means the influence of the sea on
temperatures. Along coastal areas, ocean currents and prevailing winds usually have a
moderating effect on temperature. This is why extreme winter and summer temperatures are
recorded in the interior of large landmasses away from the moderating influence of sea.
Altitude and temperature:
There is a relationship between altitude, air, density and temperature.
The air is denser at the sea level because that is where it absorbs most water vapour, dust
particles and solar radiation. Air is less dense at high altitude because less solar radiation is
absorbed at that level. With less air to absorb heat at higher altitude, there is an average drop
of 6.5 C in temperature for each 1000 metre increase in altitude.
Cloud cover and temperature: Cloud cover affects temperature to some extent. In the
daytime it reduces the amount of incoming solar radiation by reflecting it back into outer
space, resulting in a drop in day temperatures. At night the cloud cover traps the outgoing
heat. As a result, temperature on cloudy nights does not drop as temperature on a clear night.

FACTORS AFFECTING SEASONAL VARIATIONS in precipitation in PAKISTAN

• The Southwest Monsoon occurs in late summer, between the end of June/July and
September. Half of the total annual rainfall in the areas affected by the monsoon occurs in
July and August, averaging about 255 mm for both months. The primary reason for the rainfall
during the summers is because of temperature differences between land and the ocean.
Rising temperatures in South Asia from April onwards heat up the land areas while the ocean
remains relatively cooler, resulting in the creation of a low-pressure zone over South Asia.
The low-pressure zone then causes the moist air above the ocean to move on to land and
results in rainfall. The Southwest Monsoon brings particularly heavy rainfall to northern
Punjab because this area is the most affected by the monsoon wind blowing from the Bay of
Bengal
• • Western Disturbances (depressions) mostly occur during the winter months
between December and March. The Western Disturbances originate in the Mediterranean
Sea and affect the western areas of Pakistan. They cause light to moderate showers in south
western parts of the country and moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the
northern parts of the country.
• • During the post Monsoon period between Octobers to December there is little
precipitation in Pakistan as no active wind or pressure systems are present.
• • Between April and June (early summer) convection currents can cause convection
rain and thunderstorms in the northern and North West areas of Pakistan. Convection rainfall
is caused by rising moist air cooling into the higher levels of the atmosphere so that
condensation occurs. This causes the water vapour to condense and fall as convection rain.

Rainfall in Pakistan
Source of rain
Monsoon rain (summer July to September)
Western Depression/winter rain (Winter December to March)
Convectional rain/Thunderstorms (pre-monsoon (may-June) and post monsoon (oct-nov)
Tropical Cyclone (Summer when sea/ocean water is warm)

Causes of Monsoon in Pakistan

High angle of the sun in summers/ warm air rises/ low pressure area develops on land/high
pressure on sea/ocean Land attracts cool moist air from the sea/ more humidity more clouds
formation/ condensation at higher altitude/precipitation
Characteristics
Giant sea breezes/bring heavy rainfall/time period July to September/ winds blow from Bay
of Bengal/only tail end of winds enters Pakistan/winds coming from Arabian sea.

Impacts of a heavy monsoon.

Negative
Floods
Heavy rain; causes poor visibility and accidents
Roads become rivers; cannot travel to work or school / towns and cities cut off
Flights cancelled; negative impact on trade / tourism / business
Crops destroyed; which causes food shortages / can lead to famine

Homes washed away / flooded / buildings destroyed; loss of

Possessions / people are homeless

Positive
Water level in reservoirs or dams rises; leading to more water for
Irrigation / domestic / industrial use / no water shortages / HEP
Businesses
Brings rainfall to desert areas; desert blooms
Replenishes groundwater; reduces water shortages

Western depression
Distribution
Western part of Pakistan e.g whole Balochistan and whole KPK
Northern and western mountains e.g Himalaya, Karakoram and Hindu Kush
Northern part of Punjab only
No influence over central and southern part of Punjab and whole Sindh Province

Causes of western disturbances/ depression

Western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean A high-pressure area develops
allowing the cold air from Polar Regions to meet an area of relatively warmer air with high
moisture. This forms an eastward-moving depression. This moves towards the Indian
Subcontinent until the Himalayas and produces rain.

• • High pressure over the Ukraine region means that cold air is ‘pulled in’ from polar
regions to an area with warmer moist air. These conditions cause the formation of an
eastward-moving extra-tropical depression towards Pakistan.

Characteristics
Pakistan only received rainfall between Decembers to March/winter season Western areas
of
Pakistan like Peshawar, Quetta, Chital etc receive rainfall through western disturbances Rain
in the form of light showers and drizzling.

Why rainfall varies throughout the year in Pakistan.

Subtropical monsoon climate leads to higher rainfall during the late spring and
summer months.
• Pakistan has a subtropical monsoon climate which leads to wide variations in
climatic characteristics, including rainfall.
• High rainfall in the monsoon season June to September monsoon climate.
• Winter distinct seasons in with rainfall during winter through western
disturbance.
c) Distribution and characteristics of large-scale ecosystems (i.e. biomes).

Climate Zones
Climate zones are areas with distinct climate features. These might correspond to latitudes,
and weather features of flora, and fauna.
Types of climate zones in Pakistan

• Desert/semi-arid
• • Humid subtropical
• • Mediterranean
• • Temperate.

1 ) Himalayan Subtropical Climate Zone

This climate zone lies on the southeast side of all continents, generally between latitudes 25'
& 35. They are characterized by hot, humid summers & mild chilly winters. The peak of the
summer months is shown by Rainfall. Thunderstorms may develop due to intense surface
hearing and uniform or varying rain cycles can be seen. The highest temp in winter is 0°C
and the warmest temp is 22° c or higher. = Islamabad, Rawalpindi.

2) Arid/Desert Climate Zone

In this climatic zone, winters are short, and mild summers are extremely hot. Dust storms
prevail from May to September, temperature goes to 4 and 50 'in summers, and 20 - 30 ' in
winters. Evaporation is more than precipitation, Nomadic lifestyle is adopted.

Characteristics
Annual rainfall (precipitation) is low/arid/approximately 38mm per annum
• Temperatures are hot in summer
• In June the average temperature is approximately 39 °C
• Occasional summer thunderstorms
• Cooler temperatures in winter
• Winter temperature 25°C average
• Large diurnal temperature range
• Low humidity.

3 ) Mediterranean Climate Zone

This zone is characterized by hot dry summers & cold, rainy winters, It is generally located
between 30 and 42" North and south latitudes.
4 ) Temperate zone
Distinct four seasons. Hot humid summers mild chilly winters humid springs generally arid.

Biomes

Biomes are large naturally occurring areas & communities dominant with a certain flora or
fauna

1. Himalayan Subtropical Biome

. Stretch 3000 km across Pak, Nepal, Bhutan, and India.

. lower elevations of Himalayan
. High rainfall from the South
. Punjab & Kashmir
. West Monsoon.
Flora and Fauna
. Pine species such as chir and PinuxRoxburgi
. Trees are widely spaced & fire is a common occurrence.
. Burnt slopes are home to a wide range of shrub species such as rubus, debris
. 120 mammal species
. Barking deer
. Yellow Throated marten
. Tigers and Leopards

2. Indus valley Desert Eco region

This biome lies entirely in the Pale, covering an area of 19, 501 km² Located by the Chenab
& Indus rivers cities like Mohanjdars & Harappa are located near. It is one of The driest and
most inhospitable places. Rainfall ranges from 600 - 800 mm only &, and summers are
extremely not with temp going above 40 winters are cold
Due to extreme climate, only some species can survive. This includes kherji Shrubs which
have leaves coated by a waxy leaf to prevent water loss. They also have long roots to absorb
as much water as possible.
Biodiversity is scarce in this region with only 32 species of mammals. This includes urial,
Indian Leopard, striped hyena, and caracal. There is also a prominent bird called red neck
falcon.
Threats faced are extinction due to hunting and migration due to extreme climate.

3. Mangrove Biome

Mangrove Forests are found on coastlines of subtropical or tropical areas. The mangrove
tree is strangely looking because it has its roots above the water. The roots are exposed to
help them take in oxygen in a waterlogged environment. In Pakistan, they are found along
the coastlines of Balochistan & Sindh.
Mangrove forests are important resting spots for shore & migratory birds. These include
Brow Pelican & Greet Egret.
This ecosystem is home to a wide range of biodiversity but is subjected to shrimp Farming.
Characteristics of Mangrove ecosystem
Tidal swamp
• Trees which can survive salty water conditions
• Shallow root systems
• Thick/dense roots above the ground
• Habitat for wildlife such as crocodiles
• Breeding area for small fish

Importance/benefits
Mangrove forests can bear the brunt. They reduce the impacts of strong waves on anything
that lives further inland including humans. This way coastal embankments and protections
are not needed.
Furthermore, Mangrove trees also protect the land from erosion by collecting sediments
from rivers & streams. This way sediment builds up & strengthens the shore.
Due to its strange roots, it becomes a breeding ground for fish Larvae. Nursery is formed
protecting fish before they can develop into adults & move into the unforgiving ocean.

Factors affecting the mangrove ecosystem.

Temperature, light, water depth, salinity, wind direction, level of shelter. For example:
Coastal mangroves need a high level of rainfall of between 1500 and 3000 mm per annum
this can be obtained from rainfall or moisture in the air making tropical climates ideal
Mangroves need a high temperature (1) around 27 degrees otherwise they will not grow
Mangroves need a shallow water between 0.5 to 2.5 meters depth but can survive where
tidal ranges go slightly above or below this level Mangroves need high levels of humidity
between 75 and 80% to enable them to grow.
Different benefits mangrove ecosystems bring to coastal communities in Pakistan.
• Nursery areas for small fish and marine invertebrates – food source as well as sea defense.
• Many coastal communities depend on fish as a main food source. • Coastal areas provide
areas where trade can take place with other countries.

1.2) Tectonic and glacial processes and landforms, and geophysical hazards

a) Tectonic processes affecting Pakistan and the formation of the Himalayan

landscape (fold mountains).

Mountain Building Process; Origin and Formation of Fold Mountains

PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
The word “tectonics” comes from the Greek word ‘tekton’, meaning ‘builder’. The theory
suggests that the surface of the earth is made up of rigid plates of lithosphere (Earth’s crust)
which ‘float’ on the more mobile asthenosphere (soft layer of mantle which is 35 km below
the Earth’s crust). Owing to the movement in the asthenosphere, the plates are in constant
motion. It explains many of the major processes of the Earth, such as drifting of continents,
mountain building, earthquakes and volcanic activity.

Many of this activity occurs at the edges, or margins of the plates.

To the north, north-west of Pakistan, there lies three ranges of mountains. They are Fold
Mountains. Before the formation of these mountains, the area was occupied by a long,
narrow, shallow sea known as the “Sea of Tethys”.
The mountain building would appear to have resulted from the movement of the Earth’s
plates, which led to the squeezing and folding, and ultimately the elevation of different
layers of sediments from the sea.
During the mountain building process, the Earth’s crust weakened due to great strains and
pressures and this occasionally resulted in earthquakes. However, volcanoes, which are
normally associated with young fold mountains, are strangely absent in the Himalayas.
Fold Mountains are mountains that form mainly by the effects of folding on layers within
the upper part of the Earth's crust. These forces act at line to the surface of the earth and
are primarily a result of plate tectonics.

Earthquakes

Earthquakes are sudden releases of energy from The Earth's Crust resulting in seismic waves
Earthquakes are caused due to plate movement, the reason why they are fairly organized is
that they tend to be focused along plate boundaries where there is build & release of
energy. In its North, two plates converge in Pakistan. As are out the indo Australian plate
sub ducts below the Eurasian Plate causing pressure to build up & result in fractures called
faults. When the energy becomes too great to be stored, movement occurs along fault lines,
an earthquake. Such abruptness cannot be foreseen thus like the 2005 earthquake man
cannot be fully prepared at any cost.
2005 Earthquake
The 2005 Kashmir Earthquake hit Pak on 8 Oct at 8:50 am. The epicentre was 39 km away
from The City of Muzaffarabad & the focus was not so deep in the lime sphere hence it had
drastic aftereffects as The Earth jolted intensely. Consequently, about 87, 351 people died,
while 75, 260 were injured and 2. 8 million were displaced

Earthquake impacts
: Deaths; Injuries; Damage to property, Fires; Damage to gas/water pipes; Disruption of
electricity supplies; Damage to roads; Damage to hospitals; Economic impact/damages to
factories/offices etc.
Primary

1. During the 2005 Earthquake the Earth jolted intensely with a Magnitude of 7.6. Due to it
one of the primary disasters was that the ground generated deep cracks which made relief
efforts quite difficult as deep cracks made transport unavailable
2. since the ground was shaking many buildings fell.
Infrastructure was disastrously damaged. The city of Balakot had almost entirely been wiped
out. This way recovery was made an arduous task due to primary impacts.
3. Lastly, more than 60% of buildings were responsible for the majority of deaths. People
died while working in a flash of a moment, others were severely injured, Infrastructure
collapsed over humans and many of those who survived suffered from aftershocks, and
panic & were trapped in The Rubble for days.

Secondary Impacts

Landslides rock falls/slope failures are caused by earthquake vibrations.

• Tsunami large coastal waves result from

Earthquakes out at sea flooding coastal areas

• Fires caused by broken gas pipes/electricity cables
• Diseases resulting from contaminated water supplies.

• Damage to infrastructure, such as roads prevents aid from reaching affected areas.

• Landslides, liquefaction and fallen debris may prevent essential medical supplies reaching
affected areas, especially remote rural regions.

Other impacts
• Pakistan is in very active earthquake zone caused by the convergence of three tectonic
plates therefore there is a high risk of damage to buildings and the loss of homes.
• • Highly populated urban settlements such as Quetta are located in the higher risk
zones, these two factors combine to result an increased risk of the destruction of
infrastructure and loss of people’s homes.
• • Traditional or poorly built housing cannot withstand earthquake tremors and
collapse. Many urban areas have large amounts of poorly built informal housing which
collapses easily.
Earthquake responses

Responses

The Earthquake damaged Pakistan's economy in many ways. Tourism was halted,
Rehabilitation required expenditure, and there was an inflow of loans that had to be repaid.
However, due to the assistance of excellent management strategies Pakistan was standing
on its feet again.

National

Organisations such as the International Rescue Committee are based in Pakistan and have
extensive experience of responding to events in Pakistan. Therefore, the organisation was
able to make a rapid and significant contribution in 2005 when a powerful earthquake
affected northern Pakistan. The organisation provided shelter, food, water, medical aid and
counselling to thousands of survivors
• During the 2008 earthquake which affected Balochistan, international organisations such as
the World Health Organisation sent medical aid and supplies for 50,000 people. This provided
essential treatments for those injured and suffering from hyperthermia. During the 2013
Balochistan earthquake, international agencies made a more limited contribution to the relief
effort, at least initially, as there was a significant army presence in the affected area.
● No disaster management authority existed to monitor such a big calamity. The
government was quick in forming the Federal Relief commission. This commission
took charge in mere days and was to coordinate responses and quick decisions to
ensure a coherent response. It implemented a National Action Plan to provide
financial aid to people stuck by the disaster. On a national level, the government
provided an efficient response mechanism.

● It provided the backbone of the actions and by the evening army helicopters were
hovering over hospital 101 & RWD helping the injured Military troops restore law &
order and helping people in affected areas to return to normal.
● Lastly, ERRA was formed. It dealt with reconstruction needs as more Than 60% of the
infrastructure had fallen. This way Pakistan was able to return to its economic
activities as soon as possible & was able to return
● Pakistan's populations & NGOs like Edhi e blood donors help relieve the economy
and, provide funds, blankets, money and food to affected victims.

International
In 2005, the government rapidly deployed the Pakistani army ensuring humanitarian aid
reached isolated communities and to co-ordinate relief supplies. The Pakistani government
and army were therefore an essential part of the aid effort.
• Much of the relief operations were Pakistani lead, with organisations such as NATO working
with the Pakistani army and other groups. For example, NATO engineers worked with the
Pakistani army on project Winter Race in 2005 to provide winter shelters for people living in
the mountains. International organisations therefore depended on a partnership with the
government/army to provide relief.
• A similar situation occurred in 2018 when the army played a significant part in co-ordinating
relief. Following the 2008 earthquake event, a number of Pakistani Islamic groups such as the
Jamaat-Ud- Dawa made small but significant contributions to the relief effects and used local
knowledge to reach.

● Pak was overwhelmed by the generosity of the world. The USA had an early
presence of 2000 people involved in the relief efforts. It provided an initial
contribution of $156 million. Thus due to incoming further enhanced operations
while the monasteries helped Pak solve problems of infrastructure Turkey also
provided support in difficult times. It sent 30 aircraft with medical teams and
equipment when Pak wasn't in a state to buy them. It also solved grave problems of
hunger by supplying 50,000 tons of flour.
● WHO rushed in 100,000 doses of anti-tetanus globulin as well as employing medical
personnel to ensure fewer chances of infection and diseases.

How agencies working in Pakistan can respond to one primary and one secondary impact
caused by earthquakes.

Primary: Try to persuade government to introduce building laws and regulations to ensure
more buildings are built to withstand earthquakes.
• Assist with efforts to fix damaged transport links to ensure people and goods can continue
to travel around the country.
• Try to improve emergency response services to reduce deaths from injuries which could
be treated.
Secondary

NGOs can provide medical supplies/personnel to help reduce the spread of disease.
• Deliver education programmes to local people to ensure more people know how to
respond to earthquake events.
• Install tsunami warning systems to try and reduce deaths in future events.
• Creation of specialist teams to deal with rescue from collapsed buildings/fires.

b) Glacial processes that operate in the Himalayan landscape (long-term and seasonal
accumulation/ablation of glacial systems).
The mass balance of a glacier involves two main components: accumulation of snow in the
glacier's zone of accumulation and the ablation of ice in the zone of ablation. The zone of
accumulation occurs in the upper reaches of the glacier where yearly additions of snow
exceed losses due to melting, evaporation, and sublimation. The surface of this zone is
covered by snow throughout the year. Below the zone of accumulation is the zone of ablation.
In this zone, the losses of snow and ice from melting, evaporation, and sublimation are greater
than the additions. The line that separates these two areas is called the snow line.

Glacial processes of accumulation

Accumulation occurs in upland areas where large volumes of snow/precipitation fall. Over a
period of time the snow/frozen becomes compacted to form accumulated glacier ice.
• • More snow/precipitation falls in mountain areas than the volume of snow/ice which
melts (ablates). Over time, the snow/frozen precipitation increases in volume to form a thick
layer of accumulated glacier ice.
• • Avalanches or snow slides can add snow to the glacier when snow falls down a steep
slope from above. This increases the glacier’s volume and the process of accumulation.

Glacial Erosion:
Land and rock cannot move out of the path of a glacier, so they are subjected to glacial
erosion, which is simply the carving and shaping of the land beneath a moving glacier. Glacial
erosion and the interesting landforms that result from this process are the subjects of this
lesson. There are two main processes of glacial erosion.
1-Plucking
2-Abrasion
1-Plucking:
As a glacier moves over the landscape, water melts below the glacier and seeps into cracks
within the underlying bedrock. This water freezes and melts, weakening the bonds holding
pieces of bedrock in place. These pieces of rock can now be picked up or plucked from their
rocky base and carried along with the moving glacier.
Plucking also contributes to the second process of glacial erosion, known as abrasion.
Abrasion is defined as the erosion that occurs when particles scrape against each other. The
enormous weight of the glacier, along with rocks and sediment plucked up and clinging to its
belly scratch and carved the rock surface below. It's almost as if the moving glacier is sanding
the rocks with abrasive sandpaper.

Reasons of Glacial Ablation

A glacier retreats or shrinks through melting or when the evaporation process exceeds the
rate of accumulation of snow, which is also known as ablation or wastage.

Solar Radiation
The melting of glaciers depends on a variety of factors, the most important of which is the
amount of solar radiation hitting the ice. Glaciers deflect up to 80% of solar radiation
(sunlight), while absorbing the rest. When a glacier melts completely, it exposes the earth’s
surface, and this has the opposite effect, meaning that 80% of heat is absorbed and 20% is
deflected. Increased radiation increases melting rates, causing glaciers to shrink.

Global warming

Studies show that human-caused global warming is the leading cause of glacier retreat.
Glacier retreat results in a variety of negative consequences, including increased sea levels,
floods, and fresh water shortages. When ice glaciers melt faster, temperatures rise further,
and more glaciers shrink, which creates a vicious cycle that is significantly changing the
climate across the globe.

Explain one way in which glaciers transport material.

As the glacier moves downhill, it moves material which has fallen onto its surface. As the
glacier moves downhill, it moves material which has been buried within the ice. Material
which is at the base of a glacier is moved downhill by melt water.

Explain one reason why a glacier may deposit some of its load.
Glaciers may melt because temperatures increase in the summer. Material carried by the
glacier may become lodged because the glacier passes over an obstruction. The mass of the
glacier may reduce because levels of snowfall decrease. Global warming may cause the glacier
to melt.
Landforms formed by Glacial Erosion.
 ● U Shaped valleys :
Formation of U-shaped valleys from v shaped valleys takes over a geologic period. As thick
ice moves over a V-Shaped valley the shape is transformed due to erosion and a parabolic
curve is adopted.

● Sharp peaks
● Glacial lakes.

1.3 Relief, drainage and hydro meteorological hazards

Topography is a configuration of a land surface including its relief and contours, the
distribution of mountains and valleys, the patterns of rivers, and all other natural features
that produce the landscape.

Drainage
Drainage pattern is the pattern formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular
drainage basin. They are governed by the topography of the land, whether a particular region
is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and the gradient of the land. The drainage pattern
resembling the branches of a tree is known as “dendritic” the examples of which are the rivers
of the northern plain such as ‘The Indus’.
Dendritic drainage systems are not straight and are the most common form of drainage
system. In a dendritic system, there are many contributing streams which are then joined
together into the tributaries of the main river (the branches and the trunk of the tree,
respectively). They develop where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. Dendritic
systems form in V-shaped valleys.

Topography of N.Mountains
-Sharp edges ridges -pyramidal peaks -steep slopes -flat land -thin soil (slopes) thick
soil(valleys) -Bare rocks -scree/talus
Scree a mass of small loose stones that form or cover a slope on a mountain Glacier a Compact
mass of ice which moves very slowly down to valley by the force of gravity. Bare rocks
mountains with no vegetation snowfield land covered with permanent snow snowline
Imaginary line on high mountains dividing permanent snow cover abrasion erosional process
done by glaciers on high mountains, wears down or rubs away surface rocks Plucking
erosional process, glaciers on high mountains, plucks and pull surface rocks.

Natural drainage of Northern Mountains

• • Fast flowing rivers
• • Main river Indus ( starts from Mansrowar lake in Tibet)
• • Indus river tributaries, shyok, gilgi and shigar rivers
• • Drainage features. Gorges, waterfalls, rapids, streams and springs

Western Mountains
This region consists of the mountain ranges, namely; the Waziristan hills, the Safed Koh range,
the Sulaiman range and the Kirthar range.
Topography
All of these ranges run in the North-South direction except the Safed Koh, which runs from
East to West. The Safed Koh mountain range is the only range, which has some existing snow-
capped peaks. Other ranges are quite dry. These mountains generally have bare rocks due to
low rainfall and in some cases very high temperatures (which leads to high rates of
evaporation). These mountain ranges have steep sided peaks along with deep narrow valleys
and gorges.

Drainage
The Safed Koh range is drained by River Kabul, which runs in West to East direction and
eventually joins River Indus. The Waziristan hills are drained by small seasonal rivers like
Kurram, Tochi and Gomal. These rivers run from West to East, and all are the Western
tributaries of the River Indus. The Sulaiman range is drained by small hill torrents and small
seasonal rivers such as the Bolan. These rivers usually lead to small inland lakes, where the
water collects sand then dries up (for example the lake Damas).The Kirthar range on the other
hand is drained by the River Hab (seasonal river),which flows in a North to South direction
and eventually joins the Arabian Sea.

Indus Plain
Divided into three
a) Upper Indus Plain (UIP) Attock to Mithankot
b) Lower Indus Plain (LIP) Mithenkot to Indus delta
c) Delta plain

Natural topography of Upper Indus Plain

The upper Indus Plain is characterized by flat land which is higher and consists of alluvial
soil. It has active flood plains as well as old flood plains and doabs. This way agriculture is
present and Thriving in These areas along with flooring, and decoration industries for slate
mines exist in these areas.
The upper Indus plain is drained by Eastern tributaries of the river Indus: Jehlum, Chenab,
Sutlej, Ravi and Beas. These join at Panjand which flows for 72 km till it joins Indus at
Mithankot. It is 1.4km wide.
Flat land, few low hills, Quartzite/slate hills, thick soil (alluvium), Doabs. Sub features e.g
Bluff/scarp, alluvial terrace/bar upland or bars, Piedmont plains on foothills of Siwaliks
between Jhelum and Chenab.
LOWER INDUS PLAIN.
Lower Indus Plain is categorized by alluvial soils that are located at a lower height. Doabs are
rarely found in this region. There are limestone Hills located here giving birth to
construction industries. A few low wills are also present and rolling dunes are also
prevented.

In this plain, the Indus river flows along with a width of 1.6 km and it does this very slowly
depositing some sediments. There are no tributaries but in the end the civil branches out
into distributaries. It has a width of 1.6 km.

Flood plains
A flood plain is a wide area of flat, low-lying land either side of a river channel. It is formed by
meanders migrating downstream and is composed of alluvium deposited by repeated
flooding.

At times of high discharge, a river carries large amounts of material in suspension. When the
river floods it overflows its banks and the water covers the surrounding flat land. The
increased friction between the water and the land reduces the velocity of the water and the
sediment is deposited.
Every time the river floods, another layer of alluvium is added, forming a flat flood plain. The
heaviest and coarsest material is deposited first along the banks of the river whilst the finer
alluvium is carried further away before being deposited. Repeated flooding results in the
accumulation of the coarse silt next to the river, forming a natural embankment known as a
b levee.

• Active flood plains. Sub features

Levees, Braided channels, Dry channels, Ox-bow lakes, Meanders

• • Old flood plain. Sub features

Abandoned channels, remains of ox-bow lakes, Scars of meanders

• • Natural Topography of Lower Indus
Flat land, gentle slope, alluvium soil, few low hills, Limestone hills / custas, rolling and dunes
in arid part, Delta, AFP and OFP, piedmont plains, River indus on foothills of Suleiman and
Kirthar ranges.

Deltas
A delta is a low-lying area of land formed at the mouth of a river where the stream loses
velocity and drops part of its sediment load.

Formation of Indus delta

As a river enters the sea, its speed is checked suddenly and it begins to deposit its load. A
delta is formed when the load is deposited more quickly than the sea's currents and tides
remove it. Over time, the deposits build upwards and outwards to form a delta. As the delta
grows, sediments accumulate and block the path of the main river forcing it to split into a
number of smaller streams, known as distributaries. Gradually, the delta is colonized by plants
to stabilize it.

Indus River Delta is located in the south of Thatta. It is a landform which includes sediments
at the mouth of the river. It is formed when Distributaries form as the river channel splits
into smaller channels now the river loses its velocity and does not have enough power to
carry sediments. It deposits the heavier materials and sediments first & the finer, lighter
ones at Last. Thus it is built up in layers. This forms alluvial soil for farming, Mangrove trees
are also found here

Characteristics of Indus delta coastline

Extensive area/ approximately 41,440 km2 of flat land due to river deposition of sediment as
the river losses velocity.
• The river Indus divides in to channels/distributaries due to deposition of sediment blocking
the main river channel and causing the river to divert its course.
• There are extensive mangrove forests growing in the inter-tidal zone because mangrove
trees are specially adapted to low oxygen conditions as they have aerial roots to absorb
gasses.
• The Indus Delta used to flood regularly after the monsoon rains, however since the 1940’s
large scale irrigation schemes on the River Indus have reduced the amount of water and
sediment reaching the delta therefore the delta has decreased in size.
• The Indus delta changes the regional shape of the coastline as elongated ‘finger-shaped’
low sandy areas separated by channels called distributaries form an indented fan shaped
coastline instead of a smooth coastline.

Tropical Cyclones
A cyclone is a tropical storm or atmospheric turbulence involving circular motion of winds.
Technically, a cyclone is an area of low atmospheric pressure where strong winds blow
around a centre in an anticlockwise direction in the Northern Hemisphere and a clockwise
direction in the Southern Hemisphere. Cyclones occurring in the tropical regions are called
tropical cyclones. The tropics can be regarded as the region lying between 300N latitude and
300S.

Causes

Cyclones develop over warm seas when the surface temperature is more than 270C. The air
above the sea is heated, it expands and rises very rapidly creating an area of intense low
pressure. The warm, moist air spirals upwards, condenses and forms clouds and rain. Air from
the surrounding area spirals inwards to replace the rising air. This spinning air can reach
speeds of 200 km/hr and absorbs large amounts of moisture forming cumulonimbus clouds
which result in heavy rain. The cold air then sinks. The centre of the cyclone is calm and is
known as the eye (see Figure 2.4).
Causes
• Tropical cyclones form over warm ocean waters near the equator. They form between
latitudes 5 -20o north and south of the equator because sea surface temperatures of
approximately 26o are required.
• • Tropical cyclones require low pressure to form; therefore, they develop from
localised thunderstorms which last for a long period of time and which develop in intensity
• • This causes warm, moist air over the ocean surface rises upward and begin to spiral
around the centre. As this air rises, it causes lower atmospheric pressure to form and this
results in cooler air being drawn towards the centre of the spiralling air. This cool air becomes
most and warm and rises, causing the further decrease in pressure.
• • As the warmed, moist air rises and cools, the moisture in the air forms clouds.
• • As the storm system rotates faster and faster due to the Coriolis effect. This causes
an eye to form in the centre.

Among all the atmospheric disturbances, cyclones are the most destructive. The diameter of
cyclone may range from 300 km to 600 km.

The most striking feature of a cyclone is its 'eye'. The can be seen clearly in satellite pictures
case of a well-developed cyclone. is small and almost circular; it coincides with area lowest
pressure has diameter ranging from 8 km to 50 km. warmer than rest storm area. More
violent storm, eye. Winds are very light eye, usually not 25 30/hr rain practically absent.
Contrast, strongest heaviest occur just outside this central eye.
The life cycle of a cyclone ends soon after the cyclone reaches land ('landfall'), because it is
cut off from its moisture source.
Characteristics of tropical cyclone
Warm sea surface, Temperature of at least 27°C, Location between 5 and 20° north or south,
an existing storm/depression, an area of low pressure

Storm surges
In addition to the waves associated with winds, abrupt surges of water known as storm surges
are associated with cyclones. They strike the coast nearly at the same time that the centre of
the storm crosses the coast. Most of the damage during a cyclone is done by the storm surges,
which sometimes wash over entire offshore and large areas on the coast.

CAUSES OF STORM SURGE:

• Storm surges, normally associated with tropical cyclones resulting in very strong on-
shore winds. Which push the top layer of water of the Arabian Sea upwards increasing the
sea level and flooding the coastline.
• • Climate change resulting in rising global temperatures which causes ice caps and
glaciers to melt. This increases the volume of sea water and leads to coastal flooding.
• • Tsunami are very large waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions offshore.
As the wave approaches the coast it slows but its amplitude increases causing large scale
flooding of coastal areas.
• • Deforestation of mangroves removes protection against the height and velocity of
high tides and storms along the coastline and increases the risk of extensive flooding of
coastal areas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF STORM SURGES:

1. Fast moving storms.
2. High surges along the open coast and lower surges along sheltered bays.
3. Slow moving storms result in flooding inside bays.
4. Large storms affect longer stretches of coast line.
1.3.3. RIVER FLOODS
Rivers provide an attraction for human settlement and economic development. Water is a
vital resource to people for drinking, washing, industrial processes, leisure, agriculture and
transport. However, excessive water in the rivers may cause floods.
The Indus and its tributaries swell, and almost every year overflows their banks. The flood in
most years is not serious. However every 7 to 8 years there are severe floods.
CAUSES OF FLOODS IN PAKISTAN:

Physical/natural causes

Pakistan’s monsoon climate causes heavy rainfall from June to September. Approximately
75% of Pakistan’s rainfall occurs during monsoon season increasing over-land and river flow
and resulting in periodic flooding in cities such as Karachi and rural areas.
• Glacial melt. Increasing temperatures in spring and summer in the Himalayas and other
mountain ranges result in glacial ablation. Much of the melt water flows into Pakistan’s
extensive river network and, as a large proportion for the country is part of a flood plain or
delta, this causes flooding in these flatter areas.
• The steep relief of the mountain ranges in the north and North West of Pakistan, for
example the Hindu Kush range, mean that there is rapid surface run-off which causes rivers
to flood areas downstream.
• The mountain ranges in the north and North West of Pakistan are formed of impermeable
rocks and have a very thin covering of soil. Therefore, nearly all precipitation and glacial melt
water flows over the land surface as surface run-off and into rivers. This increases river
discharge and flooding in the lower lying areas downstream.
• Coastal tropical cyclones may produce storm waves which prevent a river, especially the
Indus, from flowing into the sea which causes flooding of coastal areas. This process can result
waves of up to four metres when combined with spring tides.

Human causes

Deforestation in the upper courses of the rivers, such as the Himalayan foothills, results in
rapid surface runoff and soil erosion. Rivers silt up due to increased deposition of eroded soil,
this can raise the river bed, reduce river capacity and as a consequence increase the likelihood
of flooding. Trees also intercept precipitation therefore reducing flood risk; therefore,
deforestation may significantly increase flooding.
• Urbanisation and agriculture on rivers’ flood plains, especially the Indus, increases run off
and reduced interception by vegetation, leading to reduced lag times and increased flooding.
• Poorly maintained river embankments, especially along the Indus, results in the
embankments collapsing during flood events and allowing flood waters to escape from the
river channel.
• Pakistan is at risk from the impact of human-induced climate change, which is thought to
result in increased rainfall, especially during the Monsoon period, increasing the flood risk.

2010 floods
Flooding, such as the 2010 floods, causes severe damage to livestock that is unable to
relocate. Cattle and other animals are subjected too much harm. Hence, a major food
source is lost resulting in food insecurity as well as biodiversity loss which means that the
area is unable to recover from the disastrous flood. Furthermore, in urban areas flooding
damages millions of work infrastructure. Businesses are also temporarily stopped causing
losses of millions. Adding on, people affected by the flood migrate to highland places where
they are away from the destructive floods. This way disaster is done and acute problems of
sanitation and diseases arise. Water problems like Cholera are also a major setback for food.
However, Floods also result in positive impacts. Groundwater sources are replenished. This
way future droughts are avoided and drinking irrigation water for upcoming generations is
seared. Besides this, floods, distribute sediment and spread a layer of alluvium or plains, this
way crops can be grown there and rice paddies can be built. In My opinion,
Flooding is a rather negative phenomenon for it can also take lives. For example, the 2010
flood almost took 7600 homes, reducing human resources in the country.

CAUSES OF COASTAL FLOODS in Pakistan.

• Storm surges, normally associated with tropical cyclones resulting in very strong on-
shore winds which push the top layer of water of the Arabian Sea upwards increasing the sea
level and flooding the coastline.
• • Climate change resulting in rising global temperatures which causes ice caps and
glaciers to melt. This increases the volume of sea water and leads to coastal flooding.
• • Tsunami are very large waves caused by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions offshore
As the wave approaches the coast it slows but its amplitude increases causing large scale
flooding of coastal areas.
• • Deforestation of mangroves removes protection against the height and velocity of
high tides and storms along the coastline and increases the risk of extensive flooding of
coastal areas.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COASTAL FLOODS:

1. Water level drops and rises with the tide.
2. At high tide the water may flow in and at low tide it may recede again.
3. Once it overtops and breach the defences, the sea enters fast but slows down when it
spreads over a large area.

ENERGY RESOURCES
Energy can be obtained from various sources, e.g. fuels, water and sunlight. These are either
renewable or non-renewable resources. Energy exits in various forms like heat, light,
electrical and chemical. All forms of energy can be converted into power, which can be used
to do work. For example, when petrol or diesel is burnt in a car engine, its chemical energy
is used to make the car move. Electricity is used to operate machines and appliances.
Minerals.
Minerals are inorganic natural substances and one of the natural resources of a country. They
are obtained from under the surface of the earth, (though they may not be far under).

The exploitation of natural resources is the use of natural resources for economic growth,
sometimes with a negative connotation of accompanying environmental degradation.
Reasons for the distribution of natural resources.
Water resources are predominantly located in the Indus valley and the tributaries of the
Indus, for example the Ravi river. These rivers receive water from spring snow melt in the
Himalayas and their foothills and by precipitation from the monsoon
• Deforestation has removed much of the forested areas of Pakistan (only approximately
1.9% of Pakistan is forested, only areas which are relatively inaccessible, such as the
coniferous forests which are found at high or mangrove forests which are important for
coastal protection remain.
• Fish and shellfish resources are found along the Arabian Sea coast where they either occur
naturally or are farmed (aquiculture) in the Indus delta.
• Minerals are located in most areas of Pakistan but there is a concentration of deposits in
the east and north. This is because the geology is suitable for mineral deposits in these areas,
for example sedimentary rocks of the Thar coalfield
RENEWABLE RESOURCES
The resources which are being continuously consumed by man but are renewed by nature
constantly are called as Renewable Resources. These resources are inexhaustible because
they cannot be exhausted permanently. Renewable resources are also called as ‘Non-
Conventional’ sources of energy.
Examples
⦿ Solar energy
⦿ Wind energy
⦿ Tidal energy
⦿ Hydro power
⦿ Geothermal energy
⦿ Biofuels
Renewable energy in Pakistan is a relatively underdeveloped sector; however, in recent years,
there has been some interest by environmentalist groups and from the authorities to
explore renewable energy resources for energy production, in light of the energy crises
and power shortages affecting the country. Most of the renewable energy in Pakistan comes
from hydroelectricity.

Solar Energy
Pakistan being in the Sunny Belt and is lucky to have long sunshine hours and high insolation
levels and is ideally located to take advantage of solar energy technologies as shown in Fig. 2.
This energy source is widely distributed and abundantly available in the country.
Harnessing the sun’s power is considered an attractive alternative because it is a renewable
resource, which causes no pollution. In contrast to conventional fuels, its use eliminates the
need for refining, transporting and conveying fuels and power over long distances. The use of
solar energy for heating and cooking purposes a more repaid pay off than other energy
alternatives because the basic technology already exists and need only minor refinements.

Wind energy
Pakistan has a considerable potential of wind energy in the coastal belt of Sindh, Balochistan
and as well as in the desert areas of Punjab and Sindh. This renewable source of energy has
however, not so far been utilized significantly. the coastal belt of Pakistan is blessed with a
God gifted wind corridor that is 60 km wide (Gharo ~ Kati Bandar) and 180 km long (up to
Hyderabad). This corridor has the exploitable potential of 50,000 MW of electricity generation
through wind energy.
In addition to that there have been some other wind sites have been exploited in coastal area
of Balochistan and some Northern areas. Most of the remote villages in the south can be
electrified through micro wind turbines. It is estimated that more than 5000 villages can be
electrified through wind energy in Sindh, Balochistan and Northern areas.
Why is it important to develop renewable energy resources?
Pakistan depends on imported non-renewable energy resources, therefore developing
renewable resources will help to improve Pakistan’s trade balance.
· Remote rural areas do not have access to electricity, therefore small-scale renewable
schemes will help local/regional development.
· Non-renewable resources are finite, therefore renewable energy is needed to ensure energy
security in the future.
Non-renewable energy resources contribute to global climate change, therefore renewable
resources are needed to reduce to reduce CO2 emissions.

Explain the benefits of exploiting one named renewable energy resource in Pakistan.
There are a range of renewable energy resources being exploited in Pakistan including biogas,
hydroelectric power, solar and wind. • Use of renewable energy can expand capacity and
provide electricity when there are shortfalls from other sources. This can reduce reliance on
non-renewable energy sources such as coal and oil • Use of renewable energy sources can
help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions which contribute to climate change. • Some
renewable energy sources can allow more remote areas to access electricity. Rooftop solar
power has provided electricity to a large number of people particularly in remote off grid
areas which wouldn’t have had power otherwise. Small-scale power installations like this have
been supported by NGOs and have helped bring people out of poverty. • Household and
village level biogas plants allow more remote places to access energy.

NON-RENEWABLE RESOURCES
The resources which are non-renewable are called as Non-Renewable sources. The Non-
Renewable resources do not replenish and cannot be renewed. It took thousands of years of
time to form the non-renewable resources which exist inside the earth in the form of coal,
fossil fuels, etc.
Examples
⦿ Fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas)
⦿ non- metallic Mineral (rock salt, lime stone)
Metallic minerals (iron ore, chromite bauxite)
⦿ Nuclear Energy
Difficulties in exploitation of non-renewable energy resources in Pakistan

High cost of construction e.g. nuclear plants. Pakistan has limited financial resources for such
projects due to the trade deficit, and it is cheaper to import oil than develop such projects.
• Non- renewable resources are generally located in inaccessible areas without sufficient
infrastructure for their development and exploitation, for example the coalfields in the
Tharparker region.
• Pakistan lacks trained engineers and earth scientists to help locate and exploit non-
renewable resources, and lacks the capacity to train additional specialists.
• The Sui gas field in Bolochistan is in a remote location and requires pipelines to transport
the gas. This increases the exploitation costs, and also means that the pipelines are a frequent
target of terrorist attacks. Consequently, the Frontier Corps to take charge of the Sui Gas
Fields in 2011, again increasing financial costs.
• Exploitation is a dangerous and expensive process. For example in coal mines, there are
risks of gases (methane) and tunnel collapse.

The environmental impacts which may result from exploitation of one non-renewable
energy resource in Pakistan.
There are deposits of lignite coal in the Thar coalfield however these deposits contain
impurities called volatiles which produce large volumes of CO2 when burnt. The coal will be
mined by open cast methods. This will result in huge open pits that reach below the water
table. Once mining is finished, the pits will fill with water contaminated with sulphur, which
can contaminate the ground water making it acidic and damaging to local ecosystems. Any
unwanted waste from mining is piled up near to the open cast pit. Rainwater passing through
the waste will pick up heavy metals such as mercury and arsenic, which are then transported
to streams and rivers, damaging wildlife and water quality.
The negative environmental impacts can be reduced if careful methods of coal extraction are
enforced. For example, there are plans in Thar to line the reservoir tanks serving the coal
mines, therefore preventing contamination of ground water and resulting environmental
problems. Modern coal fire power stations can have ‘scrubbers’ that extract pollutants
before they are released into the atmosphere. This reduces greenhouse gasses especially
CO2.

Increased CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels such as coal which contributes
to climate change.
• Burning fossil fuels can increase air pollution which can lead to health problems
and greater mortality.
• Mining activities damage the landscape and which can destroy habitats and
reduce biodiversity.
• Depleting energy sources which reduces energy security creating the need for
energy imports.

The environmental impacts resulting from the exploitation of renewable energy resource
used in Pakistan.

Solar power
• • The construction /production materials used in include cadmium, tellurium, gallium,
indium and selenium. There is currently limited recycling for these in Pakistan.
• • When construction of large-scale installations such as Beaconhouse Canal Side
Campus, Lahore, require land clearance which can have negative environmental impacts, o
including soil; erosion, destroying habitats and displacing animals.
• • Water consumption. Solar panels have to be cleaned at regular intervals to ensure
peak efficiency. Solar farms that use concentrated solar collector also require water for
cooling. Areas such as Bolochistan have a water deficit and any additional water demands
increase the environmental impacts on ground and surface water resources.
• • Pollution related to solar energy systems is considerably less compared to other
sources of energy. However, transportation and installation of solar systems cause the
emission of greenhouse gases.
• • However, solar produced energy contributes 96 to 98% less greenhouse gasses than
coal generated electricity, particularly the highly polluting the low carbon coals produced in
Pakistan.
• • Solar energy uses 86 to 89 % less water than coal-produced electricity. This
minimises the amount of water potentially polluted and reduces environmental impacts.

Hydropower
• • Hydropower provided 45% of power generation in 1991, but this has fallen to about
28%. Developments in association with China are planned to increase this to more than 40%
by 2030.
• • Constructing large hydropower plants involves blocking, diverting, or changing the
natural course of river systems, causing destroying or damaging to wildlife habitats and
migration routes. Over time, dammed rivers tend to have greatly reduced fish populations,
which has negative implications for the health of river ecosystems.
• • Damming rivers often reduces water and sediment flow downstream of the dam.
Low water flow and low nutrient flow can lead to habitat losses.
• • Associated infrastructure development will also cause habitat loss and increased
greenhouse gas emissions. For example, the Dasu hydropower project in Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa will require diverting and re-building 65km of the Karakoram Highway.
• • Reservoirs created by damming rivers can contribute greenhouse gases. Organic
material trapped in the reservoirs, such as dead plants, breaks down and releases carbon
dioxide and methane.
• • However, hydropower produces significantly less greenhouse gases than power
production using oil or other fossil fuels and has therefore lower overall environmental
impacts.

Wind energy
• • Many of Pakistan’s pilot wind energy projects are located on tidal flats, mostly in
Sindh, causing loss of habitats and bird feeding areas.
• • The infrastructure needed for the erection of wind farms is insufficient in Pakistan
and therefore existing bridges and roads have to be updated. These building projects and the
construction of the wind farms themselves produce greenhouse gasses.
• • Wind farms can produce both noise and visual pollution. Potential areas for new
wind farms include the upland regions of Karachi – Hyderabad, ridges in the northern Indus
valley, areas in western Pakistan and high mountainous regions. These are areas which are
scenically attractive and undeveloped.
• • However, wind energy is a low-carbon energy source A wind turbine generating
electricity produces zero carbon emissions. The development of clean wind energy avoids
significant carbon dioxide (CO2) pollution.
• • Wind energy also reduces water consumption. Unlike thermal power plants, wind
turbines do not require to produce electricity or cool power generating equipment. Water
conservation is especially important in Pakistan which has an increasing water deficient.

Biogas
• • The Biogas Support Program (BSP) was introduced in 2000 by Pakistani government.
Biogas production produces less greenhouse gases than fossil fuels.
• • Biogas production does not require the construction of roads and other
infrastructure as the fuel source, animal manure, is available in the local area. This reduces
greenhouse gas emissions.
• • Biogas generators helps to prevent firewood collection in rural areas of Pakistan.
This reduces deforestation and helps to preserve wildlife habitats.
• • However, carbon dioxide is produced in the biological breakdown process and when
using the biogas. The amount of carbon dioxide produced is considerably less compared than
that produced by fossil fuels. Biogas is not carbon neutral.
• • Biogas production is only currently viable in rural or suburban areas of Pakistan and
is produced on a very small scale. The environmental benefits are therefore limited.

Q:Evaluate the environmental impacts caused by the exploitation of one named natural
resource.
Named natural resource .....................................................................................
Water
• An estimated 50% of agricultural land in Pakistan is affected by waterlogging or salinity. For
example, waterlogging in the Punjab is caused by over-use of water for irrigation which causes
the water table to rise, making the soil saturated and unsuitable for plant or crop growth. The
rising water brings salts, in solution, to the surface which are left as a surface deposit which
also prevents plant growth.
• Dams (such as the Tarbela dam) and barrages (such as Kalabagh barrage) for water
extraction, hydropower, and other purposes along the river Indus cause reduced water flow
in the lower sections of the river, this loss of water causes damage to the coastal mangrove
forests and the associated ecosystems. However, as this is a renewable method of power
production, there are considerable environmental benefits in using this method rather than
relying on fossil fuels.

• Water used in industrial processes can become polluted leading to

contamination of water sources used for drinking, particularly in urban areas.
• • Overuse of water for irrigation can create stress for groundwater sources
which can lead to spread and increased severity of arsenic contamination.

Forest products
• The moist, temperate forest of the Himalayas supplies most of Pakistan’s construction and
furniture timber. As a result, many areas have been felled causing a loss of biodiversity and
extensive soil erosion. However, manufacturing alternative construction materials such as
bricks and concrete use large amounts of fossil fuel energy.
• The mangroves forests of the Indus delta are important breeding areas for fish, shrimp and
crabs, and for over-wintering birds.
However, as these forests are over-exploited to provide fuel wood and animal fodder, the
areas of mangroves and their biodiversity are rapidly deteriorating.
• The mazri forests in Balochistan are exploited to provide palm leaves for local cottage
industries. Dry trunks and foliage are used as fuel. Large areas of mazri forests have already
been cleared or excessively degraded and the forests are in danger of being completely felled,
causing loss of ecosystems and biodiversity. However, there are few alternative sources of
energy in these areas as they are not connected to Pakistan’s electricity distribution system.

• Deforestation reduces the quality of the soil and increases the risk of topsoil
being washed away by rain and reduces habitats for species leading to reduced
biodiversity.
• • Degradation of mangrove forests along the coastal zone can reduce
protection of the coastline to storm surges.

Fish/shellfish
• Developing aquaculture of marine shrimp species along the Sindh and Balochistan coasts is
beginning to result in water pollution, causing water degradation and loss of biodiversity.
Developing shrimp farming in the mangrove forests of the Indus delta is also causing the loss
of ecosystems and habitats. However, this aquaculture provides a source of protein for local
people as well as providing incomes.
• Pakistan’s limited regulation of fishing means that over-fishing continues and frequently
uses illegal methods. Immature fish are caught resulting in reduction in fish numbers,
affecting biodiversity and fish stock levels. Modern fishing nets rip-up and destroy corals
resulting in the loss of coral reefs and associated ecosystems. However, improved legislation
might provide very limited protection as it is sometimes difficult to enforce laws in Pakistan,
as well as depriving coastal communities of an important food source.
• Freshwater aquaculture is being developed in Pakistan, for example in Sindh, and unless
regulated may result in eutrophication, the loss of water quality and destruction of natural
habitats.

Minerals
• Underground mining, for example coal mining in Sindh, causes loss of biodiversity, sinkholes
and subsidence and contamination of surface water, groundwater and the soil by toxic
minerals. However, the limited development of renewable energy resources and the high cost
of imported oil and gas means that coal is important to the local and national economy.
• Both under-ground and surface mining involve the removal of vegetation and topsoil leading
to loss of biodiversity.
• Extensive limestone quarrying in Balochistan causes loss of biodiversity and dust pollution
which adversely affects the local ecosystems. However, Balochistan is one of the less
developed areas of Pakistan, and quarries provides important local employment.