CHAPTER 1  Importance of early childhood

P S Y C H O L O G Y – scientific study of behavior and experiences; personality was

mental processes formed in the first 6 years of life
- Behavior - all of our outward and overt actions - Ivan Pavlov – a reflex (involuntary reaction)
and reactions (talking, facial expressions and could be caused to occur in response to a
movement) formerly unrelated stimulus
- Mental Processes – all internal, covert activity of - John B. Watson – “behaviorism” – focusing on
our minds (thinking, feeling, remembering) observable behavior; “all behavior is learned”;
 PSYCHOLOGY’S GOALS Little Albert experiment
1. Description – observing a behavior and noting - Mary Cover Jones – Little Peter experiment;
everything about it counterconditioning; duplicated Little Albert
o What seems to be happening experiment and tried to do it the other way,
2. Explanation – trying to understand or find an making Peter not afraid of the white rabbit.
explanation for the behavior MODERN PERSPECTIVES
o Theory – a general explanation of asset of  PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE – Less
observation or facts emphasis on sex and sexual motivations; more
3. Prediction – determining what will happen in emphasis on development of a sense of self,
the future social and interpersonal relationships
4. Control – to change a behavior from an  BEHAVIORAL PERSPECTIVE
undesirable one to a desirable one - B.F. Skinner – “operant conditioning” –
HISTORY OF PSYCHOLOGY behavioral responses that are followed by
- Relatively new in the realm of science, ~130 years old pleasurable consequences are strengthened
Aristotle - wrote about the relationship of the soul to (reinforced).
the body  HUMANISTIC PERSPECTIVE – people have free
Plato - “dualism” – he soul could exist separately from will, the freedom to choose their own destiny,
the body and strive for self-actualization, the
Rene Descartes – pineal gland was the seat of the soul achievement of one’s full potential.
 STRUCTURALISM vs FUNCTIONALISM - Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
o Wilhelm Wundt – “objective introspection” – the  COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE – focuses on how
process of objectively examining and measuring people think, remember, store, and use
one’s own thoughts and mental activities. information.
o Edward Titchener – one of Wundt’s students  SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE – combines two
- Expanded Wundt’s original ideas and calling it areas of study: social psychology (study of
“structuralism” because the focus of study was groups, social roles, rules of social actions and
the structure of the mind relationships) and cultural psychology (study of
 William James – focused on how the mind allows cultural norms, values, and expectations)
people to function in the real world (how they  BIOPSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE – study of
work, play, adapt to their surroundings) and called the biological bases of behavior and mental
it “functionalism” processes; human and animal behavior is seen
 GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY as a direct result of events in the body
o Max Wertheimer – psychological events such as  EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE – focuses on the
perceiving and sensing could not be broken down biological bases of universal mental
into smaller pieces and still be properly understood characteristics that all humans share. (example:
- “The whole is greater than the sum of its hating bitter things as an adaptive behavior bc
parts” poisonous plants have bitter taste)
o G E S T A L T - meaning “an organized PSYCHOLOGICAL PROFESSIONALS+
whole” or “configuration”; studying areas of specialization
whole patterns rather than small pieces  PSYCHOLOGIST vs PSYCHIATRIST
of them - Psychologist has no medical training but has a
- Sigmund Freud – proposed that there is an doctorate degree. Not all psychologists are
unconscious mind into which we push or repress trained to do counseling
all of our threatening urges and desires. - Psychiatrist has a medical (M.D. or D.O.) degree
and is a medical doctor who has specialized in
 the diagnosis and treatment (+prescription) of (-) researchers have to be very careful about the
psychological disorders). group of people they survey
 Psychiatric social worker – trained in the area o Representative sample – randomly
of social work and usually possesses a master’s selecting a certain number of
degree in that discipline representatives of the population
SCIENTIFIC METHODOLOGY (-) people aren’t always going to give
 STEPS IN SCIENTIFIC METHOD researchers accurate answers
1. Perceiving the Question – derived from the o Courtesy bias – people giving socially
goal of description: What is happening here? correct answers rather than their true
2. Forming a Hypothesis – forming an educated opinion
guess FINDING RELATIONSHIPS
o Confirmation bias – having the  CORRELATIONAL TECHNIQUE
tendency to notice only things that Correlation – measure of relationship between two
agree with their view of the world or more variables
3. Testing the Hypothesis – goal: getting an  Variable – anything that can change or vary
explanation  Correlation coefficient – represents the
4. Drawing Conclusions direction of the relationship and its strength
5. Report your Results – even if it failed to save o Positive – 2 variables increase in the
other researchers from testing the same same direction
hypothesis o Negative – 2 variables have an inverse
 DESCRIPTIVE METHODS relationship
1. Naturalistic Observation – watching subjects o Strong relationship – closer to +1 or to -
behave in their normal environment 1
(+) allows researchers to get realistic pictures of o Weak relationship – closer to zero
how behavior occurs * CORRELATION DOES NOT PROVE CAUSATION
o Observer effect – subjects who know Experiment – method that will allow researchers to
they are being watched will not behave determine the cause of a behavior
normally  Researchers deliberately manipulate the
o Participant observation – being part of variable they think is causing the behavior
the group being observed o Independent variable – variable that is
(-) Observer bias – when the person doing the manipulated
observing has a particular opinion about what o Dependent variable – response of the
he/she expects to see participants to the manipulation of the
o Blind observers – observers don’t know independent variable
the research question, therefore, no o Confounding variables – variables that
bias interfere with each other and their
(-) Naturalistic setting is unique and unlike any possible effects on some other variable
other therefore cannot be replicated of interest
2. Laboratory Observation  Groups – best way to control for confounding
(-) being in an artificial situation might result in variables
artificial behavior o Experimental group – group that is
(+) the degree of control it gives the observer exposed to the independent variable;
3. Case Studies – one individual is studied in great receives experimental manipulation
detail o Control group – gets no treatment or
(+) tremendous amount of detail it provides some kind of treatment that should
(+) a good way to study things that are rare have no effect
(-) researchers can’t really apply the results to  EXPERIMENTAL HAZARDS
other similar people  Placebo effect – expectations and biases of the
4. Surveys – researchers will ask a series of participants in a study can influence their
questions about the topic they are studying behavior
(+) ability to get private information  Experimenter effect – like placebo but has
(+) get tremendous amount of data on a very something to do with the expectations of the
large group of people
 experimenter and not the participants; when incubator of neurons; where they
participants are animals rather than people develop/work/that hold neurons in place)
To avoid these effects o Two special types of glial cells
1. Single blind study – participants are “blind” to (oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells)
the treatment they receive generate myelin (CNS – oligo, PNS – SC)
2. Double blind study – neither the participants  THE SYNAPSE
nor the persons measuring the dependent - Synaptic knobs/axon terminals – little knobs on
variable know who gets what treatment the ends of axons
ETHICS - Neurotransmitters – transmits the messages
1. Rights and well-being of participants must be - Synapse/synaptic gap – fluid-filled spaces
weighed against the study’s value to science. between dendrites of 2 neurons
2. Participants must be allowed to make an - Receptor sites – proteins that allow only
informed decision about participation. particular molecules of a certain shape to fit
3. Deception must be justified. into it
4. Participants may withdraw from the study at - Cleaning up the Synapse / Reasons why some
any time. information don’t get passed
5. Participants must be protected from risks or 1. Reuptake – process by which
told explicitly of risks. neurotransmitters are taken back into
6. Investigators must debrief participants, telling synaptic vesicles
the true nature of the study and expectations of 2. Enzymatic degradation – process by which
results structure of neurotransmitter is altered so it
7. Data must remain confidential. can no longer act on receptor.
8. If for any reason a study results in undesirable CENTRAL NERVOU S SYSTEM
consequences for the participant, the CNS – composed of the brain and the spinal cord.
researcher is responsible for detecting and - Brain – the core of nervous system, makes
removing, or correcting, these consequences. sense of the information from environment,
makes decisions and commands.
CHAPTER 2 - Spinal cord – long bundle of neurons that
THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE receive and send information to and from the
NERVOUS SYSTEM brain.
- an extensive network of specialized cells that o Inner section – composed of cell bodies
carries information to and from all parts of the separated by glial cells; primitive sort of
body. “brain”; responsible for certain reflexes
- Neuroscience – branch of life sciences that – very fast, lifesaving reflexes.
deals with the structure and function of  3 BASIC TYPES OF NEURONS
neurons, nerves, and nervous tissue. 1. Afferent (sensory) neurons – carry
o Biological Psychology or Behavioral messages from the senses to spinal cord
Neuroscience - branch of neuroscience 2. Efferent (motor) neurons – carry messages
that focuses on the biological bases of from spinal cord to the muscles and glands
psychological processes, behavior and 3. Interneurons – connect the afferent to
learning. efferent neurons
NEURONS AND NERVES Reflex arc – the connection of the afferent
Neurons – specialized cell in the nervous system that neurons to the interneurons to the efferent
received and sends messages within that system neurons, resulting in a reflex action.
Neuron
o Dendrites – parts of neuron that
receive messages from other cells o Outer section – composed mainly of
o Soma – contains nucleus and keeps the myelinated axons and nerves; carry
entire cell alive and functioning messages from the body up to the brain
o Axon – fiber attached to the soma; and from the brain down to the body
carries messages to other cells - Neuroplasticity – the ability of the brain to
- Neurons are only 10% of the cells in the brain, constantly change both the structure and
the other 90% is composed of glial cells (like an function of many cells in the brain in response
 to experience and even trauma; the brain o Diabetes – results when pancreas
healing itself secretes too little insulin.
- Stem cells – special cells found in all the tissues o Hypoglycemia – or low blood sugar
of the body, they get cells from another sources when pancreas secretes too much
and implant in order to change the structure. insulin.
PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - Gonads – sex glands; ovaries in the female,
Peripheral nervous system - Made up of all nerves and testes in male; secrete hormones that regulate
neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal sexual behavior and reproduction.
cord o Female gonads
 SOMATIC NERVOUS SYSTEM VS AUTONOMIC  Ovaries
NERVOUS SYSTEM  Produce eggs and secrete
- Somatic nervous system – made up of the female hormones: estrogen and
sensory pathway (nerves carrying messages progesterone
from the senses to CNS) and the motor pathway o Male gonads
(nerves carrying messages from CNS to the  Testes
voluntary muscles of the body) - Adrenal glands
- Autonomic nervous system – controls o Adrenal medulla – releases epinephrine
everything else in the body – organs, glands, and norepinephrine; aids in
and involuntary muscles. sympathetic arousal
o Sympathetic division – fight of flight o Adrenal cortex – produces hormones
system called corticoids that regulate salt
o Parasympathetic division – eat, drink, intake, help initiate and control stress
rest system reactions, and also provides a source of
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM sex hormones.
- Endocrine glands – have no ducts and secrete STRUCTURES OF THE BRAIN
their chemicals directly in to the bloodstream,  THE HINDBRAIN
which carries them to organs in the body. - Medulla – located at the top of the spinal
- Hormones – chemicals secreted by the column; controls life-sustaining functions such
endocrine glands; affect behavior and emotions as heartbeat, breathing and swallowing
producing exhibitory and inhibitory - Pons – the larger “swelling” just above the
 HOW HORMONES INTERACT WITH THE medulla; bridge between the lower parts of the
NERVOUS SYSTEM brain and the upper sections; influences sleep,
- Pituitary gland – the master gland; dreaming and arousal.
controls/influences all of the other endocrine - Reticular Formation – responsible for people’s
glands ability to generally attend to certain kinds of
o Anterior lobe – regulates the activity of information in their surroundings
the thyroid, adrenals, reproductive - Cerebellum – “little brain”; controls all
glands. involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement;
o Posterior lobe – releases antidiuretic coordinates voluntary movements that have to
hormone, which helps control the body happen in rapid succession; stores learned
water balance; also oxytocin which reflexes, skills, and habits; muscle memory
gives calming effect.  STRUCTURES UNDER THE CORTEX
- Pineal Gland – plays an important role in Limbic system – includes the thalamus,
several biological rhythms; secretes melatonin, hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala and the
which helps tracks day length (and seasons) cingulate cortex; involved in emotions, motivation,
- Thyroid gland – located inside the neck and memory, and learning
secrets hormones that regulate growth and - Thalamus – “inner chamber”; relays
metabolism; plays a crucial role in the body and information from sensory organs to the cerebral
brain development. cortex
o Thyroxin – hormone that regulates o Smell is the only sense that does not
metabolism have to pass through the thalamus and
- Pancreas – controls the level of blood sugar in go directly to olfactory bulbs
the body by secreting insulin and glucagon.
- Hypothalamus – regulates body temperature, Association areas – made up of neurons; helps
thirst, hunger, sleeping and waking, sexual people make sense of the incoming sensory input
activity, and emotions; controls the pituitary, and express.
the master of the master gland - Broca’s area – left frontal lobe; devoted to
- Hippocampus – instrumental in forming long- the production of speech, allows a person
term (permanent) declarative memories that to speak smoothly and fluently
are then stored elsewhere in the brain; o Broca’s aphasia - unable to get
o Damage to it may cause amnesia, words out in a smooth, connected
anterograde (can’t remember past but fashion; cannot control the actual
can remember new), retrograde (only production of their own words;
past) aphasia – refers to inability to use
- Amygdala – responsible for fear responses and or undertand.
memory of fear - Wernicke’s area – left temporal lobe;
- Cingulate cortex – plays an important role in understand the meaning of words.
both emotional and cognitive processing; o Wernicke’s aphasia - able to speak
selective attention, written word recognition, fluently and pronounce words
and working memory correctly, but the words would be
 THE CORTEX the wrong ones entirely.
- Cortex – the outermost part of the brain; made
up of tightly packed neurons CHAPTER 3 SENSATION AND PERCEPTION
o The wrinkling of the cortex allows a SENSATION
much larger area of cortical cells to Sensation – occurs when special receptors in the sense
exist in the small space inside the skull organs (eyes, ears, nose, skin, taste buds) are activated,
o Divided into two sections called the allowing various forms of outside stimuli to become
cerebral hemispheres; connected by neural signals in the brain
corpus callosum which allows the left - Transduction – process of converting
and right hemispheres to communicate outside stimuli such as light into neural
with each other activity
- Occipital Lobes – base of the cortex; processes - Sensory receptors – specialized forms of
visual information from the eyes in the primary neurons; instead of receiving
visual cortex neurotransmitters, these receptor cells are
o Visual association cortex – the part of stimulated by different kinds of energy
the brain that helps identify and make  SENSORY THRESHOLDS
sense of the visual information from the Ernst Weber – did studies trying to determine the
eyes smallest difference between the two weights that
- Parietal Lobes – top and back of the brain; could be detected.
contains the somatosensory cortex; processes - Weber’s law of just noticeable differences
information from the skin and internal body (jnd, or the difference threshold)
receptors for touch, temperature, and body o Jnd – the smallest difference between
position two stimuli that is detectable 50
- Temporal Lobes – just behind the temples of percent of time.
the head; primary auditory cortex and the o Whatever the difference between
auditory association area; sense of taste stimuli might be it is always a constant
- Frontal Lobes – front of the brain; higher (percentage not amount)
mental functions of the brain (planning, Gustav Fechner – expanded on Weber’s work by
personality, memory storage, complex decision studying something he called the absolute
making, and areas devoted to language); also threshold.
helps in controlling emotions by means of its - Absolute threshold – is the lowest level of
connection to the limbic system stimulation that a person can consciously
o motor cortex which controls the detect 50 percent of the time that the
movements of the body’s voluntary stimulation is present.
muscles voluntary muscles o Sense and Threshold
 ASSOCIATION AREAS
  Vision – a candle flame 30 miles o Rods – sensitive to changes in
away brightness but not changes in
 Hearing – a watch ticking 20 wavelengths; responsible for
feet away peripheral vision
 Smell – a drop of perfume in a  Dark adaptation – when
six-room house. the eye recovers its ability
 Taste- a teaspoon of sugar in a to see when going from a
gallon of water. brightly lit state to a dark
 Touch – a wing of a fly on your state
check, dropped 1 cm. o Cones – receptors for visual acuity,
Subliminal stimuli – stimuli that are below the level of color vision; sensitive to different
conscious awareness; strong enough to activate the wavelengths of light
sensory receptors but not strong enough for people to - Bipolar cells – interneuron; from rods and
be consciously aware of them cones to bipolar cells
Supraliminal stimuli – stimuli that are above the - Ganglion cells – their axons form the optic
threshold and detectable by our sensory systems, BUT nerve; from bipolar cells to ganglion cells
are below the level of conscious perception. Fovea – central area of retina; greatest density of
- Found in logos like FedEx, Wendys, Kisses, photoreceptors (cones)
Toblerone, Amazon, Spartan. Optic nerve – sends visual information to the brain
SUBLIMINAL PERCEPTION – the process wherein Blind spot/optic disc – where the optic nerve leaves
subliminal stimuli act upon the unconscious mind, the eye; no photoreceptor cells
influencing behavior. Vitreous humor – jelly like liquid that nourishes and
 HABITUATION AND SENSORY ADAPTATION gives shape to the eye
Habituation - the way the brain deals with  PERCEPTION OF COLOR
unchanging information from the environment until Theories of Color Vision
it is stopped/changes 1. Trichromatic theory by Thomas Young, later
Sensory Adaptation – another process by which modified by Herman von Helmholtz
constant, unchanging information from the sensory - Proposed 3 types of cones: red cones, blue
receptors is effectively ignored; sensory receptors cones, green cones, one for each primary
are responding to stimulation but the lower centers colors of light
of the brain are not sending the signals form those - Different shades of colors correspond to
receptors of the cortex. different amounts of light received by each
THE SCIENCE OF SEEING of these three types of cones
 STRUCTURE OF THE EYES - CAN’T explain the afterimage phenomenon
Cornea – clear membrane covering the surface of - Afterimages – occur when a visual
the eyes; bends light waves so the image can be sensation persists for a brief time even after
focused on the retina the original stimulus is removed
Aqueous humor – clear liquid that nourishes the 2. Opponent-process theory based on an idea first
eye suggested by Edward Hering
Iris – its muscles control the size of the pupil - Explains afterimages
Pupil – iris opening that changes size depending on - Four primary colors: red, green, blue,
the amount of light in the environment yellow
Lens – changes shape to bring objects into focus - Colors are arranged in pairs (red–green,
- Visual accommodation – lens changing its blue–yellow); if one member of a pair is
shape from thick to thin to focus on objects strongly stimulated, the other member is
close or far away inhibited and cannot be working
Retina – contains photoreceptor cells; light 3 Kinds of Color-deficient vision
sensitive area at the back of the eye COLOR BLINDNESS – caused by defective cones in the
- Rods and cones – special cells retina of the eye; color-deficient vision is more accurate
(photoreceptors) that respond to the 1. Monochrome Color Blindness – people either
various light waves; receives the photons of have no cones or have cones that are not
light and turn them into neural signals to working at all
the brain
 - If they have cones, they only have one type Three theories about how brain receives
and therefore, everything looks the same to information about pitch
the brain, shades of gray 1. Place theory by Herman von Helmholtz
2. Dichromatic vision – having one cone that does - The pitch a person hears depends on where
not work properly the hair cells that are stimulated are located
- Red-green color deficiencies Protanopia on the organ of Corti; near oval window –
(lack of functioning red cones) and high pitched, far away on the organ of Corti
Deuteranopia (lack of functioning green – low pitched
cones) – individual confuses reds and 2. Frequency Theory by Ernest Rutherford
greens seeing primarily in blues, yellows - Pitch is related to how fast the basilar
and grays membrane vibrates; faster vibrations –
- Tritanopia (blue-yellow color deficiency; higher pitch
lack of functioning blue cones) – sees 3. Volley Principle by Ernest Wever and Charles
primarily in reds, greens and grays Bray
THE HEARING SENSE - Appears to account pitches from about 400
Wavelengths – frequency/pitch Hz up to 4000 Hz
Amplitude – volume - Groups of auditory neurons take turns firing
Purity – timbre/richness in the tone of the sound up in a process called volleying
Hertz – cycles (waves) per second; measure of  TYPES OF HEARING IMPAIRMENTS
frequency; human limits at 20 and 20,000Hz, most Hearing impairment – term used to refer to
sensitive from about 2000 to 4000 Hz difficulties in hearing
 STRUCTURE OF THE EAR - Conduction Hearing Impairment – sound
- Outer Ear vibrations cannot be passed from the
o Pinna – visible external part of the eardrum to the cochlea; cause might be a
ear; concentrator, funneling the damaged eardrum or damage to the middle
sound waves from the outside into ear bones
the ear; entrance to auditory canal - Nerve Hearing Impairment – problem lies
o Auditory canal – short tunnel that either in the inner ear or in the auditory
runs down to the tympanic pathways and cortical areas of the brain
membrane, or eardrum o Tinnitus – ringing in one’s ears; can
- Middle Ear be caused by infection or loud
o Hammer, Anvil, and Stirrup – 3 tiny noises
bones; the vibration of these 3 GUSTATION
bones amplifies the vibrations from Taste buds – common name for taste receptor cells
the eardrum Five basic tastes – Hans Henning proposed there are 4
- Inner Ear – called the oval window, and its which are sweet, sour, salty, and bitter
vibrations set off another chain reaction - Lindemann supported the idea that there is
within the inner ear a fifth kind of taste receptor detecting
o Cochlea – filled with fluid; when the brothy taste called umami
oval window vibrates, it causes the OLFACTION
fluid in the cochlea to vibate Olfaction/olfactory sense – the ability to smell odors
o Basilar membrane – resting place - Olfactory receptor cells – have little hairs
of the organ of corti – contains the called cilia; there are receptor sites on
receptor cells for the sense of these hair cells that send signals to the
hearing; when the basilar brain when stimulated by the molecules of
membrane vibrates, organ of corti substances that are in the air moving past
vibrates causing it to brush against them
a membrane above it - Olfactory bulbs – where olfactory receptors
o Hair cells – sends neural message to send their neural signals directly up to these
the auditory nerve and into the bulbs, bypassing the thalamus
brain SOMESTHETIC SENSES
 PERCEIVING PITCH 3 somesthetic sense systems:
Pitch – how high or low a sound is
1. Skin senses – having to do with touch, pressure, vestibular organs, which may lead
temperature and pain to dizziness, nausea, and
2. Kinesthetic sense – having to do with the disorientation
location of body parts in relation to each other PERCEPTION
3. Vestibular senses – having to do with Perception – the method by which the brain takes all
movement and body position the sensations people experience at any given moment
 PERCEPTION OF TOUCH, PRESSURE, & and allows them to be interpreted in some meaningful
TEMPERATURE fashion
Skin – receives and transmits information from the  CONSTANCIES: SIZE, SHAPE, AND BRIGHTNESS
outside world to the central nervous system - Size constancy – the tendency to interpret
- Pacinian corpuscles – respond to changes in an object as always being the same size,
pressure regardless of its distance from the viewer.
- Nerve endings – around the ends of hair - Shape constancy – the tendency to
follicles; sensitive to pain and touch interpret the shape of an object as the
- Free nerve endings – respond to changes in constant, even when it changes on the
temperature, pressure, and pain retina.
 Pain – warning system - Brightness constancy – the tendency to
- Types of Pain: perceive the apparent brightness of an
o Visceral pain – pain and pressure in object as the same even when the light
organ condition change.
o Somatic pain – pain sensations in  GESTALT PRINCIPLES
the skin, muscles, tendons and - Figure-ground relationships – refer to the
joints tendency to perceive objects or figures as
o Phantom limb pain – occurs when a existing on a background
person who had had an arm or leg o Reversible figures – the figure and the
removed sometimes feels pain the ground seem to switch back and forth
in the missing limb - Proximity – the tendency to perceive
- Congenital analgesia and congenital objects that are close to one another as
insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis – born part of the same grouping.
without the ability to feel pain - Similarity - refers to the tendency to
 THE KINESTHETIC SENSE perceive things that look similar as being
Kinesthesia - Sense of movement and position part of the same group.
in space – the movement and location of the - Closure – tendency to complete figures that
arms, legs, and so forth in relation to one are incomplete
another; sense that involves special receptors - Continuity – refers to the tendency to
located in muscles, tendons perceive things as simply as possible with a
- Proprioceptors – tell you about joint continuous pattern rather than with a
movement or the muscles stretching or complex, broken-up pattern.
contracting - Common region – tendency to perceive
 THE VESTIBULAR SENSE objects that are in common area or region
- 2 Kinds of vestibular organs: as being in a group
1. Otolith organs – tiny sacs found just above - Contiguity – involves not just nearness in
the cochlea which contain gelatin-like fluid space but nearness in time also; the
where tiny crystals are suspended tendency to perceive two things that
2. Semicircular canals – three somewhat happen close together in time as being
circular tubes that are also filled with fluid related (e.g. ventriloquist)
that will stimulate hairlike receptors when  DEPTH PERCEPTION
rotated Depth Perception – capability to see the world in
- Motion Sickness – disagreement between three-dimensions
what the eyes say and what the body says - Monocular cues – often referred to as
o Sensory conflict theory – pictorial depth cues; gives illusion of depth
information from the eyes may to paintings and drawings
conflict a little too much with the
 o Linear perspective – tendency for lines surrounding cues to indicate the light is not
that are actually parallel to seem to moving
converge on each other - Stroboscopic motion – seen in motion
o Relative size – when objects that are pictures; some rapid series of still pictures
people expect to be of certain size will seem to be in motion
appear to be small and are assumed to - Phi phenomenon – seen in Christmas lights,
be farther away moving with sequence.
o Overlap – if one object seems to be
blocking another object, People assume OTHER FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE PERCEPTION
that the blocked object is behind the Perceptual set/perceptual expectancy – people’s
first one, farther away; also known as tendency to perceive things a certain way because their
interposition previous experiences or expectations influence them.
o Aerial (atmospheric) perspective – the Top down processing – use of preexisting information.
farther the object is the hazier, or Bottom up-processing – the reverse of the former.
blurrier
o Texture gradient – objects that are Synesthesia – senses coming together; means that
close to you are very distinctly textured when a certain sense or part of a sense is activated,
o Motion parallax – discrepancy in another unrelated sense or part of a sense is activated
motion of near and far objects concurrently.
o Accommodation – a monocular cue Synesthestes – people who have this
that is not one of the pictorial cues; Examples of synesthesia:
tTendency of the lens of the eyes to  Lexical-gustatory synesthesia – associate words
change its shape, or thickness, in and tastes.
response to objects near or far away;  Mirror-touch synesthesia – when you feel the
also known as muscular cues same sensation another person feels.
- Binocular cues – these cues require the use  Misophonia – hatred of sounds, sounds trigger
of two eyes. strong negative emotions like disgust and
o Convergence – the rotation of the two anger.
eyes in their sockets to focus on a single  Personification – sense or attach personalities
object. to certain sequences.
o Binocular disparity – scientific way of Number form synesthesia – numbers automatically
saying that because the eyes are a few appear in the mind as mental
inches apart, they don’t see exactly the
same image; the brain interprets the CHAPTER 4 CONSCIOUSNESS
image on the retina to determine the Consciousness – your awareness of everything that is
distance from the eyes going on around you and inside your own head at any
- if two images are different, they given moment, which you use to organize your
must be close. behavior, including thoughts, sensations, and feelings
 PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS - In cognitive neuroscience view, consciousness is
Illusion – perception that does not correspond to generated by a set of action potentials in the
reality; people think that they see something communication among neurons just sufficient to
different produce a specific perception, memory, or
- Hermann Grid - the delay of process of experience in our awareness
colors - Waking consciousness – which their thoughts,
- Muller-Lyer Illusion feelings, and sensations are clear and organized,
- Moon illusion – the moon the horizon and they feel alert
appears to be much larger than the moon in ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS
the sky - Occurs when there is a shift in the quality or
Illusions of Motion – sometimes people perceive an pattern of your mental activity; either
object as moving when it is actually still decreased or increased
- Autokinetic effect – when a small, A L T E R E D S T A T E S: S L E E P
stationary light in a darkened room appears  BIOLOGY OF SLEEP
to move or drift because there are no
Circadian rhythm – the sleep-wake cycle; takes are released from the pituitary gland and reach
“about a day” to complete their peak
Melatonin – hormone normally secreted by the o Lowest level of functioning
pineal gland - People are disoriented when they wake up from
- Suprachiasmatic nucleus – the internal clock this sleep
that tells people when to wake up and when to REM SLEEP
fall asleep; sensitive to changes in light; tells - After stage 4, the person will go back up
pineal gland to secrete melatonin through stage 3, 2, then to REM in which body
Microsleeps – brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only temperature increases to near-waking levels
seconds - Associated with dreaming
- The Adaptive Theory of Sleep – sleep is a - REM dreams tend to be more vivid, more
product of evolution; animals and humans detailed, longer and more bizarre than NREM
evolved different sleep patterns to avoid being dreams
present during their predators’ normal hunting - REM paralysis – voluntary muscles are
times paralyzed during REM sleep
- The Restorative Theory of Sleep – sleep is - REM rebound – if deprived of REM sleep, the
necessary to the physical health of the body person will experience greatly increased
2 Kinds of Sleep amounts of REM sleep the next night
1. REM (rapid eye movement) sleep – relatively  SLEEP DISORDERS
active type of sleep when most of a person’s - Nightmares – bad dreams; children have more
dreaming takes place; voluntary muscles are nightmares because they spend more of their
inhibited sleep in REM than adults; occurs in REM sleep
2. Non-REM sleep – much deeper, more restful - REM behavior disorder – rare disorder in which
kind of sleep; the person’s body is free to move the brain mechanisms that normally inhibit the
around voluntary muscles fail, allowing the person to
In electroencephalogram, a person who is wide thrash around and even get up and act out
awake will show a brain-wave pattern called beta nightmares
waves (very small and very fast). Alpha waves - Somnambulism/sleepwalking – most
(slightly larger and slower) appear as the person sleepwalkers typically don’t remember the
relaxes and gets drowsy then gets replaced by even episode the next day
slower and larger theta waves. - Night terrors – essentially a state of panic
 STAGES OF SLEEP experienced while sound asleep; unlike
NON-REM STAGE 1: LIGHT SLEEP nightmares, not vivid and usually can’t be
- If people are awakened at this point, they will remembered; occurs in non-REM sleep
probably not believe that they were actually - Insomnia – inability to get to sleep, stay asleep,
asleep or get a good quality of sleep
- Hypnogogic images – hallucinations - Sleep apnea – the person stops breathing for
- Hypnic jerk – the relaxation of the muscles as nearly half a minute or more during sleeping
one drifts into sleep causes a “falling” sensation - Narcolepsy – a kind of sleep seizure; the person
NON-REM STAGE 2: SLEEP SPINDLES may slip suddenly into REM sleep during the
- Body temperature continues to drop day
- Heart rate slows; breathing becomes shallow DREAMS
and irregular - Freud’s Interpretation
- Brief bursts of activity lasting only a second or o Manifest content – actual dream itself
two o Latent content – hidden meanings, symbols
- Predominant theta waves - Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis – a dream is
NON-REM STAGE 3 AND STAGE 4: DELTA WAVES merely another kind of thinking that occurs when
ROLL IN people sleep; less realistic because it comes not
- Slowest and largest waves make their from the outside world of reality but from within
appearance; called delta waves people’s memories and past experiences.
- Stage 4 – delta waves account for more than o Dreams are products of activity in the pons
50% of total brain activity; growth hormones
 o Activation-information-mode – information - Psychological dependence – belief that the
that is accessed during waking hours can have drug is needed to continue a feeling of
an influence on the synthesis of dreams emotional or psychological wellbeing
A L T E R E D S T A T E S: H Y P N O S I S o Positive reinforcement – tendency of a
Hypnosis – a state of consciousness in which a person is behavior to strengthen when followed by
especially susceptible to suggestion pleasurable consequences
4 steps:  Stimulants – class of drugs that cause either the
1. The hypnotist tells the person to focus on what sympathetic or the central nervous system (or
is being said both) to increase levels of functioning; speed up
2. The person is told to relax and feel tired the nervous system
3. The hypnotist tells the person to “let go” and o Amphetamines – stimulants that are
accept suggestions easily synthesized in laboratories rather than
4. The person is told to use vivid imagination being found in nature
- Basic suggestion effect – gives people an excuse to - Methamphetamine –
do things they might not otherwise do because the sometimes used to treat
burden of responsibility for their actions falls on the attention-deficit hyperactivity
hypnotist disorder or narcolepsy; “crystal
 THEORIES OF HYPNOSIS meth” – crystalline form and
1. Hypnosis as Dissociation used by recreational drug users
- Ernest Hilgard – hypnosis worked only on o Cocaine – natural drug; produces
the immediate conscious mind of a person, feelings of euphoria, energy, power and
while a part of that person’s mind remained pleasure
aware of all that was going on - 3 basic signs characterize
- There is a hidden part of the mind that is physical dependency:
very much aware of the hypnotic subject’s compulsive use, loss of control,
activities and sensation disregard for the consequences
2. Hypnosis as Social Roleplaying of use
- The social-cognitive theory of hypnosis o Nicotine – relatively mild but
assumes that people who are hypnotized nevertheless toxic; sense of arousal,
are not in an altered state but are merely raises blood pressure and accelerates
playing the role expected of them in the the heart; providing a rush of sugar into
situation; tldr the participants are unaware the bloodstream by stimulating release
they are role-playing of adrenalin
A L T E R E D S T A T E S: INFLUENCE OF o Caffeine – another natural substance;
PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS helps maintain alertness, can increase
Psychoactive drugs – alter thinking, perception, the effectiveness of some pain relievers
memory, or some combination of those abilities such as aspirin
 PHYSICAL DEPENDENCE vs PSYCHOLOGICAL  Depressants – drugs that slow the central
DEPENDENCE nervous system
- Physical dependence – when the body becomes o Barbiturates or the Major Tranquilizers
unable to function normally without the drug – sleeping pills; drugs that have
o Drug tolerance – as the person continues to sedative effect; highly addictive, can
use the drug, larger and larger doses of the quickly develop tolerance; watch out
drug are needed to achieve the same initial for drug interaction with alcohol
effect of the drug o Benzodiazepines or the Minor
o Withdrawal – symptoms/discomforts the Tranquilizers – lower anxiety and
person experiences when they try to stop reduce stress; safer than barbiturates
dependence on the drug and are now the drugs of choice to
- Negative reinforcement – tendency to treat sleep problems, nervousness, and
continue a behavior that leads to the anxiety; can be addictive
removal of or escape from unpleasant - Rohypnol – date rape drug
circumstances  Alcohol – most commonly used and abused
depressant
 - Korsakoff’s syndrome – form of contained in a certain kind of
dementia brought by a severe mushroom, “magic
vitamin B1 deficiency, caused mushrooms”
by the alcoholic’s tendency to o Marijuana – best known and most
drink rather than eat commonly abused of the hallucinogenic
 Narcotics – class of drugs that suppress the drugs; comes from the leaces and
sensation of pain by binding to and stimulating flowers of the hemp plant called
the nervous system’s natural receptor sites for Cannabis sativa; produces feeling of
endorphins, the neurotransmitters that well-being, mild intoxication, and mild
naturally deaden pain sensations sensory distortions or hallucinations
o Opium - made from opium poppy; pain-
relieving and euphoria inducing What are hypnogogic and hypnopompic
o Morphine – thought to be a wonder hallucinations?
drug; has addictive qualities; used in Vivid, realistic hallucinations that occur in Stage 1 sleep
carefully controlled doses and for short are called hypnogogic hallucinations and are often
periods of time misinterpreted as ghosts or other supernatural
o Heroin – first hailed as the new wonder visitations.
drug; derivative of morphine that did
not have many of the disagreeable side Similar hallucinations that occur when awakening from
effects of morphine; more powerfully REM sleep are called hypnopompic hallucinations.
addictive than morphine or opium
 Hallucinogens – actually cause the brain to alter CHAPTER 5 LEARNING
its interpretation of sensations; can produce Learning – any relatively permanent change in behavior
sensory distortions very similar to synesthesia brought by experience or practice
o LSD (lysergic acid diethylamide) – CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
synthesized from a grain fungus called Ivan Pavlov – pioneered the empirical study of the basic
ergot; one of the most potent and principles of a particular kind of learning
powerful hallucinogens; expand their  Reflex – an unlearned involuntary response that
consciousness or awareness of the is not under personal control or choice
world around them  Stimulus – defines as any object, event, or
o PCP (phenyl cyclohexyl piperidine) or experience that causes a response, the reaction
phencyclidine – can be a hallucinogen, of an organism
stimulant, depressant, or analgesic Classical Conditioning – learning to elicit an involuntary
depending on the dose; users reflex response to a stimulus other than the original,
experience hallucinations, distorted natural stimulus that normally produces the reflex
sensations, and very unpleasant effects  Unconditioned stimulus – stimulus that
o MDMA (ecstasy) – technically an ordinarily leads to the reflex response
amphetamine but is capable of  Unconditioned response – unlearned and
producing hallucinations; stimulatory occurs because of genetic “wiring” in the
hallucinogenics – drugs that produce a nervous system
mixture of psychomotor stimulant and  Conditioned stimulus – previously neutral
hallucinogenic effects; dehydrates the stimulus, through repeated pairing with the
body and raises body temperature unconditioned stimulus, that begins to cause
o Nonmanufacture highs – found in the same kind of reflexive response
nature  Conditioned response – response that is given
- Mescaline – comes from the to the conditioned stimulus
buttons found on the peyote  HOW PAVLOV DID IT
cactus and has long been a part  Acquisition – repeated pairing of the NS and
of many Native American the UCS before any conditioning took place; bc
religious and spiritual rituals; the organism is in the process of acquiring
duration lasts longer than LSD learning
- Psilocybin – another naturally 1. The CS must come before the UCS
occurring hallucinogen;
 2. The CS and UCS must come very close together B.F. Skinner – coined Operant conditioning – voluntary
in time – ideally no more than 5 secs apart behavior is operant behavior
3. Neutral stimulus must be paired with UCS - Reinforcement - to strengthen; causes the
several times before conditioning can take place response to be more likely to happen again
4. The CS is usually some stimulus that is o Primary reinforcer – fulfills basic needs like
distinctive or stands out from other competing hunger
stimuli o Secondary reinforcer
 Stimulus generalization – tendency to respond  Partial reinforcement effect & continuous
to a stimulus that is similar to the original reinforcement
conditioned stimulus  Fixed interval schedule of reinforcement –
 Stimulus discrimination – when an organism receiving the reinforcer after a certain, fixed
learns to respond to different stimuli in interval of time
different ways  Variable interval schedule of reinforcement
 Extinction – presentation of the CS in the  Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement
absence of the UCS leads to reduction in the CR  Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement –
 Spontaneous recovery – reappearance of a number of responses changes from one trial to
previously extinguished CR the next
 Higher-order conditioning – occurs when  ROLE OF PUNISHMENT
strong CS is paired with new stimulus; new Punishment – event or stimulus that when
previously neutral stimulus becomes a second following a response, causes that response to be
CS less likely to happen again; weakens responses
 Conditioned Emotional Response – emotional  Punishment by application – something
responses that have become classically unpleasant is added to the situation
conditioned to occur in response to learned  Punishment by removal – removal of
stimuli; based on work of John B. Watson; helps something pleasurable or desired after the
explain development of phobias behavior occurs
o Vicarious conditioning – learning fear How to make punishment effective:
response from watching the reactions 1. Punishment should immediately follow the
of other people behavior meant to punish
 Continued taste aversion – one situation where 2. Punishment should be consistent
classical conditioning can occur quickly without 3. Punishment of the wrong behavior should be
repeated pairings paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement
o example: development of a nausea or of the right behavior
aversive response to a particular taste  STIMULUS CONTROL
bc that taste was followed by a nausea Discriminative stimulus – any stimulus that provides an
reaction, occurring after only one organism with a cue for making a certain response in
association order to obtain reinforcement
 WHY DOES CLASSICAL CONDITIONING WORK? Shaping – reinforcement of simple steps in behavior
1. Stimulus substitution – the conditioned that lead to a desired, more complex behavior
stimulus, through its association close in time  Successive approximation – small steps one after
with the unconditioned stimulus, came to the other that get closer and closer to the goal
activate the same place in the animal’s brain  BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
2. Cognitive perspective – classical conditioning Behavior modification – refers to the application of
occurs because the conditioned stimulus operant conditioning to bring about such changes
provides information or an expectancy about  Token economy
the coming of the unconditioned stimulus  Time-out - punishment by removal in which a
OPERANT CONDITIONING misbehaving animal, child or adult is placed in a
Operant conditioning – the kind of learning that applies special area away from attention of others
to voluntary behavior  Applied behavior analysis – modern term for
Edward L. Thorndike – Law of effect – if an action is behavior modification that uses both analysis of
followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to current behavior and behavioral techniques to
be repeated; if an action is followed by an unpleasant address a socially relevant issue
consequence, it will tend not to be repeated
  Biofeedback – biological feedback; blood  Information Processing model – focuses on the
pressure, muscle tension, hyperactivity way information is processed through different
COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORY stages of memory
Cognitive Learning Theory – focuses on role of  Levels-of-processing model – focuses on the
cognition, or thought process, on learning depth of processing associated with specific
 Edward Tolman – worked with rats in a maze; information
suggested animals form a cognitive map of the o Deeper processing associated with
physical layout of the maze longer retention
o Performance not due to reinforcement  Parallel distributed processing model – focuses
o Latent learning – learning occurs but on simultaneous processing of information
behavior not manifested until organism across multiple neural networks
has reason to demonstrate it INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
 Wolfgang Kohler – worked with chimpanzees; Information-Processing model – proposes three stages
set up a problem situation that vary both in duration and capacity, information
o Chimp first exhibited trial-and-error must be processed effectively at earlier stages before
approach
long-term storage occurs
o Later appeared to experience a sudden
insight into solving the problem  Sensory memory – capacity limited, duration <1
(retrieving the banana) sec to 4 secs
 Martin Seligman – originally studied escape and o Iconic memory
avoidance learning in dogs - Eidetic imagery – ability to
o Discovered that the animals did nothing access a visual sensory memory
in a specific situation over a long period of time
o Learned helplessness – tendency to fail
o Echoic memory
to act to escape from a situation
because of a past history of repeated - What phenomenon
failures possibly due to not learning  Short-term and working memory – capacity
how to relax and take control limited (3-5 items), duration 12-30 secs without
accompanied by activation of key brain rehearsal
structures o Selective attention – ability to focus on
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
only one stimulus from among all
Observational Learning – learning of a new behavior
through the observation of a model typically associated sensory input
with classic work of Bandura and Bobo doll study o Working memory – more correctly
 Key elements thought as an active system that
1. Pay attention to the model processes the information present in
2. Able to remember what was done short-term memory
3. Capable of reproducing, or imitating, the o The magical number seven, or five, or
actions of the model
four – how much information humans
4. Have the desire or motivation to perform the
action can hold in short-term memory at any
CHAPTER 6 MEMORY one time
Memory – an active system that receives, organizes, - Chunking – a way to fool STM;
stores, and retrieves information holding more information than
 3 PROCESSES is usual
1. Encoding - get sensory information into a form - Maintenance rehearsal
that the brain can use
 Long-term memory – capacity seemingly
2. Storage – next step in memory is to hold on to
the information for some period of time unlimited, duration relatively permanent;
3. Retrieval – getting the information they know include general facts and knowledge, personal
they have out of storage facts, and even skills that can be performed
 MODELS OF MEMORY o Associated with physical changes in the
brain; hippocampus and cortex involved
 in consolidation of information from state is similar to that when the memory was
short-term to long-term memory first formed
- Elaborative rehearsal – leads to  Recall vs Recognition
better long-term storage o Recall – few or no external cues
o Different types, based on information required
stored; different brain areas associated - Retrieval failure – tip of the
with each tongue; very close to the
- Procedural (nondeclarative) – surface of conscious thought
implicit memory for skills, - Serial position effect – memory
habits, and learned responses; improved at beginning
likely involves amygdala and (primacy) and end (recency) of
cerebellum a list
o Anterograde amnesia – o Recognition – match incoming sensory
new long-term information to what is already in
declarative memories memory
cannot be formed - False positives – when a person
o Implicit memory - thinks that he/she has
- Declarative – explicit memory recognized something or
for facts and information; someone but in fact does not
involves widespread cortical have that something or
areas someone in memory
o Semantic – general o Automatic encoding – strong emotional
knowledge/meaning associations can lead to vivid and
o Episodic – detailed “flashbulb” memories
episodes/events from RECONSTRUCTIVE NATURE OF LONG
one’s life TERM MEMORY
o Organized in terms of related meanings  CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSING OF MEMORIES
and concepts  Constructive processing view - Memories are
- Semantic network model – can rarely completely accurate and become less
explain how information is accurate over time
stored in connected fashion  Loftus and others have suggested that memory
- Parallel distributed processing retrieval is a constructive process; memories
model – can be used to explain are “built” at time of retrieval
speed at which different points  MEMORY RETRIEVAL PROBLEMS
can be accessed  Misinformation effect – incorporation of
RETRIEVAL OF LONG-TERM MEMORIES inaccurate information into actual memory
 Getting it out  False-memory syndrome – refers to the
o Retrieval cues – more cues stored with a piece creation of inaccurate or false memories
of information, the easier the retrieval; a through the suggestion of others, often while
stimulus for remembering the person is under hypnosis
o Encoding specificity – improved memory for  Reliability of memory retrieval – false
information if physical surroundings are similar memories can result from change in both
to those when the memory was formed walking, conscious states and in altered states
o State-dependent learning – improved memory o Influenced by plausibility of event and
for information if physiological or psychological individual receiving collaborative
feedback that makes it easier to believe
FORGETTING  Infantile amnesia – memories before age 3 are
Hermann Ebbinghaus – one of the first researchers to likely implicit, not explicit
study forgetting; the curve of forgetting – forgetting
happens quickly within the first hour after learning the CHAPTER 7
lists and then tapers off gradually COGNITION
 Distributed practice – produces far better retrieval Cognition – refers to mental activities that occur in the
than massed practice (cramming) brain when processing, organizing, understanding, or
 Encoding failure – nonattended information is not communicating information to others
encoded into memory  Mental images – representations for objects or
 Memory trace decay theory – over time, if not events used in mental activities
used, neuronal connections can weaken or decay o they are interacted with in similar ways
 Interference theory – other information interferes as physical objects
with accurate retrieval o processed in the brain slightly
o Proactive – previously learned material differently than actual objects (we don’t
interfering with new see the actual image, we just imagine it)
o Retroactive – newly acquired material  Concepts – ideas that represent a class or
interfering with old category of objects, events, or activities
NEUROSCIENCE OF MEMORY o Used to interact and organize info
 Different brain areas are associated with without having to think about or
different types of memory process every specific example of the
o Procedural memories – cerebellum category
o Short-term memories – prefrontal o Can represent different levels of objects
cortex and temporal lobes or events
o Semantic and episodic long term - Superordinate (e.g. fruit)
memories – frontal and temporal lobes - Basic level (e.g. apple)
(diff locations than STM) - Subordinate (e.g. Granny Smith
 Several physical changes in brain are associated apple)
with memory formation o Can be well-defined based on strict
o Changes at receptor (long term criteria (formal) or fuzzy based on
potentiation) personal experience (natural)
o Changes in dendrites o Represented by prototypes
 Consolidation – alteration and other changes - Vary according to personal
that take place as a memory is forming experience, knowledge, and
 Hippocampus – plays a vital role in the culture
formation of new declarative long-term o An important tool in problem solving
memories  Problem solving and decision making – thinking
 AMNESIA and behaving in certain ways to reach a goal;
 Organic amnesia – caused by problems in brain can involve different strategies, logical methods
function associated with brain trauma, disease, (convergent thinking)
or aging o Trial and error – trying one solution
o Retrograde – loss of memory from one after another until one workd
point of injury backwards o Algorithms – specific, step-by-step
o Anterograde – loss of memories from procedures for solving certain
the point of injury or illness forward; problems; always result in correct
have difficulty remembering anything solution if there is one
new
 o Heuristics – simple rules intended to o Divergent thinking – reverse of
apply to many situations; educated convergent thinking
guesses based on prior experience;  Creativity is typically the result of divergent
generally faster than algorithms but will thinking
not always lead to correct solution o Less prone to common barriers of
o Representative heuristic – used for problem solving
categorizing objects and simply o Can be stimulated
assuming that any object that shares INTELLIGENCE
characteristics with the members of a Intelligence – the ability to learn from one’s
particular category is also a member of experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources
that category effectively
o Availability heuristic – based on our  THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
estimation of the frequency or  Spearman’s G factor – Charles Spearman;
likelihood of an even based on how intelligence comprises of two different abilities
easy it is to recall relevant information o G factor – general intelligence
from memory or how easy it is for us to o S factor – specific intelligence
think of related examples  Gardner’s multiple intelligences – Howard
o Means-end analysis – a person Gardner; overall intelligence comprises of 9
determines the difference between the different types
current situation and the goal and then 1. Verbal/linguistic
tries to reduce that difference by 2. Musical
various means 3. Logical/mathematical
- Insight – “aha!” moments when solution seems 4. Visual/spatial
to appear in a flash usually based on 5. Movement
reorganization of information 6. Interpersonal
 PROBLEM WITH PROBLEM SOLVING 7. Intrapersonal
 Solutions to problems are not always apparent 8. Naturalist – recognize patterns found in
 Problems can be caused by three common nature
barriers 9. Existentialist – ability to see the big
o Functional fixedness – only thinking picture
about objects in terms of their typical  Sternberg’s triarchic theory – intelligence
uses comprises three different aspects
o Mental set – a tendency to persist in o Analytical intelligence – ability to break
using problem-solving patterns that problems down into component parts,
have worked in the past or analysis, for problem solving
o Confirmation bias – tendency to search o Creative intelligence – ability to deal
for evidence that fits your beliefs while with new and different concepts and to
ignoring evidence to the contrary come up with new ways of solving
 CREATIVITY problems
 Consists of new ways of combining ideas or o Practical intelligence – ability to use
behavior information to get along in life; street
o Convergent thinking – a problem is smart
seen as having only one answer and all  MEASURING INTELLIGENCE
lines of thinking will lead to that single  First formal test created by Alfret Binet and
answer Theodore Simon to help identify French
students who needed more help with learning
 TESTS - Moderate - IQ 40 - 55
o Binet’s Mental Ability Test – key - Severe - IQ 25 - 40
element to be tested was child’s mental - Profound – IQ below 25
age o Causal factors
o Stanford-Binet – first test to adopt - Environment – lead, mercury
intelligence quotient - Biological – down syndrome,
IQ = mental age/chronological age x 100 fetal alcohol syndrome, fragile X
- Uses a variety of verbal and syndrome
nonverbal subtests to provide  Giftedness
an overall estimate of o Criteria – IQ > 130 (2 SD above mean);
intelligence and scores related IQ > 140 are called geniuses
to five areas of cognition o Characteristics – typically grow up to be
o Wechsler Tests – uses a variety of well-adjusted adults except when
verbal and performance subtests to “pushed” to achieve at younger and
provide an overall score of intelligence younger ages
and index scores related to four specific - Extreme geniuses may
cognitive domains experience social and
 Test construction behavioral adjustment issues as
o Reliability of a test refers to the test children
producing consistent results each time  Emotional Intelligence
it is given to the same individual o Awareness of and ability to manage
o Validity is the degree to which a test one’s own emotions, self-motivation,
actually measures what they are empathy, and social skills
supposed to measure o May be related to traditional
o Good tests are both valid and reliable intelligence but data is still being
o Standardization refers to the process of collected
giving the test to a large group of LANGUAGE
people that represents the kind of Language – system for combining symbols so that an
people for whom the test is designed infinite number of meaningful statements can be made
o Intelligence is assumed to follow a for the purpose of communicating with others
normal curve  LEVELS OF LANGUAGE ANALYSIS
o Is challenging; different definitions of  Language structures worldwide share common
intelligence and multiple ways to assess characteristics
them; difficult to design tests that are o Grammar – system of rules governing
completely free of cultural bias structure and use of language; humans
 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES have an innate ability, language
 IQ tests can be used to identify individuals who acquisition device to understand and
differ significantly from those of average produce language
intelligence o Syntax – rules for combining words and
 Intellectual disability/developmental delay phrases
o Criteria – IQ<70 (2 SD below mean); o Morphemes – smallest units of
adaptive skills significantly below age- meaning within a language; governed
appropriate level; limitations present by semantics: rules for determining the
before age 18 meaning of words and sentences
o Classifications o Phonemes – basic unit of sound in a
- Mild – IQ 55 - 70 language
 o Pragmatics – social “niceties” or
practical aspects of communicating with
others ( e.g. taking turns, use of
gestures, diff ways of speaking to diff
people)
 Jean Piaget – theorized that concepts preceded
and aided the development of language
o Collective monologue
 Lev Vygotsky – language actually helped
develop concepts and that language could also
help the child learn to control behavior
 Linguistic relativity hypothesis – thought and
processes and concepts are controlled by
language
 Cognitive universalism – concepts are universal
and influence the development of language