Analysis of laminated composites, laminate orientation code, stress and strain variation in a laminate,

properties of symmetric, cross ply angle-ply and quasi isotropic analysis of laminate after initial failure,
hygrothermal behaviour of laminates. Thermal and moisture expansion coefficients, transports properties,
mass diffusion.

ANALYSIS OF A LAMINATED COMPOSITE: -

One very significant advantage offered by composites is that their properties can be tailor‐made; layer‐by‐layer, to meet
specific functional requirements. Further, each layer can be itself engineered by altering selection of fiber materials,
having a mix of fibers, changing their orientation, using matrix material with appropriate properties, and controlling
fiber volume fraction. Analytical models developed thus far help us calculate fairly accurately mechanical properties of
each lamina. These models allow variability of properties of fibers and matrices, volume fractions, and fiber orientation.

The next step in this journey is to develop a theoretical construct which will help us predict the mechanical response of
a laminate, i.e. a collection of laminae, stacked up and bonded together. Each lamina in this stack‐up may have different
properties. The 1st step for predicting the response of a laminate involves developing stress‐strain relations for a
composite plate.

The transverse properties of unidirectional composites are unsatisfactory for most practical applications. The goal of
this chapter is to analyses the stacking sequence in order to achieve adequate anisotropic properties.
Fig. 1 Stacking of plies with different angles for tailoring (stiffness, thermal stability)
LAMINATE CODES

STRAIN RELATION IN A LAMINATE

Before developing an understanding about variation of strains in a laminate, we will make certain
assumptions about it. These are:

Laminates are manufactured so that they act as single‐layer materials. In typical applications, such
a response from the laminate is required so that its overall strength and stiffness can be maximized.
The requirement of ―single‐layer materials‖ necessitates that the adhesive bond between two
adjacent layers is perfect in the sense it has:

 Almost zero thickness

 No shear deformation ‐ Thus, adjacent lamina cannot slip over each other.

The assumption of ―single‐layer material‖ also implies that displacements are continuous across
the bond between two adjacent layers.

Laminates are thin in the sense their overall thickness is significantly smaller other dimensions of
the laminate. Consider Fig. 25.1. The figure shows how a section of laminate, taken in x‐z
direction, appears after deformation due to application of forces. Here, z, is the thickness direction
on reference coordinate system.
The lower left‐side portion of Fig. 25.1 is a view of un‐deformed laminate. The lower right‐side
portion of Fig. 25.1 shows the deformed state of laminate’s section.

In the un‐deformed section, line ABCD, is perfectly straight and normal to mid‐plane of the
laminate. This line is assumed to remain straight and normal to mid‐plane even after getting
deformed. This implies that:

 Out‐of‐plane shear strains γxz, and γyz, are zero.

 There is no inter‐laminar shear or slipping.
 Further, it is assumed that the length of line ABCD remains same after deformation. This
in turn implies that strain in z direction, εzz, is zero.

 The lower left‐side portion of Fig. 25.1 is a view of un‐deformed laminate. The lower
right‐side portion of Fig. 25.1 shows the deformed state of laminate’s section.

 In the un‐deformed section, line ABCD, is perfectly straight and normal to mid‐plane of
the laminate. This line is assumed to remain straight and normal to mid‐plane even after
getting deformed. This implies that:

o Out‐of‐plane shear strains γxz, and γyz, are zero.

o There is no inter‐laminar shear or slipping.

 Further, it is assumed that the length of line ABCD remains same after deformation. This
in turn implies that strain in z direction, εzz, is zero.

 Further, due to deformation of plate, point B undergoes translation by amount uo, vo, and
wo, in x, y, and z directions, respectively. Also, the line ABCD rotates about B by an angle
α in the z plane. Figure 25.1 does not show vo displacement explicitly because the figure is
a side view of the laminate undergoing deformation.

 Thus, displacement of point C, which is z distance away from mid‐plane is:

u(x,y, z) = uo(x,y) ‐ z∙α(x,y)= = uo – z (Eq. 1)

 In Eq. 1, we use the fact that α is partial differential of wo in x‐direction.

• Also, for small displacements, following relations hold for strains.

…. (Eq. 2)

• Now, using definitions for u, and v, in above strain definitions, we get:

………………………………. (Eq. 3)
And, mid‐surface curvatures are defined as:

………………………..(Eq. 4)

In Eq. 4, the last term represents twist curvature of mid‐surface of composite laminate. Equations
1-4 are valid only for plates and not for shells. Equation 3 shows that strains vary linearly over the
thickness of a composite plate, with the average strain computed over plate’s thickness equaling
mid‐plane strain.

STRESSES IN A LAMINATE

If one were able to compute mid‐plane strains and curvature of the plate, then predicting stresses
over the laminate’s thickness is simply a matter of multiplying these strains with stiffness
constants using strain‐stiffness relations on a layer‐by‐layer basis.
Thus, stresses in kth layer of the laminate may be calculated using following relations.

……………………(Eq. 5)

Since [Q] matrix varies discontinuously between two adjacent layers, variation of stresses between
two layers need not be linear, or even continuous. Thus, stresses are discontinuous between two
adjacent layers, even though strain varies linearly across entire laminate thickness. However, over
the thickness of a single lamina, stress variation is linearly continuous.

ANGLE AND CROSS-PLY LAMINATES

Angle-Ply Laminates:

For angle-ply laminates the following relations are very useful in computing [A], [B] and [C].

Angle-ply laminates have an abitary number of layers (n). each ply has the same thickness and is
the same material. The plies have alternating fiber orientations of +θ and -θ. An angle-ply

laminates can be either symmetric or antisymmetric, and is fully populated.

 Fig. 2 Angle -ply laminate

An angle-ply laminates in this section has N unidirectionally reinforced (orthotropic) layers of the
same material with principle material directions alternatingly oriented at +α and -α to the
laminate x-axis. The odd-numbered layers are at -α, and even- numbered layers are at +α.
Consider the special, but practical, case where all layers are same thickness, that is regular angle-
ply laminates. More general angle-ply laminates have no such conditions on fiber orientation or
laminate thickness. for example, an angle-ply laminates could be [45º @t/ 60º @t/60º @t/45º
@t], wherein the fiber orientations do not alternate and the laminate thicknesses are not the same,
however, this laminate is clearly a symmetric angle-ply laminate.

…………………………………………………….(Eq. 1)

can be expressed in terms of N, , and t for laminates with and even number of layers and with

and odd number of layers. In both cases is calculated for -α and

 …………………………………(Eq. 2)

Fig. 3 Angle-ply laminates

Symmetric Laminates:

A laminate is called symmetric when the material, angle and thickness of the layers are the same
above and below the mid-plane. For example, laminate [30, 45, 0] is shown in Figure 4(a). For
symmetric laminates the matrix B is zero. This can be proved as follows:
Consider two layers r and s which have the same material, angle and thickness and are located
symmetrically with respect to the mid-plane as shown in Figure 4. For these layers we can write
the relation about the reduced stiffness matrix entries as

Fig. 4 Symmetric laminates

CROSS-PLY LAMINATES:

A laminate is called cross-ply laminate if all the plies used to fabricate the laminate are only 0ᵒ
and 90ᵒ.

For example, is shown [0/90/0/90/0] in Figure.

• Values of terms A16, A26, B16, B26, D16, and D26 are zero.

• Shear and extensional responses are not coupled.

• Bending and twisting responses are not coupled.

Fig. 5 Cross-ply laminates

 Fig. 6 Difference between unidirectional and cross-ply laminates

QUASI-ISOTROPIC LAMINATES: -

A laminate is called quasi-isotropic when its extensional stiffness matrix behaves like an isotropic
material. This requires that . Further, this extensional stiffness matrix is
independent of orientation of layers in laminate. This requires a laminate with equal

thickness layers and N equal angles between adjacent fibre orientations. The N equal angles,
between the fibre orientations in this case can be given as

The quasi-isotropic laminate with this construction for N=3, 4 and 6 will have fibre orientations
as shown in below figure.
It should be noted that the isotropy in these laminates is in-plane only. The matrices B and D
may not behave like an isotropic material. Hence, such laminates are quasi-isotropic in nature.

Some examples of quasi-isotropic laminate are:

The term quasi-isotropic laminates is used to describe laminates that have isotropic extensional
stiffnesses (the same in all directions in the plane of the laminates). As background, to the
definition, recall that the term isotropic is a material property whereas laminate stiffnesses are a
function of both material properties and geometry.

In this case, a quasi-isotropic laminate is taken to mean equal extensional stiffnesses in all in-plane
direction of the laminate i.e

The layers of a laminate can be arranged in such a way that the laminate will behave as an isotropic
layer under in-plane loading. Actually, the laminate is not isotropic (that is why it is called a quasi-
isotropic laminate) because under transverse (normal to the laminate plane) loading and under
interlaminar shear its behavior is different from that of an isotropic (e.g., metal) layer.
To derive the conditions that should be met by the structure of a quasi-isotropic laminate, consider
in-plane loading with stresses σx , σy , and τxy that are shown in Fig. 7 and induce only in-plane
strains ε0x, ε0y , and γ0xy. Taking κx = κy = κxy = 0 we, introducing average (through the laminate
thickness h) stresses as

Fig. 7 An element of a generalized layer

…………………..(Eq. 1)

Where,

= h …………………………………………………...(Eq. 2)

…………………………………......(Eq. 3)
we can write the first three equations of Eqs. 2 in the following form,

……………………………………………………..(Eq. 4)

Fig. 8. Basic deformations of the layer: (a) in-plane tension and compression (ε0x, ε0 ); (b) in-
y

plane shear (γ0 xy), (c) bending (κx); (d) twisting (κxy).
in which, in accordance with

…………………………………………………………(Eq. 5)

where, hi is the thickness of the ith layer normalized to the laminate thickness and Amn are

the stiffness coefficients. For an isotropic layer, the constitutive equations analogous to Eqs. 4
are,

……………………………(Eq. 6)

Where,

……………………………………………(Eq. 7)

Comparing Eqs. (4) and (6), we can see that the shear–stretching coefficients of the laminate, i.e.,
B14 = B41 and B24 = B42, should be equal to zero. As this equation is balanced equations i.e., it
should be composed of 0◦, ±υi (or υi and π − υi ), and 90◦ layers only. Since the laminate stiffness
in the x- and the y-directions must be the same, we require that B11 = B22.

As can be checked by direct substitutions, for k = 1 this equation is satisfied if υ1 = 45◦ and for k
= 2 if υ1 = 0 and υ2 = 90◦. Naturally, such one- and two-layered materials cannot be isotropic even
in one plane. So, consider the case k ≥ 3, for which the solution has the form
HYGRO-THERMAL EFFECTS IN LAMINATE

The first effect of temperature Known as thermal effects. The second is the effect of moisture absorption from the atmosphere
known as hygroscopic effects. The combined effect of temperature and moisture is known as hygrothermal effect.
Hygrothermal effects induce a dimensional change of laminate. But due to the mismatch of the properties of the constituents
of the laminate, its free movement is inhibited. As a result of which deformation and corresponding stresses are setup.

There are two principal effect of changes in hygrothermal environment on the mechanical behavior of polymer composites.

1. Matrix dominated properties such as stiffness and strength under transverse, off-axis and shear loading are altered.
Increased temperature causes a gradual softening of the polymer matrix material upto a point. If the temperature is
increased beyond the so-called ―glass transistion‖ region, however, the polymer become too soft for use as a structural
material.

Fig. 9 Variation of stiffness with temperature for a typical polymer

 2. Hydrothermal expansion or contractions change the stress or strain distribution of the composite. Increased temperature and
moisture content causing swelling or contraction of the matrix is resisted the fibres and residual stresses developed in the
composite.

EFFECT OF HYGROTHERMAL FORCES ON MECHANICAL BEHAVIOUR

Hygrothermal effect are most pronounced in matrix dominated properties, as fibres are least influenced by environment. The effect of
temperature on matix dominated properties of composites such as transverse strength and in plane shear as fig. 10 and 11 respectively
for carbon/epoxy composites. Increase of temperature decrease the transverse modulus at a uniform rate and the ultimate strain at
failure is the same at all three temperatures.

Fig. 9 Transverse tensile stress-strain curve for carbon/epoxy composites at different temperature
 Fig. 10 In plane shear stress-strain curve for unidirectional carbon/epoxy composites at varying
temperature

HYGROTHERMAL BEHAVIOR OF COMPOSITE LAMINATES

Composite materials can absorb moisture and expand in the same way that they expand due to
temperature.We can use the same kind of analysis to deal with stresses that arise from both. In this
course we will focus on thermal behavior.The effect of temperatures on composite laminates is
more pronounced than on metals because of large disparity in coefficient of thermal expansion.

Effect of mismatch

Graphite/epoxy typical thermal expansion coefficients are 𝛼1 = 0.02 × 10 − 6 ⁄ ∘𝐶 ,𝛼2= 22.5 ×

10 − 6 ⁄ ∘𝐶. A 200𝑜𝐶 drop in temperature will produce a strain of -0.0045 in the transverse
direction, and almost nothing in the fiber direction.
In a 0/90 laminate the fibers in one ply will not allow the matrix in the other ply to shrink by more
than a fraction of the -0.0045 strains. This will eat up a substantial part of the load carrying
capacity. For cryogenic conditions (e.g. liquid hydrogen tanks) the temperature drop is more than
doubled, and the laminate can fail just due to thermal loads.

Thermal deformation

If ply can expand or contract due to hygrothermal effects, only strains, but no stresses. Stress free
expansion strain in a unidirectional layer (fig. 11)

Fig. 11 Thermal deformation

Strains and stresses

1. ―Free‖ strains: -

F1 1  1
 F    
 2    2  T   2  C
F   0  0
 12    
2. Hooke’s law when total strains are different from free strains.
 1  Q11 0   1  1F
t
Q12
    
 2  Q 12 Q22 0  2t 2F 

  Q66   t 12 
 12   0 0

(0/90)s laminate

• Stress-free expansion of layers

Fig. 12 Stress free expansion

Hygrothermal laminate coefficient of thermal expansion

The derivation of laminate coefficients of thermal expansion is dealt here for symmetric laminates.
This is because there is no extension-bending coupling due to the fact that for symmetric laminates
[B] = 0.

Let us derive the expression for the coefficient of thermal expansion for laminate. Let us define
the coefficient of thermal expansion for laminate, [α̽̽̽̽]̽̽̽̽ , as the laminate mid-plane strain, [ϵ(0)], to
the per unit uniform change in temperature, ∆T. Thus,
 ……………………………………1

Now for symmetric laminates with pure thermal loading, we have,

…………………………….2

Combining Equation (1) and Equation (2), we get

.,………………………..…….3

Thermal strains for an orthotropic material in (L,T) frame: (no thermal shear in L‐T frame)

…………………………………….…4

For a uniform temperature change the equivalent thermal force is given as: -

………………....5

Thus, the laminate coefficient of thermal expansion becomes,

……………..….6

Where, is the thickness of kth lamina.

From these figures it is seen that these coefficients vary from positive to negative values. Further,
it is observed that the coefficient of thermal expansion depends upon stacking sequence. This fact
is very important from laminate designing point of view where it is used in an environment with
large thermal gradient. One can choose a laminate sequence for which a coefficient of thermal
expansion is zero.
 Fig. 12 Variation of [α]xx for lamina and of [α̽̽̽̽xx for [+-θ] laminate

̽̽ for [+-θ] laminate

Fig. 13 variation of [α]yy for lamina and of [α̽̽yy

LAMINATE COEFFICIENTS OF HYGRAL EXPANSION

Here we derive the laminate coefficients hygral expansion, {β˟}, for symmetric laminates. Let us
define the coefficient of hygral expansion for laminate as laminate mid-plane strains to the per
percentage change in moisture absorption. Thus,
 ……………………………………………….1

For symmetric laminates with hygral loads alone, we can write,

……………………………….……….2

Combining Equation (1) and Equation (2), we get,

……………………………….3

Thus, the laminate coefficient of hygral expansion becomes,

……………………..……4

It is known that the [Q]k and [β]kxy are constant in each lamina in thickness direction. Thus, the
integration over thickness can be simplified as summation over laminae thicknesses as

……………………….………5

Combining Equation (5) and Equation (6) we can get the effective hygral force as

……………………………….6
 Fig. 14 Variation of [β]xx for lamina and of [β˟xxfor [+-θ] laminate

Fig. 15 variation of [β]yy for lamina and of [β˟yyfor [+-θ] laminate

Changes in moisture concentration are responsible for swelling of the matrix material Moisture‐
induced strains in orthotropic material in (L-T) frame:

………………………………………………………….7
MASS DIFFUSION

Effect that are similar to temperature variations i.e expansion and degradation of properties, can
also be caused by moisture. Moisture absorption is governed y ficks law , which is analogous to
Fourier's law equation, for thermal conductivity i.e

…………………………………………..8

In which qw is the diffusion flow through a unit area of surface with normal n, D is the diffusivity
of the material whose moisture absorption is being considered, and W is the relative mass moisture
concentration in the material, i.e.,

……………………………………………………9

Fig. 16 Composite material exposed to moisture on (a) both surfaces z ¼ 0 and z ¼ h, and (b) on
the surface z ¼ 0 only.

Where, Dm is the increase in the mass of a unit volume material element due to moisture
absorption and m is the mass of the dry material element. Moisture distribution in the material is
governed by: -
 …………………………………………….17

Consider a laminated composite material shown in Fig. 17 for which n coincides with the z-axis.
Eq. (2) for moisture diffusion, there is a difference in principle between these problems. This
difference is associated with the diffusivity coefficient D, which is much lower than the thermal
conductivity l of the same material. As is known, there are materials, e.g., metals, with relatively
high l and practically zero D coefficients. Low D-value means that moisture diffusion is a rather
slow process.

To simplify the problem, we can neglect the possible variation of the mass diffusion coefficient
D over the laminate thickness, taking D ¼ constant for polymeric composites. Then, Eq. (3)
reduces to

……………………………………………….18

Fig. 18 Moisture content as a function of time and temperature for aramid-epoxy composite
 UNIT -5

Maintenance of Composites: Assessment and Repair – Classification of damage, Inspection Methodology, Repair operation, Repair
procedures. Types of Repairs – Repair failures, Typical repair procedures Delaminations, Damage to laminate structures, Repair to
sandwich structures, Repair to Honycomb structures, lightning protection, painting the composite part, Quality control.

MAINTAINANCE OF COMPOSITES
Aircraft Structure Repair: -
Aviation composites utilize an assortment of materials which may include fiberglass, carbon fiber or aramid. These materials are
very durable and versatile and also provide corrosion and fatigue benefits. Even with their great benefits they still do wear down and
can get damaged over time. Our aircraft composite maintenance technicians classify damage or fatigue, determine necessary repair
procedures and aircraft structure repair time.

Advanced Aircraft Composite Repair Technology: -

When it comes to composites in aviation we know the importance of safety and keeping your fleet flying. By never losing sight of
the pressures placed on cost control, Delta TechOps expands your MRO capabilities without the enormous capital investment. Delta
TechOps provides the highest quality services for the greatest overall value by continually upgrading cutting-edge technology to
lead the industry with the latest advances in aircraft composite repair.

Composite Repair Technical Support & Services

Delta TechOps offers comprehensive technical support and a wide range of in-shop and on-wing services to evaluate failures,
recommend preventative actions and assist with component reliability. Check out some of our composite maintenance support
capabilities below.

1. Visual inspection
2. Damage assessments – Point of Impact Damage and Load Path Damage
3. Inspection
4. Repair
 5. Overhaul

DAMAGE ASSESSMENT

Damage to composites is often hidden to the eye. Where a metal structure will show a ―dent‖ or ―ding‖ after being damaged,
a composite structure may show no visible signs of damage, and yet may have delaminated plies or other damage within
Impact energy affects the visibility, as well as the severity, of damage in composite structures. High and medium energy
impacts, while severe, are easy to detect. Low energy impacts can easily cause ―hidden‖ damage.

Fig. 1 high energy, medium energy and low energy impact

There are a variety of non-destructive inspection techniques available to help determine the extent and degree of damage.
Each has its own strengths and weaknesses, and more than one method may
be needed to produce the exact damage assessment required. The following table provides a basic comparison between the
non-destructive inspection techniques. 'A' indicates damage where the technique scores well, and 'C' indicates damage where
the technique is not so good.

ASSESSMENT OF COMPOSITE MATERIAL DAMAGE

The task of repair begins when you determined that the structure has been damaged and that the damage is sufficient to require
the structure to be repaired. The existence of damage may be obvious, such as a skin penetration, a gouge, or a dent. Con-
aversely, the proper identification and classification of the damage may be difficult. Because of the brittle, elastic nature of
composite laminate materials, for example, the fibers may break upon impact, but then spring back, leaving little visible
indication of damage. There are three distinct steps involved in damage assessment. The first step is to locate the damage. The
second step is to evaluate the defect to determine such information as the defect type, depth, and size. This information is
important because the method of repair will vary, depending on this information. The third step is to re-evaluate, after defect
removal (as applicable), the area being repaired.

INSPECTION METHODOLOGY

1. Non-destructive inspection-present damage detection: -

Throughout the years, NDI has been the most important tool used in order to assess the condition of the aircraft structure. NDI
inspections are being accepted as part of procedures during major aircraft inspection tasks such as the C-checks, Heavy
maintenance visit (HMV) or during defect findings. Rectification of the damage has to be accompanied by task completion
documentations when the certificate of release to service (CRS) is issued. The improvement in NDI technology has allowed
inspection to e tailored to the materials used, the operational conditions and the level of difficulties. However, and
autonomous NDI is privileged to large aircraft manufacturing or assembly due to its high cost in obtaining certification,
implementing the system and training for competent human capital.
Laminated composite materials, on the other hand, can have a wide varying set of material properties based on the chosen fibers,
matrix, on other hand, can have a wide varying set of material properties based on the chosen fibers, matrix and manufacturing
process. This makes modelling for composites more complex, often involving non-linear and hybridization of materials such as
fiber, matrix, core.

2. Visual inspection method

Perhaps the most natural form of evaluating composite structure is by visual inspection. There are several variants of this method
existing at various levels of sophistication, from the use of a static optical or scanning electron microscope to optical examination by
eye over the structure. While microscope can be a useful method to optical examination by eye over the structure. While
microscopy can be a useful method to obtain detailed information such as micro-crack counting or the delamination area, it can only
be used in the laboratory therefore requiring that any given section must be removed from the larger structure. Visual inspections on
particular structures are perhaps the simplest and least expensive method; they are relatively fast and capable of detecting relevant
impact damages. However, any damages which have occurred in the su-laminate layer or on the other side of the surface are difficult
to detect by eye and may require additional equipment such as a flash light, a magnifying glass. In addition, visually, the eyes alone
can only determine very little detail about the damage mechanism or its severity. While this method can potentially provide some
useful data for damage detection, on a largescale structure this process would prove inefficient and ineffective as determined by
campbell.

Fig. 1 Visual inspection. (Courtesy of Abaris Training Resources Inc.)

Advantages of Visual Inspection:

• No expensive equipment is required.

•Airworthiness design philosophy is such that most damage that is of concern is capable of being found visually.

Disadvantages of Visual Inspection:

• Large areas are time consuming to inspect.

• Inspectors have difficulty in maintaining concentration over large areas.

•Composites may have extensive nonvisible damage (NVD). This is particularly important in the case of nonvisible
delamination. The critical failure mode of composites is often in compression, and any damage that reduces compression
performance is unwelcome.

3. TAP TEST METHOD

This is the most well-known, vibration-based method specifically used on composite structures, the inspection uses a
small metallic shape like coin which is then lightly tapped on the suspected structure. The change in sound between
defective and defect-free regions indicates the presence of damage. However, the sensitivity of the method decreases
with a defect depth of 1mm under the skin or the sub laminate area. In addition, the inspection only provides a rough
dimension of the damaged section and is limited by approved certified personnel. Advanced equipment that digitally
records the thudding sounding and displays it has replaced the coin tap test. The digital tap test captures the tapping
sound made by the tap hammer connected to a unit which translates the tapping energy to sound energy. The sound
energy is displayed as a numerical value. During inspection, the tap hammer is tapped at the adjacent area or on a
reference specimen for a baseline reading. A tap test, as shown in Fig. 2, may be performed using a coin of modest weight
or even a thick steel washer of approximately 25 mm (1 in.) diameter and approximately 2.5 mm (0.1 in.) thick.
Inspection techniques, other than visual, do not come cheaper than this
 Fig. 2 Tap testing method

The method has now been automated, at much greater expense, and with somewhat greater accuracy. Three
automated versions are now made. The earliest is aptly called the ―Woodpecker,‖ which is of Japanese design. Since
the fi rst edition of this book went to print, two more automated tap test methods have been designed. These are the
Wichitech RD3, which is a hand-held device developed by Boeing and licensed to Wichitech, and the CATT
(Computer Aided Tap Test), developed by Iowa State University and licensed to Advanced Structural Imaging Inc.,
which has an automatic tapping carriage to eliminate any effects due to the human operator. All of the automated
methods have the advantage that they can produce a print of the damaged area, which is both useful and a permanent
record of the damage found. The tap test method may also be described as ―audiosonic‖ because it operates in the
normal human hearing range. In contrast, ultrasonic methods operate outside the human hearing frequency band.
The tap test method is well loved and widely used because, in the cheaper form, it is simple and available to
everyone. All that is required is to tap gently on the suspect surface. Areas of good bond will sound clear and of a
higher frequency than disbonded areas, which give a dull sound of lower frequency. By tapping at intervals of
approximately 6 mm (0.25 in.), the damaged area can be mapped effectively. If approximately 12 mm (0.5 in.) are cut
away beyond this to provide a margin of safety, then this is probably sufficient for fairings and nonstructural items.
For these items, the method is often sufficient by itself, especially for initial damage assessment, although it is wise
to use more sophisticated methods as a backup to ensure that all the damage has been cut away before commencing
repairs to more significant parts. The method is especially useful on sandwich structure with honeycomb core. It also
works on a solid laminate if the first few layers are delaminated, but it cannot detect defects deeper in the laminate.

Advantages of the Tap Test:

• No expensive equipment is required, at least not for the simple version.

• A tap test provides a quick initial method of investigating the extent of a defect.

• A tap test can be used to detect delamination, disbond, and severe moisture ingress.

Disadvantages of the Tap Test:

•It is impractical to cover large areas effectively because it is difficult for an inspector to maintain concentration.

• A tap test is highly subjective.

• A tap test cannot locate small defects (e.g., voids or minor moisture ingress).

• A tap test cannot be used on locations covered by protective coatings and sealants.

•The sonic response is a function of material properties, laminate composition, thickness, shape, and component
construction.
 4. X-ray inspection methods

X-ray techniques relies on recording the difference in x-ray absorption rates through the surface of a structure.
These methods are implemented either in real-time digitally, or by taking static radiography, where areas of different
permeability or density are differentiated by the magnitude of x-ray exposure to the media on the opposite side of
the surface after a predetermined excitation time. To accentuate damaged regions with cracks or delmination, a liquid
penetrant is often applied to the area to be examined. While these techniques are relatively inexpensive and simple
to implement and interpret, they require large and closely equipment that is difficult to use on large structural
components without removing them from the vehicle. Other laminations include tier inability to detect defects in
thin laminate structures, orientation variations, hybrid materials and image quality indicator. The greatest challenge
to using x-ray in a vehicle inspection application is that all of these methods require access to both sides of the
surface in order to emit and collect the x-ray radiations.

Fig. 3 X-ray inspection techniques

Advantages of X-Ray Methods:

•X-ray inspection may be used to detect transverse cracks, inclusions, honeycomb core damage, honeycomb moisture ingress (water as
shallow as 10% of the cell depth), porosity, and delamination (if a radio opaque penetrant is used).

When used with a radio opaque penetrant and a radio opaque fi ber system, x-ray inspection may provide an accurate picture of damage
in a complex structure.

•Stereographic use allows some depth resolution (e.g., 15° source tilt gives +1 mm [0.04 in.] depth resolution, and 8° source tilt gives +10
mm [0.4 in.] depth resolution).

•The x-ray technique may be used to measure fi ber volume fraction (Vf) and fi ber alignment when material characteristics allow (e.g.,
GRP).

Disadvantages of X-Ray Methods:

•Considerable safety protection is required when this technique is in use. The hangar area requires evacuation, thus imposing a downtime
penalty on the production plan.

• The equipment is not easily portable.

• The usefulness of the equipment is limited by access.

•The use of penetrants contaminates the component. Organic pentrants are affected by moisture, which may alter the recorded results.
Halogen-based penetrants may result in stress corrosion.

5. ULTRA SONIC METHODS

Another commonly implemented NDI techniques is ultrasonic testing, most often referred to a A-
, B- and C- scans. The method uses an ulltrasoonic signal and measures the attenuations of the
signals using stress waves on the inspected structure. The stress waves are mechanical waves or vibrations in which for composites the
compatible frequency range is between 1 to 10 MHz. there are two modes of operation which are pulse echo and through transmission.
A pulse eco uses a
single transducer which behaves as a transmitter and receiver. Alternatively, through transmission of the ultrasonic waves is achieved
by the use of a couplant such as liquid and water but these couplant may contaminate the structure further if the couplant is seeping
through the unseen damage. Newer techniques, such as non-conact couplant uses air to transmit the waves, but more confident results
are required for the method to be used on the current NDI for aircrafts.an A- scan refers to a single point measurement of density, a B-
scans measures these variations along a single line, and a C- scan is a collection of B- scans forming a surface countour plot. The C-
scans has been common practice in the aerospace industry since the introduction of composite parts to this field.

Wavelength l = c/f where

c = Velocity of ultrasound f = Frequency

Although the use of ultrasonic inspection has more accurate results compared to other method dicussed above but are limited to
laminated structure only.
Two modes of operation are normally used (Fig. 4):

1.Pulse echo mode using a single transducer

2.Through-transmission mode using two transducers

In either case, the transducer(s) must be coupled to the structure via a liquid or solid medium because of the severe
impedance mismatch between air and solid materials.

Fig. 4 (b) Diagram of ultrasonic inspection methods.

Using a pulse-echo technique, only the top face-to-core bond can be inspected reliably according to one source. By using
through-transmission mode, top and bottom bonds can be inspected in a single test. The same basic equipment may be
used with either water or gel coupling. Several types of measurement are possible.
The “A” Scan is the display normally seen on the screen of the ultrasonic test set and gives the time history of the echoes
received by the receiving transducer.
In the “B” Scan presentation, the vertical axis is the time axis of the “A” Scan, the presence
of echoes being indicated by intensity variations. The horizontal axis gives position information, building an image of the
component cross section.
If the amplitude of a particular echo is monitored at each point on the surface of the work, a “C” Scan can be produced.
Measurements at each point are taken using a scanning
mechanism, which produces a plan of the defect positions but gives no information about their depth. This method is often
used by manufacturers using the through-transmission mode and water jet coupling and has the advantage that a
permanent record can be printed.
If necessary, this printout could be compared with another scan taken after some period of service or when the possibility of
damage was suspected.
 Fig. 5 Ultrasonic testing

Advantages of the Ultrasonic Technique:

•This technique may be used to detect many defects, such as defects in the plane of the sheet, delamination, voids, foreign objects,
moisture, disbonding, and cracks perpendicular to the plane of the sheet if the transmitter and receiver are located at an angle with
respect to the plane of the composite surface. This technique also may be used to detect delamination between sandwich panel core
and skin laminate.

• This method can also indicate the depth of a defect in a laminate.

•The technique is fl exible because it may be used in a local portable form or to cover large areas, such as ―C‖ Scan, providing a map of
defect locations in a part.

•If focused transceivers are used in conjunction with ―C‖ Scan and suitable computing equipment, a three-dimensional image of the
composite component and its defects can be built. (Focused transceivers allow some depth resolution.)

Disadvantages of the Ultrasonic Technique:

•A couplant must be used between the transceiver and component. This may be in the form of a gel, or water in the case of ―C‖ Scan
and may contaminate the specimen.

• ―C‖ Scan requires component removal from the aircraft.

• The pulse-echo technique allows detection of damage from only one side of the component.

•The through-transmission technique requires access to both sides of the specimen and is best suited to the production environment.
TYPES OF REPAIRS IN COMPOSITE

1. Cosmetic

A superficial, non-structural filler is used to restore a surface to keep fluids out until a more permanent repair is made. This type of
repair will not regain any strength and is used only where strength is unimportant. Due to high shrinkage, cosmetic repairs may start to
crack after a relatively short time in service.

Fig. 6 Cosmetic repair

2. Resin Injection

This type of repair can be effective in limited instances, where the delamination is restricted to one ply. However, not much strength is
regained, and the primary benefit is that it is quick and cheap. At best, this type of repair can hope to slow the spread of delamination
and is generally considered a temporary measure.

Fig. 7 Resin injection

 3. Semi-structural Plug/Patch

This type of repair can regain some strength. The mechanically-fastened plug (i.e. core plug) and patch repair can
be especially effective where thick solid laminates are used, since they take bolt loads well.

Fig. 8 Semi-structural Plug/Patch

4. Structural Mechanically–fastened Doubler

Full structural repairs using bolted doublers can be used in heavily loaded solid laminates. This is often the only
practical means of repairing such structures. However, such repairs are not aerodynamically smooth, and may cause
―signature‖ problems in structures where low- observability by radar is required. They also leave the original damage
and simply attempt to transfer loads around the damage. Finally, they can create stress concentrations at their corners
and edges.

Fig. 9 Structural Mechanically–fastened Doubler

 5. Structural Bonded External Doubler

Bonded external doublers are often used to perform repairs to lightly loaded thin laminate structures. This type of
repair is especially common using wet lay-up materials. They may be room-temp or high-temperature cured,
depending on the matrix resin system used. These repairs can regain a significant portion of the original strength of the
structure—or even full strength— although with a significant stiffness and weight penalty in many cases. This type of
repair is generally easy, relatively quick and does not require the highly developed skills of flush structural repairs.

6. Structural Flush Repair

This repair restores full structural properties by forming a joint between the prepared repair area and the repair patch.
The repair patch is made by replacing each ply of the composite laminate that has been removed from the damage area.
The size of the repair patch should fit exactly the area prepared for repair, except for a final cosmetic or sanding layer,
which is often slightly larger to allow for sanding down to achieve a smooth and/or cosmetic surface.

Fig. 10 Structural Flush Repair

TYPICAL REPAIR PROCEDURE

 1. Selection of The Repair Method: -

The repair design is often driven by engineering requirement other than stress analysis. These design drivers
include the following:

a. Availability of repair facilities, including tools, equipment and materials, and the level of repair
authorization.
b. The types of damage found has significant influence on the structural design of the repair. This would be
analysis with the indication of degradation in material due to cracks, delamination and holes.
c. Repairs done on or off the aircraft will involve a certain level of compromise between adequate
strength/stiffness restoration and aircraft down-time and labour cost.
d. Accessibility of the damaged area influences design simplicity and repair scheme application methods.

2. Repair Criteria

The basic of the repair design follows a logical repair criterion. The parameters of the repair criteria are
listed in below table.
3. GENERIC REPAIR DESIGNS

There are four basic levels of generic repair design:

a. Non-structural or cosmic repairs. Filling and sealing the damaged area where damage significance is minor, but
environmental protection is necessary, is a cosmetic or non- structural repair. A typical cosmetic repair is as shown
in below

Fig. 11 Cosmetic repairs (Unstructured)

b. Semi-structural repairs. Filling the internal cavity with an adhesive form or honeycomb core replacement and
applying a doubler patch to the damaged area is a semi-structural repair as shown in fig. the doubler patch can
be either non-load bearing, load bearing or have some intermediate load carrying capacity.

Fig. 12 Semi-structural plug/patch repairs

c. Adhesively bonded structural repair. A flush patch adhesively bonded over the damaged area as shown in fig., is
a major structural repair utilizing a scarf or stepped-lap joint. The flush is generally application to thin skin
structures only.
d. Mechanically fastened structural repairs. Another structural repair is the bolted patch. This is used on primarily
thick structural components as shown in fig.
 Fig, 13 Flush bonded patch repairs

Fig. 14 bolted patch repairs

4. SWELLING AND DELAMIATION

The repair scheme is to adhesively bond a doubler patch over the delaminaed region. The required repair scheme is to
stiffen the delaminated region by an adhesively bonded patch. Determination of the patch stiffness is based on the
analysis as in below equation, but here the
 stiffness of the sublaminate and patch needs to be such that the critical bucking load is greater
than the applied design allowable load.

Fig. 13 Swelling and delamination composite

C. Edge delamination repairs. With an edge delamination the first requirement of the repair scheme is to seal the
edge from further moisture absorption. Again, a low viscous resin is used. Local in-plane stiffening of the edge is
more difficult since the out-of-plane forces which causes delamination growth are still present. The most effective
repair design is to simply reinforce the out-of-plane stresses are much lower than in-plane, a fattener or thin capping
patch is all that is required. The capping patch is made from titanium foil or composite cross- ply of thickness about
1mm and overlap length on the upper and lower surface extending 25mm beyond the depth of the delamination.
 Fig. 14 Out-of-plane reinforcing capping patch over edge delamination

5. HOLES

Three fundamental repairs are required for holes. These are classified as low, moderate and full-strength restoration, and depend on
the degree of strength loss in the structure.

a. Low strength restoration hole repairs. When the hole in the laminate has minimal strength degradation the general repair is a
plug/patch scheme.
b. Moderate strength restoration hole repairs. When damage analysis of a hole indicates
that there is moderate strength degradation, i.e. the current level of damage tolerance is significantly reduced, but catastrophic
failure would only occur with severe overload, then a plug and structural doubler patch is recommended in fig. 13

DELAMINATION

Delamination is a mode of failure for composite materials and steel. In laminated materials, repeated cyclic stresses, impact, and
so on can cause layers to separate, forming a mica-like structure of separate layers, with significant loss of mechanical toughness.
Delamination also occurs in reinforced concrete structures subject to reinforcement corrosion, in which case the oxidized metal of
the reinforcement is greater in volume than the original metal. The oxidized metal therefore requires greater space than the
original reinforcing bars, which causes a wedge- like stress on the concrete. This force eventually overcomes the relatively weak
tensile strength of concrete, resulting in a separation (or delamination) of the concrete above and below the reinforcing bars.

Fiber pull-out (another form of failure mechanism) and delamination can occur, in part, due to weak adhesive bonding between
the fibers and the polymer matrix.

Delamination failure may be detected in the material by its sound; solid composite has bright sound, while delaminated part
sounds dull, reinforced concrete sounds solid, whereas delaminated
concrete will have a light drum-like sound when exposed to a dragged chain pulled across its surface. Bridge decks in cold climate countries which use
de-icing salts and chemicals are commonly subject to delamination and as such are typically scheduled for annual inspection by chain-dragging as well
as subsequent patch repairs of the surface. Other nondestructive testing methods are used, including embedding optical fibers coupled with optical time
domain reflectometer testing of their state, testing with ultrasound, radiographic imaging, and infrared imaging.

Separation of adjacent layers due to weakening of interface layer between them.

Causes of delamination: -

1. Manufacturing Defects

a. Improper laying of laminae

b. Insufficient curing temperature; pressure and duration of curing
c. Air pockets and inclusions

2. Loading Generating Transverse Stresses

The interface is weaker in transverse strength as compared to the layers. Hence, its failure is
dominated by the transverse stresses.
3. Laminate Geometry

1. Free edges

The free edges of the laminate have very high transverse normal and shear stresses. It is shown
that significant interlaminar stresses are induced in regions near the laminate free edges.

2. Notch

Notch in the laminates acts like an external crack giving rise to high three-dimensional stress
state in the vicinity of the notch

3. Cut- out

The cutout boundaries act like free edges leading to significant transverse stresses.

Fig. a. Notch b. Cut-out

4. Bounded joint

Improper bonding leads to weaker joints. When such weak joints are subjected to serve loading
conditions delamination can occur.

5. Ply drop
The region of ply termination acts like a region of high stresses for neighboring laminae which
can be a reason for delamination of the plies adjacent to the ply drop region.

EFFECTS OF DELAMINATION: -
1. Reduces the strength and stiffness

2.It causes stress concentration in load bearing plies and a local instability leading to a further
growth of delamination which results in a compressive failure of the laminate.

Matrix cracking

Matrix cracks are developed due to stress in the matrix exceeds the strength of the matrix

Causes of matrix cracking

Two types of matrix cracks

The cracks are either perpendicular or parallel to the fibre direction.

> In the first type, the cracks are developed when axial stress in the lamina is tensile in nature.

>In the second type, the cracks are developed when the inplane transverse stress in the lamina is tensile in nature.

DAMAGE TO LAMINATE STRUCTURES: -

Laminated composites have an important application in modern aeronautical structures. They have extraordinary properties,
like high strength, stiffness and lightweight. Nevertheless, a serious obstacle to more widespread use of those materials is their
sensitivity to impact loads. As a consequence of that, impact damage initiation and growth are appearing in them. Failures that
occur in laminated composite structures can be intralaminar and interlaminar. To date a lot of models for impact damages in
laminates have been developed with higher or lower accuracy.

The laminated composites are increasingly used in load-carrying structures due to the number of advantages over conventional
materials, especially in aircraft structures. They have exceptional characteristics such as: high specific strength and stiffness,
low density, good fatigue performance, resistance to corrosion and high temperatures, ability to create complex shapes. For
implementation of composite materials in aviation, the most important feature is their behaviour on dynamic loads and
resistance to fatigue.

The failure of composite laminates involves sequential accumulation of various types of intra- and inter-laminar damages,
which gradually lead to the loss of the laminate’s load-carrying capacity. The main damage mechanisms that appear in
composite laminates, are those associated with matrix and fibre. Generally, it is difficult to simulate numerically or analytically,
the behaviour of those systems under impact loads because of the complexity of damage mechanisms. Predicting damage in
laminated composite aircraft components due to impact events such as runway debris, hail, bird, is an area of on-going
research. To reduce certification and development costs, computational methods are required by the aircraft industry to be able
to predict structural integrity of composite structures under high velocity impacts from hard objects, such as metal fragments,
stone debris and from soft or deformable bodies such as birds, hailstones and tyre rubber. Key issues are the development of
suitable constitutive laws for modelling composites in-ply,
determination of composites parameters from dynamic materials tests, materials laws for deformable impactors, and
the efficient implementation of the materials models into finite element (FE) codes.

Impact damages in composite laminates

The energy absorbed during impact process is often very large. That energy is mainly dissipated by a combination of
matrix damage, fibre fracture and fibre matrix debonding. These facts lead to the significant reductions in the load-
carrying capabilities in such structures. In ballistic impacts (short contact between impactor and target) the damage
is localized and clearly visible by external inspection, while low velocity impact involves long contact time between
impactor and target, which produces global structure deformation with undetected internal damage at points far
from the contact region.

Damages in composites are different from those in metals. Composite failure is a progressive accumulation of
damage, including multiple damage modes and complex failure mechanisms. Impact on the structure has a dynamic
nature and therefore it is necessary to take into account the effects arising from inertia and spreading voltage waves
in the material. Often the material response is highly nonlinear and large deformations occur.

The most common damage mechanisms in laminated composites are: fibre fracture, transverse matrix crack and
delamination. Those mechanisms are clearly presented in Fig 15.

Damage mechanisms in composite laminates can be studied theoretically following two approaches. Using the
continuum damage mechanics approach, different types of damage are accounted for via the damage tensor. By the
application of the damage micromechanics approach, stress analysis of the damaged composite structure is carried
out in the explicit presence of damage. Transverse low velocity impact on the laminated composites induces intra-ply
matrix cracking and interplay delamination.
 Fig. 15 Different types of defects corresponding to different directions

Structure of polymer matrix composites (PMC) is made of matrix and fibre. As an impact response in those materials
some damages are occurring over time in certain phases. Damage observed during the initial stages of the failure
process is the intralaminar damage in the form of matrix cracks. Matrix cracking is initiated long before the laminate
loses its load-carrying capacity. It gradually reduces the stiffness and strength of the laminate.
 Fig. 17 Hierarchy of structural scales in damage modelling of aircraft composite materials

Multiscale modelling of damage The damage in composite laminates occurs due to different mechanisms. Some of
them (fibre fracture, matrix crack and delamination) are already presented in Fig. 16. In the section below it will be
addressed as the multiscale modelling damage in composite materials. To fully understand the underlying phenomena
of structure degradation and characterize its effect on material performance, it is essential to link the two scales: the
length scale at which these processes take place (the "micro" scale), and the length scale at which we use the material
(the structural or "macro" scale). In reality these two scales may be different from each other and may require
consideration of in-between scales (also known as "meso" scale). The process of linking material behavior at these
different scales is termed as the "multiscale modelling". In Fig. 17 is described the hierarchy of all possible length
scales (structural scales) involved in multiscale materials modelling (damage modelling). Another issue, particular to
multiscale damage modelling, is that the total damage may be due to multiple damage mechanisms, whose length scales
might be quite different from one another. Moreover, these length scales may evolve as loading is increased. The
microstructural configuration and driving forces for damage
initiation and progression determine the length scales of damage. Thus, the length scales of damage and their hierarchy are not fixed but
are subject to evolution as a function of loading.

Damage Mechanisms in Fibrous Composites:

The damage mechanisms in a fibrous composite are broadly categorized as:

1. Micro-level damage mechanisms

2. Macro-level damage mechanisms and

3. Coupled micro-macro-level damage mechanisms

The local level mechanisms are further subcategorized based on constituent level as

i. Fibre level damage mechanisms

ii.Matrix level damage mechanisms and

iii.Coupled fibre-matrix level damage mechanisms

A. Micro-level Damage Mechanisms:

First, we will look at the micro-level mechanisms in detail as follows:

a)Fibre Level Damage Mechanisms:

The fibre failure mode is considered to be the most catastrophic mode of failure in laminates. This is because the fibre is the load
carrying constituent. The failure of fibres can take place due to various stress components. The damage mechanisms for fibre are
explained below in detail.

1) Fibre Fracture/Breaking:

The fibre breaks into two or more pieces along its length when the axial tensile stress (or strain) in the fibre exceeds the axial strength
(or maximum allowable strain) of the fibre. This kind of fracture occurs in brittle fibres. Such fractures are more catastrophic in nature
than other modes of fibre failure.

The fibre fracture may also take place in shearing when the shear stress or strain exceeds the
 maximum allowable stress or strain. The fibre fracture is depicted in Figure 18(a).

2) Fibre Buckling or Kinking:

This type of failure occurs when the axial load on the fibre is compressive in nature. The axial compressive stress causes the fibre to buckle. This form of fibre
failure is also called as fibre kinking.

The critical stress at which the kinking takes place is function of material properties of fibre and matrix properties and the distribution of fibres in the matrix. In
general, the fibre kinking first starts at the site of fibre misalignment or local defects as show in fig 18 (b)

3) Fibre Bending:

The bending of fibre can take place under flexural load. The bending of fibres also depends upon the properties of fibre and matrix along with the fibre
arrangement.

The fibre bending is shown in Figure 18(c).

4) Fibre Splitting:

The fibre fails in this mode when the transverse or hoop stresses in the fibre exceeds the maximum allowable value. Further, this can also happen when these

stresses in the interface/interphase region

(region in matrix very close to the fibre) exceed the maximum allowable stress. The fibre splitting is elucidated in Figure 18(d).

5) Fibre Radial Cracking:

The hoop stresses can also cause the radial cracking of the fibre. This type of cracking is seen in some of the fibres. The radial cracking of a fibre is shown in

Figure 18(e).
 Fig. 18 Fiber level damage mechanism

b)Matrix Level Damage Mechanisms:

There are two main damage mechanisms in matrix. These are: Matrix cracking and fibre interfacial debonding. These are explained
below.

1) Matrix Cracking:

When the stress in the matrix exceeds the strength of the matrix, matrix cracks are developed. There are two types of matrix cracks that
are developed in a unidirectional lamina. The cracks are either perpendicular or parallel to the fibre direction. In the first type, the cracks
are developed when axial stress in the lamina is tensile in nature. In the second type, the cracks are developed when the inplane
transverse stress in the lamina is tensile in nature.

2) Fibre Interfacial Cracking:

When the in-plane transverse stresses in matrix are tensile in nature, the weaker interface between fibre and matrix is broken. A crack in
the matrix region at this location is initiated. This crack grows along the fibre length. This leads to the debonding of the interphase
between fibre and
 matrix. This mode of damage is also called ―transverse fibre debonding‖. This damage is shown
in Figure 19(c).

Fig.19 Matrix-level damage mechanisms

c)Coupled Fibre-Matrix Level Mechanisms:

1)Fibre Pullout:

The fibre pullout takes place when the bonding between fibre and matrix is weakened and the fibres are subjected to tensile
stresses. If the fibres are already broken then the fibres just slide through the matrix and come out of it. This phenomenon
is called fibre pullout. The fibre pullout is shown in Figure 20 (a).

2)Fibre Breakage and Interfacial Debonding:

When the fibres break the interface close to the tip of broken fibre, acts as a site of stress concentration. The interface may
then fail, leading to debonding of the fibre from matrix. The fibre breakage leading to interfacial debonding is shown in
Figure 20(b).

3)Transverse Matrix Cracking:

The interface failure causing debonding (as in fibre breaking and interfacial debonding in above case) from the matrix may
act like as a stress concentration site for the in-plane transverse tensile stress. When this stress exceeds the limiting stress
in matrix, it leads to through thickness transverse crack in the matrix.
 The through thickness transverse matrix cracking is shown in Figure 20(c).

Fig. 20 Fibre-matrix coupled failure mechanisms

REPAIR OF SANDWITCH STRUCTURE

A large proportion of current aerospace composite components are light sandwich structures that are susceptible to
damage and are easily damaged. Because sandwich structure is a bonded construction and the face sheets are thin,
damage to sandwich structure is usually repaired by bonding. Repairs to sandwich honeycomb structure use similar
techniques for the most common types of face sheet materials, such as fiberglass, carbon, and Kevlar®. Kevlar® is
often repaired with fiberglass.
 Fig. 21 Typical repairs for honeycomb sandwich structure

Damage Classification in sandwitch structure

A temporary repair meets the strength requirements, but is limited by time or flight cycles. At the end of the repair’s life,
the repair must be removed and replaced. An interim repair restores the required strength to the component. However,
this repair does not restore the required durability to the component. Therefore, it has a different inspection interval
and/or method. A permanent repair is a repair that restores the required strength and durability to the component. The
repair has the same inspection method and interval as the original component.
Sandwich Structures

Minor Core Damage (Filler and Potting Repairs) :-

A potted repair can be used to repair damage to a sandwich honeycomb structure that is smaller than 0.5 inches. The honeycomb
material could be left in place or could be removed and is filled up with a potting compound to restore some strength. Potted
repairs do not restore the full strength of the part.

Potting compounds are most often epoxy resins filled with hollow glass, phenolic or plastic microballoons, cotton, flox, or other
materials. The potting compound can also be used as filler for cosmetic repairs to edges and skin panels. Potting compounds are
also used in sandwich honeycomb panels as hard points for bolts and screws. The potting compound is heavier than the original
core and this could affect flight control balance. The weight of the repair must be calculated and compared with flight control
weight and balance limits set out in the SRM.

Damage Requiring Core Replacement and Repair to One or Both Faceplates

Step 1: Inspect the Damage

Thin laminates can be visually inspected and tap tested to map out the damage. Thicker laminates need more in-depth NDI
methods, such as ultrasonic inspection. Check in the vicinity of the damage for entry of water, oil, fuel, dirt, or other foreign
matter. Water can be detected with X- ray, back light, or a moisture detector.

Fig. 22 Inspect the Damage

Step 2: Remove Water from Damaged Area

Water needs to be removed from the core before the part is repaired. [Figure 7-56] If the water is not removed, it boils
during the elevated temperature cure cycle and the face sheets blow off the core, resulting in more damage. Water in
the honeycomb core could also freeze at the low temperatures that exist at high altitudes, which could result in
disbonding of the face sheets.

Figure 23. Vacuum bag method for drying parts.

Step 3: Remove the Damage

Trim out the damage to the face sheet to a smooth shape with rounded corners, or a circular or oval shape. Do not
damage the undamaged plies, core, or surrounding material. If the core is damaged as well, remove the core by
trimming to the same outline as the skin.
 Figure 24. Core damage removal.

Step 4: Prepare the Damaged Area

Use a flexible disk sander or a rotating pad sander to taper sand a uniform taper around the cleaned up damage. Some manufacturers
give a taper ratio, such as 1:40, and others prescribe a taper distance like a 1-inch overlap for each existing ply of the face sheet.
Remove the exterior finish, including conductive coating for an area that is at least 1 inch larger than the border of the taper. Remove
all sanding dust with dry compressed air and a vacuum cleaner. Use a clean cloth moistened with approved solvent to clean the
damaged area.

Figure 25. Taper sanding of repair area.

Step 5: Installation of Honeycomb Core (Wet Layup)

Use a knife to cut the replacement core. The core plug must be of the same type, class, and grade of the original core. The
direction of the core cells should line up with the honey comb of the surrounding material. The plug must be trimmed to
the right length and be solvent washed with an approved cleaner.

For a wet layup repair, cut two plies of woven fabric that fit on the inside surface of the undamaged skin. Impregnate the
fabric plies with a resin and place in the hole. Use potting compound around the core and place it in the hole. For a
prepreg repair, cut a piece of film adhesive that fits the hole and use a foaming adhesive around the plug. The plug should
touch the sides of the hole. Line up the cells of the plug with the original material. Vacuum bag the repair area and use an
oven, autoclave, or heat blanket to cure the core replacement. The wet layup repair can be cured at a room temperature
up to 150 °F. The prepreg repair must be cured at 250 °F or 350 °F.

Fig. 25 Core replacement.

Step 6: Prepare and Install the Repair Plies

Consult the repair manual for the correct repair material and the number of plies required for the repair. Typically, one
more ply than the original number of plies is installed. Cut the plies to the correct size and ply orientation. The repair
plies must be installed with the same orientation as that of the original plies being repaired. Impregnate the plies with
resin for the wet layup repair, or remove the backing material from the prepreg material. The plies are usually placed
using the smallest ply first taper layup sequence.

Figure 26. Repair ply installation.

Step 7: Vacuum Bag the Repair

Once the ply materials are in place, vacuum bagging is used to remove air and to pressurize the repair for curing. Refer to
Figure 27 for bagging instructions.

Step 8: Curing the Repair

The repair is cured at the required cure cycle. Wet layup repairs can be cured at room temperature. An elevated
temperature up to 150 °F can be used to speed up the cure. The prepreg repair needs to be cured at an elevated cure cycle.
Parts that can be removed from the aircraft could be cured in a hot room, oven, or autoclave. A heating blanket is used for
on-aircraft repairs.
Figure 27. Vacuum processing.

Fig. 28 Curing graph

REPAIR OF HONEYCOMB STRUCTURE

A process for the repair of a honeycomb structure which comprises a honeycomb bonded to at least one surface
layer wherein a replacement for a damaged piece of the structure is, bonded to the honeycomb structure by means
of a adhesive material.

Fig. 29 Honeycomb structure

1. The present invention relates to improvements in or relating to composite structures and in particular honeycomb
structures and more particularly to the bonding together of two honeycomb structures. In a preferred embodiment the
invention provides a simple technique for the repair of hon eycomb structures. Honeycomb structures are widely
used as lightweight materials to provide strength particularly intrans portation vehicles Such as aircraft, motor
vehicles, trains, boats, ships and in aerospace.
2. Honeycomb structures are typically made from two skins or facing panels which enclose the honeycomb which may
be of any lightweight material aluminum or impregnated paper
are the preferred materials.
3. One difficulty with composite structures and in par ticular honeycomb structures is that they are difficult to repair.
For example, with a composite structure an impact at a single point on the surface of a structure can be transmitted
within the structure to cause distortion and perhaps breakage over a large area and/or to some depth within the
structure. It is however important that the structure can be repaired to provide the same strength and performance as
the original article and the repair must Support applied loads and transmit applied loads across the repaired area.
Various techniques have been proposed for the repair of composite structures, including honeycomb structures. One
method involves cutting out the damaged area and replacing it with filler plies which are then bonded to the
exposed surface of the laminate. This method suffers from the disadvantages that the repaired structure is generally
thicker and heavier than the original structure and good adhesion between the replacement material and the original
structure is difficult to achieve. Other methods include careful and precise cutting away of the dam aged area to
provide a tapered surface so that each ply of the structure can be replaced individually. This is an extremely
laborious and complicated procedure to perform.
4. There is therefore a need for a simple and effective method for the repair of composite structures which mini mizes
the increase in weight caused by the repair, which repairs the structure of the composite structure that has been
damaged and which can return the structure to its original strength.
5. We have now found that foam able adhesive material are particularly useful for bonding together composite
structural materials and, in particular they are particularly useful for the bonding of replacement pieces of
honeycomb structures for repair purposes.
6. The present invention therefore provides the use of a foamable adhesive material for the bonding together of
honeycomb structures.
7. In a preferred embodiment of the invention the foamable adhesive material is a material that foams and cures under
the application of heat.
8. Inafurther preferred embodiment the invention pro vides for the repair of composite
honeycomb structures which comprise a honeycomb bonded to at least one Surface layer whereby a replacement for
a damaged piece of the structure is bonded to the honeycomb
structure and is also bonded to a replacement piece of the Surface layer by means of a
foamable adhesive material.

Fig. 30 Different axis of honeycomb structure

The Material

The foam able material used in the present invention is typically selected so as to be activatable under a desired
condition. As used herein, activatable means that the material softens (e.g., melts), cures, expands, foams or a
combination thereof upon exposure to a condition or upon the combination of particular chemicals (e.g., 2-component
materials).

In a preferred embodiment, the material has a post cure glass transition temperature that is greater than any
temperatures to which the material may be exposed while in its intended environment of use (e.g., in an airplane or
automotive vehicle). Exemplary post-cure glass transition temperatures may be greater than about 80 degrees Celsius
and more preferably greater than about 100 degrees Celsius. Other desired characteristics of the material might include
good adhesion retention and degradation resistance particularly in adverse environments such as highly variable
temperature environments, high dynamic activity environments, combinations thereof or the like. For particular
embodiments (e.g., where damping or sound absorption is desired), the material may stay in a softer or goopy state or
it may become more Solid particularly if it has a lower post-cure glass transition temperature.

The material may beathermoplastic, a thermoset or a blend thereof. According to one embodiment, the material is as an
epoxy-containing material, an ethylene-containing polymer, an acetate or acrylate containing polymer, or a mix ture
thereof, which when compounded with appropriate ingredients (typically a blowing agent, a curing agent, and perhaps
a filler), typically expands, cures or both in a reliable and predictable manner upon the application of heat or another
activation stimulus. Thus, according to one preferred embodiment, an exemplary material may be a heat- activated
and/or epoxy-based resin having foamable characteristics. Of course, the material may be activated by other
conditions or stimuli. Generally, it is contemplated that, particularly for higher expansion materials, the activatable
material may include or be based upon an elastomer (e.g., rubber), an acetate, an acrylate or combinations.

Epoxy Resin
Epoxy resin is used herein to mean any of the conventional dimeric, oligomeric or polymeric epoxy materials containing
at least one epoxy functional group. The polymer-based materials may be
epoxy containing materials having one or more oxirane rings polymerizable by a ring opening reaction. It is
contemplated that the activatable material can include up to about 80% of an epoxy resin or more. Typically, the
activatable material includes between about 5% and 60% by weight epoxy resin and still more typically between about
10% and 30% by weight epoxy resin. 0028. The epoxy may be aliphatic, cycloaliphatic, aromatic or the like. The
epoxy may be supplied as a solid (e.g., aspellets, chunks, pieces or the like) or a liquid (e.g., an epoxy resin). The epoxy
may include an ethylene copolymer or terpolymer that may possess an alpha-olefin. As a copolymer or terpolymer,
the polymer is composed of two or three different monomers, i.e., Small molecules with high chemical reactivity that
are capable of linking up with similar molecules. Preferably, an epoxy resin is added to the activatable material to
increase adhesion properties of the material. One exemplary epoxy resin may be a phenolic resin, which may be a
novalac type or other type resin. Other preferred epoxy containing materials may include a bisphenol-A epichloro
hydrin ether polymer, or a bisphenol-A epoxy resin which may be modified with butadiene or another polymeric
additive. Elastomeric Material.

Activatable materials used in the present invention, particularly when used in structures for Sound reduction (e.g.,
Sound attenuation and or sound absorption), insulation or both, will typically include a substantial amount of
elastomeric or rubber material, which can be one elastomer or a mixture of several different elastomers. When used,
the elastomeric material is typically at least about 5%, more typically at least about 14%, even more typically at least
25% by weight of the activatable material and the elastomeric mate rial is typically less than about 65%, more
typically less than about 45% and even more typically less than about 35% by weight of the activatable material.

Blowing Agent

One or more blowing agents may be added to the activatable material. Such blowing agents can assist in forming
cellular or foamed activated materials, which typically have a lower density and/or weight. In addition, the material
expansion that can be caused by the blowing agents can help to improve sealing capability, Substrate wetting ability,
adhesion to a Substrate, acoustic damping, combinations thereofore the like.
The blowing agent may be a physical blowing agent or a chemical blowing agent. For example, the blowing agent may be a
thermoplastic encapsulated solvent that expands upon exposure to a condition Such as heat. Alternatively, the blowing agent may
chemically react to liberate gas upon exposure to a condition Such as heat or humidity or upon exposure to another chemical reactant.

Curing Agent

One or more curing agents and/or curing agent accelerators may be added to the activatable material. Amounts of curing agents and
curing agent accelerators can, like the blowing agents, vary widely within the activatable material depending upon the type of cellular
structure desired, the desired amount of expansion of the activatable material, the desired rate of expansion, the desired structural
properties of the activatable material and the like. Exemplary ranges for the curing agents or curing agent accelerators present in the
activatable material range from about 0.001% by weight to about 7% by weight. 0040 Typically, the curing agents assist the activatable
material in curing by crosslinking of the polymers, epoxy resins or both. It can also be desirable for the curing agents to assist in
thermosetting the activatable material. Useful classes of curing agents are materials selected from aliphatic or aromatic amines or their
respective adducts, amidoamines, polyamides, cycloaliphatic amines, (e.g., anhydrides, poly carboxylic polyesters, isocyanates, phenol-
based resins (such as phenol or cresol novolak resins, copolymers such as those of phenol terpene, polyvinyl phenol, or bisphenol-A
formal dehyde copolymers, bishydroxyphenyl alkanes or the like), sulfur or mixtures thereof. Particular preferred curing agents include
modified and unmodified polyamines or polyamides such as triethylenetetramine, diethylenetriamine tetraethyl enepentamine,
cyanoguanidine, dicyandiamides and the like. An accelerator for the curing agents (e.g., a modified or unmodified urea such as
methylene diphenyl bis urea, an imidazole or a combination thereof) may also be provided for preparing the activatable material.

LIGHTNING PROTECTION

Lightning strikes are a serious problem during operation of aircraft due to the increasing applicability of polymeric composites in
aircraft structures and the weak electrical conducting
properties of such structures. In composite structures, lightning strikes may cause extended damage sites which require to be
appropriately maintained and repaired leading to increased operational costs. In order to overcome this problem various lightning strike
protection solutions have been developed. Some of them are based on the immersion of metallic elements and particles while others use
novel solutions such as intrinsically conductive polymers or other types of highly conductive particles including carbon nanotubes and
graphene.

Changes occurring over the last decades in design philosophy of many aircraft structures, in particular the application of fibre-reinforced
composites with a polymeric matrix in the exterior fuselage, allowed the strength-to-mass ratio to be significantly increased, which
resulted in the possibility of achieving higher speeds and manoeuvrability while keeping fuel consumption at a lower level. However,
the usage of polymeric composites in manufacturing aircraft structures resulted in one drawback with respect to the lightning
phenomena. Since polymers applied are dielectrics, the lightning strike events occurring during aircraft operation cause serious damage
to such structures. This, in turn, requires expensive repairing and testing, and obviously, grounding the aircraft for the period of up to 6
working days, leading to increased operational costs. A lightning striking a structure made of polymeric composite initiates numerous
accompanying phenomena, which additionally intensify structural degradation and disintegration. Lightning strikes usually occur during
take-off and landing of an aircraft as well as during passing through the storm clouds . Lightning usually strikes a geometrically extremal
point of an aircraft (like radome, wing tips, etc.) and travels through the structure along the shortest path, which is additionally the most
conductive one, to exit at another geometrically extremal point.

In order to overcome the problems caused by lightning strikes affecting composite elements, various lightning strike protection (LSP)
solutions have been developed over the last decades. From a variety of LSP solutions one can mention several groups: coatings of
metallized sprays or paints, impregnation of metallic meshes and foils as well as solutions based on dispersion of metallic particles,
graphite and carbon nanostructures.

This is an important issue having serious safety implications and repair needs. Two reports mention this problem. One of these is unusual
and needs special consideration because it raises the possibility of a composite part acting as an electrical capacitor. The report states,
“Sandwich design with carbon and Kevlar or glass skins and aluminum honeycomb core using the carbon as the outer skin and Kevlar
or glass next to the honeycomb acts as a capacitor and attracts lightning strikes. This possibility should be investigated for safety
reasons because aluminum honeycomb is being used due to its lower cost. It cannot be used in direct contact with carbon in damp or
wet environments because of the corrosion risk”

Proposed Solutions:

• Do not use aluminum core.

• Improve electrical grounding.

• Improve lightning protection.

The extent of the hazard will depend on the following factors:

• Thickness of the CFC skins

• Density, thickness, and ribbon direction of the aluminum honeycomb

• The nature of the CFC interface bond

• The position of the component in the aircraft

Insulated Honeycomb Panels: Nomex honeycomb panels with CFC skins present less of a problem, as the core is of insulating or
high-resistance material. The current is generally confined to the CFC skins.

Nature of Lightning Damage: From tests on several aluminum alloys and Nomex cored honeycomb panels, the following effects
were reported:

•In contrast to solid CFC plates, the application of erosion-resistant polyurethane paint drastically increased damage area and depth.

•In some cases, only minimal damage was found at the attachment point; however, a larger area of damage was found on the opposite
side of the sandwich. This effect has been observed on radomes in which a small burn on the outside of 6 mm (1/4 in.) diameter may
indicate a 450-mm (18-in.) diameter area of disbond of skin from the honeycomb on the inside.
In cases where no exterior damage was experienced, interior interlaminar shear failure was discovered on cutting
through the test specimen at the attachment point.

Comparing the skin damage area with that of the core in the case of Nomex sandwich plates, the zone was found to be
similar. In the case of aluminum honeycomb, the area of damage was at least twice the extent of the outside skin
damage.

A bank of experience in this subject should now be used. Some past occurrences have shown the following:

1.Induced currents have resulted in the release of bombs and drop tanks by military aircraft. Drop tanks have been
blown from aircraft.

2.Radomes have been blown forward and completely lost from aircraft when no lightning protection was fitted. The
pressure generated inside the radome, as a result of the temperature generated as the lightning struck the radar antenna,
has been sufficient to fracture all the latches. In other cases, pieces of skin of 0.093 m2 (1 ft2) or larger have been blown
away.

3.On light aircraft, control bearings have been welded solid, resulting in the loss of the aircraft and crew.

4.On a medium-sized jet airliner with carbon fi ber elevators, several cases occurred of spar damage that could have
been more serious. In these cases, several points of interest were noted:

The elevator hinge bearings and the main pivot arm bearing felt gritty when operated by hand. The current involved had
tried to weld each ball to its race.

The jumper lead that was supposed to carry the current had been fractured, presumably by inductive forces. The current
had flowed along the carbon fiber spar, through a bolt and out over the aluminum flame-sprayed coating on the outside.

The spar was locally delaminated and required a hot-bonded repair. The aluminum flame-sprayed coating was burned,
and parts of the skin required repair. The bolt had received an instantaneous spark-eroded undercut of about 0.5 mm
(0.02 in.).
5. Composite fuselages do not naturally provide as much electromagnetic interference (EMI)
shielding as aluminum fuselages. Sufficient shielding must be provided, by other means if
necessary, to avoid catastrophic interference with automatic flight controls, radio, radar, and
navigation equipment.

Fig. 31 Lightning process

Fig. 32 Different zones of lightning effect in aircraft

1. Remove the paint system until the lightning protection fabric (grit 220-440).
2. Remove dust with a vacuum cleaner and clean with solvent.
3. Apply the repair metal fabric and brush with resin.
 4. Press (vacuum bag) and cure.
5. Restore paint system.

PAINTING THE COMPOSITE MATERIAL

Painting is a good way to restore or change the color of the composite after the original finish has faded. The best methods of
painting depend on the type of materials in the composite. Following are step-by-step instructions for painting some of the most
common composites.

Painting Fiber Cement Composites: -

1. Use a pressure washer to clean. Wait two-four hours for the cement composite to dry.
2. Apply a primer.
3. Wait two hours or so for the primer to dry.
4. Apply the paint same way you applied the primer. Wait about two hours for the paint to dry.

Painting Wood Composites: -

1. For exterior wood composites, use a pressure washer with a low-pressure tip to clean. Wait two hours for the composite to
dry.
2. For interior wood composites, dust with a broom.
3. Using a roller, coat with an acrylic latex primer. Use a paintbrush for any areas you can't reach with a roller.
4. Wait two hours or so for the primer to dry.
5. Use satin or semi-gloss latex paint on interior wood composites. Use acrylic enamel on wood composites inside the house.
Apply acrylic latex paint the same way you applied the
primer. Wait four hours until dry.

Painting Wood Composites

1. For exterior wood composites, use a pressure washer with a low-pressure tip to clean. Wait two hours for the composite to
dry.
 2. For interior wood composites, dust with a broom.
3. Using a roller, coat with an acrylic latex primer. Use a paintbrush for any areas you can't reach with a roller.
4. Wait two hours or so for the primer to dry.
5. Use satin or semi-gloss latex paint on interior wood composites. Use acrylic enamel on wood composites inside the house.
Apply acrylic latex paint the same way you applied the
primer. Wait four hours until dry.

Painting Composite Decking

1. Mix one-part bleach with three parts waters.

2. Using rags, a roller, or a brush, apply the bleach solution liberally to all surfaces.
3. After half an hour, scrub the surfaces.
4. Rinse off the solution and residue.
5. Using very fine sandpaper (220 grit) lightly sand all the surfaces.
6. Wash off dust and dirt with a household detergent or commercial cleaner made for cleaning composite decks.
7. Rinse thoroughly.
8. If you are going to paint the deck, prime with an exterior latex stain-blocking primer made for plastic materials. Do not
prime if you plan to stain the deck instead of painting it.
9. For painting, use a high-quality latex floor and deck paint in a satin or semi-gloss finish. For staining, use a high-quality
acrylic latex solid color deck stain recommended for
composite decking.

Painting Fiberglass Composites

1. Fill holes or imperfections with fiberglass putty. Smooth out the putty with a putty knife. Let it cure completely.
2. Sand with heavy sandpaper (100 grit) to remove excess putty or any paint. After the composite is fairly smooth, switch to
800 grit sandpaper and sand until the composite is
very smooth. You can use an orbital sander or sand by hand.
3. Use a dry rag and acetone to remove dust, grease, and debris.
 4. Apply a primer. Most primers work on fiberglass, but it's a good idea to double check with the paint store on the best one to use.
Wait two hours or so until the primer is dry.
5. Spray or use a brush to apply the final coat of paint. Wait until the paint is dry.
6. Apply another coat of paint or apply the clear coat. Always use a clear coat after the last coat of paint; it will seal the paint and
help protect the paint from the elements.

QUALITY CONTROL

The term advanced aerospace composites typically refer to those materials that are made by binding high-strength and high-stiffness
continuous fibres with various types of polymeric resins and consolidating the resulting bimaterial (composite) into finished parts
under a prescribed cycle of temperature and pressure. The quality control process begins with controlling the raw materials used to
form such advanced composites, namely, the fibres and the resin. The overall manufacturing process for advanced composites begins
with the processing of fibres and resins from raw materials to obtain resins and fibres of the quality required for aerospace end-
product applications. This means that the processed fibres have to meet certain minimum requirements to qualify in terms of their
strength and stiffness, as well as their ability to maintain these required properties in the presence of adverse conditions such as
exposure to extreme temperatures, moisture and chemicals. Similarly, the processed resins must meet certain minimum requirements
to qualify, mainly in terms of their high-strength, modulus, toughness, low shrinkage, good chemical resistance, minimal curing
volatility and overall ease of processing.

Material quality control

Constituent materials control

In the case of aerospace composite materials, the manufacturer will typically specify constituent material requirements which define,
among others, material inspection procedures and supplier controls that ensure that the constituent materials used in the manufacturing
of a composite structure meet the engineering requirements of the original equipment manufacturer. The tests conducted by the
composites manufacturer to verify the properties and performance of the received constituent materials must be standardized to ensure
that production parts are manufactured with materials that have properties equivalent to those generated from the tests conducted to
establish the design allowable for this particular part or component.
Resins quality control

Resins, or what is more commonly referred to as the matrix material in a composite, are to be produced with the
highest quality assurance standards in order to qualify as constituent raw materials in advanced aerospace
composites. Many parameters affect resins quality and hence the performance and long-term durability of the
composite. These include their chemical composition, physical state and morphology and the presence of impurities
and contaminants. Finally, various test standards exist for the determination of glass transition temperature of resins,
such as the one described in ASTM E1356.

Fibres quality control

Various fibre types are used in advanced aerospace composites, the most common of which are Carbone graphite
fibres which are made predominately from the carbonization of polyacrylonitrile (PAN). These have highly
anisotropic morphology leading to a high variability in their moduli values ranging anywhere from 100 to 800 GPa in
the axial fibre direction, and around 10e30 GPa in the transverse direction.