CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS I.

One Group with Two Variables Measured for

Statistics Each Individual: The Correlational Method: two
- Shortened version of statistical procedure. different variables are observed to determine
- refers to a set of mathematical procedures for whether there is a relationship between them.
organizing, summarizing, and interpreting II. Comparing Two (or More) Groups of Scores:
information. Experimental and Nonexperimental Methods
Purposes of Statistics - Experimental: one variable is manipulated while
1. used to organize and summarize the information another variable is observed and measured. To
so that the researcher can see what happened in establish a cause-and-effect relationship between
the research study and can communicate the the two variables, an experiment attempts to
results to others. control all other variables to prevent them from
2. help the researcher to answer the questions that influencing the results.
initiated the research by determining exactly what - IV: manipulated by the researcher.
general conclusions are justified based on the - DV: observed to assess the effect of the
specific results that were obtained. treatment.
- Control condition: does not receive
Population: the set of all the individuals of interest in a
experimental treatment.
particular study.
- Experimental condition: do receive
Sample: a set of individuals selected from a population,
experimental treatment.
usually intended to represent the population in a research
- Nonexperimental: not true experiments but still
study.
examine the relationship between variables by
comparing groups of scores.
- Quasi-independent variable: the
“independent variable” that is used to
create the different groups of scores.
Discrete variables: consists of separate, indivisible
Variable: a characteristic or condition that changes or has
categories. No values can exist between two neighboring
different values for different individuals.
categories.
Datum (singular)
Continuous variables: there are an infinite number of
- is a single measurement or observation. possible values that fall between any two observed values.
- Raw score or score. A continuous variable is divisible into an infinite number of
Data (plural): measurements or observations. fractional parts.
Data set: collection of measurements or observations. SCALE OF MEASUREMENTS
Parameter: is a value that describes a population. Nominal Scale: consists of a set of categories that have
- usually derived from measurements of the different names. Measurements on a nominal scale label
individuals in the population. and categorize observations, but do not make any
Statistics: is a value that describes a sample. quantitative distinctions between observations. E.G. art,
- usually derived from measurements of the class.
individuals in the sample. Ordinal Scale: consists of a set of categories that are
Sampling error: naturally occurring discrepancy, or error, organized in an ordered sequence. Measurements on an
that exists between a sample statistic and the ordinal scale rank observations in terms of size or
corresponding population parameter. magnitude.
Constructs: internal attributes or characteristics that Interval Scale: consists of ordered categories that are all
cannot be directly observed but are useful for describing intervals of exactly the same size. Equal differences
and explaining behavior. between numbers on scale reflect equal differences in
Operational Definitions: identifies a measurement magnitude. However, the zero point on an interval scale is
procedure (a set of operations) for measuring an external arbitrary and does not indicate a zero amount of the
behavior and uses the resulting measurements as a variable being measured.
definition and a measurement of a hypothetical construct. Ratio Scale: interval scale with the additional feature of an
Note that an operational definition has two components. absolute zero point. With a ratio scale, ratios of numbers do
First, it describes a set of operations for measuring a reflect ratios of magnitude.
construct. Second, it defines the construct in terms of the
resulting measurements. CHAPTER 2: FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS
Real limits: are the boundaries of intervals for scores that TERMS and DEFINITION
are represented on a continuous number line. Frequency Distribution: is an organized tabulation of the
- Upper real limit (top); Lower real limit (bottom) number of individuals located in each category on the scale
of measurement.
STATISTICAL PROCEDURES Proportion: measures the fraction of the total group that is
Descriptive statistics: a statistical procedure used to associated with each score.
summarize, organize, and simplify data. - relative frequencies.
Inferential statistics: consist of techniques that allow us Grouped frequency distribution table: they present group
to study samples and then make generalizations about the of scores.
populations from which they were selected. Class intervals: groups or intervals.
Histograms
 - Use the distance from the top to
determine the position on the other scale.
Steam and leaf display: a technique for organizing data
that provides a simple alternative to a grouped frequency
Polygons distribution table or graph.
- Stem: the first digit or digits.
- Leaf: the last digit or digits.

FORMULAS
Bar graphs: the scores are measured on a nominal or
ordinal scale (usually non-numerical values). For finding the summation of N:
Smooth curves: indicates that you are not connecting a
series of dots (real frequencies) but instead are showing the
relative changes that occur from one score to the next. Proportion:
Normal curves: as being symmetrical, with the greatest
frequency in the middle and relatively smaller frequencies
as you move toward either extreme.
Percentage:
THE SHAPE OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
Symmetrical distribution: it is possible to draw a vertical
line through the middle so that one side of the distribution
is a mirror image of the other. Cumulative percentages:
Skewed distribution: the scores tend to pile up toward one
end of the scale and taper off gradually at the other end.
Tail of the distribution: section where the scores taper off
toward one end of a distribution.
- Positively skewed: A skewed distribution with the
tail on the right-hand side.
- Negatively skewed: If the tail points to the left.
TERMS and DEFINITION
Rank or percentile rank: the percentage of individuals in
Central tendency: a statistical measure to determine a
the distribution with scores at or below the particular value.
single score that defines the center of a distribution. The
Percentile: a score is identified by its percentile rank.
goal of central tendency is to find the single score that is
Percentile rank: refers to a percentage and that percentile
most typical or most representative of the entire group.
refers to a score. Also notice that your rank or percentile
Undetermined values: you will encounter a situation in
describes your exact position within the distribution.
which an individual has an unknown or undetermined score.
Cumulative frequency: resulting values that represent the
3 MEASURES
accumulation of individuals as you move up the scale.
1. Mean: the sum of the scores divided by the number
Cumulative percentage: resulting values that show the
of scores.
percentage of individuals who are accumulated as you
- Arithmetic average
move up the scale.
- Dividing the total equally
Interpolation: a desired percentile or percentile rank is
- The mean as the balance point
located between two known values, it is possible to
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE MEAN
estimate the desired value using this procedure.
- Changing a score
1. A single interval is measured on two separate
- Introducing a new score or removing a score
scales (for example, time and dollars). The
- Adding or subtracting a constant from each score
endpoints of the interval are known for each scale.
- Multiplying or dividing each score by a constant
2. You are given an intermediate value on one of the
2. Median: If the scores in a distribution are listed in
scales. The problem is to find the corresponding
order from smallest to largest, the median is the
intermediate value on the other scale.
midpoint of the list. More specifically, the median
3. The interpolation process requires four steps:
is the point on the measurement scale below
- Find the width of the interval on both
which 50% of the scores in the distribution are
scales.
located.
- Locate the position of the intermediate
WHEN TO USE MEDIAN
value in the interval. This position
corresponds to a fraction of the whole - Extreme scores or skewed distributions
interval: - Undetermined values
- Open-ended distributions
- Ordinal scale
3. Mode: the score or category that has the greatest
- Use the same fraction to determine the frequency.
corresponding position on the other scale. - The customary fashion
First, use the fraction to determine the - Popular style
distance from the top of the interval: WHEN TO USE MODE
- Nominal scale
- Discrete variables
- Describing shape
TYPES OF DISTRIBUTION Population variance: represented by the symbol
1. Symmetrical distribution: the right-hand side of (population standard deviation)² and equals the mean
the graph is a mirror image of the left-hand side. squared distance from the mean. Population variance is
- Mean: exactly at the center obtained by dividing the sum of squares by N.
- Median: exactly at the center Population standard deviation: represented by the
- Mode: 1 symmetrical, center; binomial, both sides; symbol and equals the square root of the population
rectangular distribution, no mode. variance.
2. Skewed distributions: especially distributions for Sample variance: represented by the symbol s² and equals
continuous variables, there is a strong tendency the mean squared distance from the mean. Sample
for the mean, median, and mode to be located in variance is obtained by dividing the sum of squares by n-1.
predictably different positions. Sample standard deviation: represented by the symbol s
- Positively skewed distributions: the most likely and equal the square root of the sample variance.
order of the three measures of central tendency - Simply the square root of the variance.
from smallest to largest (left to right) is the mode, Sample statistic is unbiased: if the average value of the
median, and mean. statistic is equal to the population parameter. (The average
- Mean: right of the median value of the statistic is obtained from all the possible
- Median: right of the mode samples for a specific sample size, n.)
- Mode: left-hand side Sample statistic is biased: if the average value of the
- Negatively skewed distributions: the most statistic either underestimates or overestimates the
probable order for the three measures of central corresponding population parameter.
tendency from smallest value to largest value (left
to right), is the mean, median, and mode.
FORMULAS
- Mean: left by the extreme scores in the tail
Range:
- Median: between mean and mode
R = H – L or R = Xmax - Xmin
- Mode: right side (peak)

FORMULAS:
Population mean:

Sample mean:

Weighted mean:

CHAPTER 4: VARIABLITY
TERMS and DEFINITION
Variability: Provides a quantitative measure of the Population variance:
differences between scores in a distribution and describes
the degree to which the scores are spread out or clustered
together.
Range: the distance covered by the scores in a distribution, Population standard deviation:
from the smallest score to the largest score.
Standard Deviation: Provides a measure of the standard,
or average, distance from the mean, and describes whether
the scores are clustered closely around the mean or are Sample variance:
widely scattered.
- is the square root of the variance and provides a
measure of the standard, or average distance from
the mean. Sample standard deviation:
Deviation: the distance from the mean.
Deviation score: the difference between the score and the
mean.
Variance: equals the mean of the squared deviations.
Sample variance:
Variance is the average squared distance from the mean.
Sum of squares (SS): the sum of the squared deviation
scores.