ABEN 4510 - FOOD PROCESS

ENGINEERING

HEAT TRANSFER
(Modes of Heat transfer and
Overall Heat Transfer
Coefficient)

May A. Cabral, MSc, ABE

Instructor 1
 TOPIC OUTLINE

 Modes of Heat transfer

 Overall heat transfer coefficient
 Heat exchangers
 Thermal processing
 Learning Outcome
• Discuss the different modes of heat
transfer in food processing and thermal
processing
• Solve problems involving heat transfer
 Introduction
• Most of the food processing operations such as
cooking, pasteurization, sterilization, drying,
evaporation, chilling, freezing, etc involves some
form of heat transfer.
• Methods of heat transfer are factors that food
engineers that needs to be consider in food
processing operations such as in retorting canned
products , concentration of jam, blanching of
vegetables, chilling and freezing of food materials.
Basic laws of transport
• All transport phenomena such as fluid flow, heat and mass transfer
and electric current are the result of lack of equilibrium between
parts of system
• In principle, it obey a universal law which is similar to Ohm’s law
which can be expresses in general terms as : “the rate of transport is
proportional to the driving force and inversely proportional to the
resistance of the medium to the transport”. In particular case of the
heat transfer, this law can be mathematically expressed as
𝑑𝑄 𝐹 1
𝑞= = = 𝑘𝐹 , 𝑘 =
𝑑𝑡 𝑅 𝑅
where: q=dQ/dt = rate of heat transfer ( quantity of heat transported
per unit time)
F = driving force
R = resistance to the medium to heat transfer
k = compliance or conductance of the medium to heat transfer
* Note: In other cases, the quantity of whatever is being transported
(mass, electric charge, momentum , etc) could replace Q in appropriate
units (kg coulombs, N-m, etc)
 I. Modes of Heat Transfer

Heat transfer
− movement of the heat energy from one point of high temperature
to a point of low
− rate of heat transfer is dependent on the temperature gradient
between two points and the resistance of heat flow of the medium
between points
− Determination of mode/mechanism of heat transfer depends on
the temperature of the source and receiver of heat as well as the
nature of medium through which heat flows
− Heat transfer occurs through three fundamental mechanism:
conduction, convection and radiation (McAdams, 1954)
 Conduction

– transfer of heat through a stationary medium.

– accomplished by the transfer of kinetic energy from one
molecule to an adjacent molecule without necessary resulting in
particle displacement within the food material
– the mechanism can be illustrated by tumbling dominoes where
the only motion of falling is transferred from domino peace to
another
 Convection

– transfer of heat when heat travels along with a moving fluid

– involves simultaneous heat and mass transfer accomplished by
mixing of parcels or bodies of fluids.
– the body of fluids that carries the heat energy may move within
the fluid bulk due to the density difference as in natural
convection or due to some mechanical means which forcibly
circulates the fluid.
 Radiation

– transfer of heat in the form of electromagnetic energy.

– involves transfer of energy in the form of electromagnetic
waves from the surface of a hot body to the surface of a
another body that is in the “ line of sight” of the radiating
body
– if two bodies are placed in an enclosure, both of them will
radiate energy towards each other with the net radiant energy
flowing from the hot object to the cooler one.
Source: https://ytube.io/3NCm
II. Overall Heat
Coefficient
 Steady state heat
conduction
• Conduction process may take place at constant rate or at a
rate that varies with time depending on whether the process
is at a steady state or unsteady state
• Steady state heat flow- the temperature of any two points
along the direction of flow are constant and the rate of heat
transfer is also constant
• Example: Heat transfer through walls of an air conditioned
room( the temperature of the wall surface inside the room is
maintained by a cooling unit while outside the wall surface
temperature may be considered constant near the ambient
over a period of time)
 Steady state heat
conduction
Thermal conductivity, k
− Thermal property that is directly involved in heat transfer
processes
− Determines the rate at which heat will pass through a given
substance
− Substance with high thermal conductivities such as metals will
allow large heat transfer rate (commonly known as conductors)
− Insulators are materials that restrict the flow of heat.
− Most biological materials such as foods have low thermal
conductivities
 Steady state heat
conduction
Considering Figure 1, with two surface at different but constant
temperature T1 and T2.
– The slab has a finite thickness (x) and the temperature
gradient along the x-axis expressed as dT/dx.
– The heat transfer per unit area of slab , q/A, is found to
be directly proportional to the temperature gradient T1
and T2 and inversely proportional to the thickness x.
– The relationship can be mathematically expressed as

𝑞 ∆𝑇 𝑞 ∆𝑇
𝛼 𝑜𝑟 = −𝑘
𝐴 ∆𝑥 𝐴 ∆𝑥
Figure 1. Steady-state heat
where k is the thermal conductivity transfer through the wall

* The negative sign indicates a decreasing temperature

along the x-axis or the direction of flow
 Steady state heat
conduction
 Food products have thermal conductivities that vary depending on their water
content such that at high moisture levels, the thermal conductivity of foods
approached that of water.
 The ASHRAE(1963) suggested that thermal conductivities of food may be estimated
according to their moisture content using the following equations:
 Thermal conductivities above freezing:
0.558𝑀𝐶 0.256(100 − 𝑀𝐶)
𝐾, 𝑊 ൗ𝑚 − °𝐶 = +
100 100
 Thermal conductivity below freezing:
2.443𝑀𝐶 0.256(100 − 𝑀𝐶)
𝐾, 𝑊 ൗ𝑚 − °𝐶 = +
100 100
*k of substances varies slightly with temperature. Example: Kwater at
0°C=0.564 𝑊 Τ𝑚 − ℃ while Kwater at 100°C=0.669 𝑊 Τ𝑚 − ℃. However, when water is
frozen, its thermal conductivity increases by 4 times. Hence, ice will conduct heat at a
much faster rate than water.
 Illustrative Problems

• Calculate the heat (W/m2) passing through a furnace wall 23

cm thick, the inside and outside temperature, of which are
1000°C and 200°C . Assume that the mean thermal
conductivity of the brick wall is 1.15W/m -°C .
• Solution: Since the total wall area is not mentioned, the
problem will be approached based on a per unit area of
brick wall
𝑞 ∆𝑇 1.15W/m −°C(1000°C − 200°C)
=𝑘 = = 4000 𝑊 Τ𝑚2
𝐴 ∆𝑥 0.23𝑚
 Conduction through
several bodies in series
• Composite walling
– normally made up of heat insulations materials
placed over structural materials like firebricks ,
concrete or wood.
– Purpose: primarily to reduce the heat loss
through the entire wall
» FURNACE: reduce the outer wall temperature
to a safe value
 Heat transfer to slab
arranged in series
 The heat balance principle
impose that the heat leaving
one slab should be equal to
heat entering the next slab.
 This condition is obtained
when the temperatures at the
surface of the different slabs 𝐾1 𝐴1 ∆𝑇1
reach some constant values 𝑞1 =
𝑥1
; ∆𝑇1 = 𝑇2 − 𝑇1
after a period of equilibrium
𝐾2 𝐴2 ∆𝑇2
𝑞2 = ; ∆𝑇2 = 𝑇3 − 𝑇2
𝑥2

𝐾3 𝐴3 ∆𝑇3
𝑞3 = ; ∆𝑇3 = 𝑇4 − 𝑇3
𝑥1
 Heat transfer to slab arranged in series
• To remove the negative sign for each equation,∆𝑇 is taken as T hot point to T cold point so that:

𝑥1 𝑞1
= 𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑘1 𝐴1

𝑥2 𝑞2
= 𝑇2 − 𝑇3
𝑘2 𝐴2

𝑥3 𝑞3
= 𝑇3 − 𝑇4
𝑘3 𝐴3 *The heat transfer through the
entire composite wall is
• Adding the three equation, then obtained by the ratio of the
temperature drop across the
𝑥1 𝑞1 𝑥2 𝑞2 𝑥3 𝑞3 entire wall to the sum of heat
+ + = 𝑇1 − 𝑇4
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝑘3 𝐴3 resistance of the different
materials
• Since 𝑞1 = 𝑞2 = 𝑞3 , this quantity is factored out as

𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑇1 −𝑇4
𝑞( + + ) = 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 or 𝑞= 𝑥1 𝑥 𝑥
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝑘3 𝐴3 + 2 + 3
𝑘1 𝐴1 𝑘2 𝐴2 𝑘3 𝐴3
 Illustrative Problem

A 3-cm thick insulation ( k= 0.08W/m-

°C) is added to the exterior wall of the
furnace described in the preceding
problem. This is done in order to reduce
the outermost wall temperature to 80°C.
Calculate the heat loss through the
composite wall assuming that the
furnace temperature remains the same.

Schematic diagram of the brick wall

with an insulator
 Solution

𝑞 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 1000 − 80 2
=𝑥 =
𝑥2 0.23 0.03 = 1600 𝑊 Τ 𝑚
𝐴 1
+
𝑘1 𝑘2 1.15 + 0.08
 Conduction through bodies
in parallel arrangement

• The total heat transfer through a wall made up of parallel slabs of

different material is obtained by adding up heat flow through each
slab.

𝑞𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑞1 + 𝑞2 + 𝑞3
 Unsteady heat conduction

• Many heat flow process in food processing are unsteady such that heat is either
accumulated or depleted in a system.
• Under these condition, the temperature gradient between two fixed points in a heating
or cooling body changes with time resulting in a time dependent energy transfer.
• Example: gradual heating of canned food products during thermal processing
• The temperature of the heating medium often steam may be constant but the
temperature of the can is expected to increase as time elapses, the temperature
gradient, hence the rate of heat transfer, varies.
• The subsequent cooling of the can is also described as unsteady state process; only this
time, heat transfers to the medium from can.
• Unsteady or transient condition is made difficult since thermal conductivity is affected
by temperature which implies that single equation using a particular value of k may
not be sufficient to describe the heat transfer phenomenon throughout the entire range
of processing temperature.
 Unsteady heat conduction

• The unsteady heating of a solid is influence by factors both external and internal and the rate at
which heat is lost by a cooling body is dependent on two heat flow process:
− Heat from the product – removed via conduction from the surface of the body
− Heat accumulating in the product surface – lost by convection and to some extent by
radiation to its surrounding medium.
• It will be recalled that even highly turbulent condition, there is always a stagnant or laminar “film”
of fluid in contact with the solid surface.
• Theoretical thickness of the film is dependent on the degree of turbulence in fluid.
• The study of thermal resistance (surface transfer coefficient, hs) of this laminar film is important
because the rate of heat removal form the surface of a solid to the cooling fluids depends on this.
• The hs value is strongly influenced by the physical properties of the fluid such as viscosity, density,
and temperature
• In addition, aside from the physical property of the fluid, temperature and degree of fluid
turbulence , the nature and texture of solid surfaces and the geometric configuration of the solid
also affects the surface heat coefficient.
 Unsteady heat conduction

• Two cases of transient conduction:

− Condition 1: The thermal resistance of the object is low compared to
that of the laminar zone of the fluid such that heat is transferred
from the center to the surface faster than it can drawn from the
surface to the fluid bulk. At any given time, the body’s temperature,
can be considered uniform.
− Condition 2: The thermal resistance of the object is higher than that
of the stagnant film so that a temperature gradient exist within the
object and the temperature of the surface approaches that of the
medium.
 Unsteady heat conduction

• The heat flow from the surface of the body to the surrounding
fluid as shown schematically in Figure which is describe by
Newton’s cooling equation:
𝑑𝑄Τ𝑑𝑡 1 = −ℎ𝑠 𝐴 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠
Tm = fluid bulk temperature
Ts = solid surface temperature
A = surface area of the body
hs = surface heat transfer coefficient, W/m2-°C

• The heat from the products core is transferred to the surface at a

rate that is defined by the equation :
𝑑𝑄Τ𝑑𝑡 2 = −𝑘𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑐 Τ𝐿 Heat transfer through the laminar film
around heating or cooling body
Tc = core temperature
k = thermal conductivity
L = thickness or the distance from the surface
*The energy release from the surface naturally comes within the product and
𝑑𝑄 Τ𝑑𝑡 1 must equal 𝑑𝑄 Τ𝑑𝑡 2 for the energy balance to be satisfied
 Unsteady heat conduction

𝑘𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑐
−ℎ𝑠 𝐴 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 = −
𝐿
ℎ𝑠 𝐿 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑐
=−
𝐾 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠
• A simple analysis will show that the quantities on both side of the
equations are wholly numeric or without dimension.
• The dimensionless quantity hsL/k is known as the Nusselt Number, Nu,
Heat transfer through the
can be used to indicate whether the unsteady conduction process falls laminar film around heating
under condition 1 or 2. or cooling body
• As the surface temperature of the body approached that of the core as
describe in Condition 1, the value of Nu becomes very small.
• The second case describes a condition where Ts approaches Tm making
the Nu large.
• The influence of laminar zone , no matter how small, prevents the
surface temperature from being equal to the medium temperature, thus
making the Nu infinitely large
 Unsteady heat conduction

• Nu below 0.2, the system is below 0.2, the system is analyze under the first case
while condition 2 applied is applied when the value of Nu is equal or grater than 0.2

• Unsteady condition, Nu<0.02. A body that is either heating up or cooling down will
gain or lose energy. For some incremental change in product temperature, the
following equation is obtain.
𝑑𝑄1 = 𝑚𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
where:
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉; 𝑑𝑄1 = 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
dQ’ = heat loss from the surface of a product
𝑑𝑄2 Τ𝑑𝑡 = −ℎ𝑠 𝐴(𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 )

For heating: 𝑑𝑄2 Τ𝑑𝑡 = −ℎ𝑠 𝐴(𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑚 ) or 𝑑𝑄2 = −ℎ𝑠 𝐴 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑑𝑡

 Unsteady heat conduction

• To satisfy the energy balance between the product and its surrounding

−ℎ𝑠 𝐴 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠 𝑑𝑡 = 𝜌𝑉𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇
ℎ𝑠 𝐴𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑇
=
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑠
• At any given time for condition 1, the product temperature is considered uniform
throughout, hence Ts maybe written as T. The quantity T is the average product
temperature. By integration:
ℎ𝑠 𝐴𝑡 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇
− = 𝑙𝑛
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 𝑇𝑚 − 𝑇𝑜
 Illustrative Problem

• A spherical object 10cm in diameter is cooled from an initial temperature of 75°C in

an agitated cooler whose temperature is 2.5 °C. If the surface heat transfer coefficient
for the system is 775W/ m2-°C , how long will it take for the object to reach 30 °C.

Solution: Table data k= 387.68 W/ m2-°C , 𝜌=8900kg/m3 , Cp =0.377kJ/kg-°C

Solving Nu will reveal whether the conduction problems falls under condition 1 or
condition 2.
ℎ𝑠 𝐿 775 ∗ 0.05
𝑁𝑢 = = = 0.09995 < 0.2
𝑘 387.69

* Condition 1:
 Illustrative Problem

• Condition 1:
ℎ𝑠 𝐴𝑡 𝑇𝑚 −𝑇
− = 𝑙𝑛
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑉 𝑇𝑚 −𝑇0

2.5 − 30
= 𝑙𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛0.379932 = −0.9694006
2.5 − 75

-the surface area of sphere is 4𝜋𝑟 2 while 4𝜋𝑟 3 /3 is used to determine volume

775∗3∗𝑡
− = −0.9694006
8900∗0.377 1000 ∗0.05

𝑡 = 69.9 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠
 Unsteady heat conduction

• Unsteady condition, Nu>0.02.

− The core temperature of the product is different from that of the surface.
− Graphical approach is needed to fully understand this principle.
− Mathematical analysis will show that unaccomplished temperature change for
transient conduction under the second condition (Nu>0.02) and can be
expressed as a function of two dimensionless quantities namely Nu and Fo
(Fourier number). Fourier number is mathematically define as :
𝑘𝑡
𝐹𝑜 =
𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝐿2

Where t is the elapsed heating or cooling time and rm is half the thickness of the
geometric configuration under study.
*The graphical approach to unsteady state condition is made possible only by
imposing several assumptions.
 Convection heat transfer

• Free convection
− A hot will heat up the fluid immediately in contact with its surface.
− Results in the differential heating of the fluid causing uneven thermal
expansion, hence, variation in fluid density
− Fluid parcels with reduced density will move up while the denser or heavier
ones will settle at the bottom, resulting in a migration of mass.
− Since moving fluid mass carries with it heat energy, heat is simultaneously
transferred.
− The heat flow equation is based on Newton’s law of cooling
𝑞 = ℎ𝑠 𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎

Where: Ts = temperature of surface

Ta = fluid bulk temperature
A = surface area of the solid
 Convection heat transfer

• The surface heat transfer coefficient, hs, may be evaluated from the dimensionless
NU which is a characteristics of a particular solid-fluid condition.
𝑁𝑢 ∗ 𝐾
ℎ𝑠 =
𝑙

where : l is the vertical dimension of the solid surface contact with the fluid bulk.

• The free convection process is influenced by several parameters when dimensionally

analyzed are reduced to three dimensionless quantities: Nusselt (Nu), Grashoff (Gr)
and Prandtl (Pr) numbers. Generally, the relationship between these values are
presented below

Nu= f(Gr , Pr)

 Convection heat transfer

• Grashoff (Gr) and Prandtl (Pr) numbers are defined by McAdams, 1954 as follows

𝑙3 𝜌2 𝑔∆𝑇𝛽
𝐺𝑟 =
𝜇2

𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 =
𝑘

where: l= vertical dimension of the solid body or the height

𝜌 =fluid density
g = gravitational acceleration
∆T = difference between temperature and of the solid surface and that of the fluid
𝛽= thermal expansion coefficient of fluid
𝜇 = fluid viscosity
𝐶𝑝 = specific heat of the fluid
k = thermal conductivity of the fluid
 Convection heat transfer

• The relationship between the Nu, Prandtl,

and Grashoff numbers during free
Values of empirical constant C and n for free convection equation
convection can be written as
𝑁𝑢 = 𝐶 𝐺𝑟 ∗ 𝑃𝑟 𝑛 Conditions (Gr * Pr) C n
where: C and n are empirical constant that
Around horizontal 0 -104 0 0
are characteristics of a particular solid-fluid cylinders 104 -109 0.525 0.25
interface
109 -1012 0.129 0.33
• The values of C and n have been evaluated Around vertical 104 -109 0.59 0.25
free convection conditions encountered cylinders and
during heating and cooling process). 109 -1012 0.129 0.33
• Since these conditions are many, an attempt
plates
has been made to summarize the situations
that are likely to be encountered in food
processing (see Table)
 Convection heat transfer
Values of empirical constant C and n for free convection equation
Conditions (Gr * Pr) C n
Around horizontal flat surfaces, upper surfaces of
hot plates or lower surfaces of cool plates 105 -2 x 107 0.54 0.25
• Laminar condition 2 x 107 - 3 x 1010 0.14 0.33
• Turbulent condition
Around horizontal flat surfaces, upper surfaces of
105 -2 x 107
cool plates or lower surfaces of hot plates 0.25 0.25
• Laminar condition
Around vertical flat surfaces height L;
• Laminar condition 104 -109 0.55 0.25
• Turbulent condition
109 -1012 0.13 0.33
 Convection heat transfer

CONVECTION PROCESS INVOLVING AIR THAT IS IN CONTACT

WITH A SOLID SURFACE, THE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT , hs ,
can be approximately by the following equation

𝐶∆𝑇 0.25
Laminar ℎ𝑠 =
𝑙

Turbulent ℎ𝑠 = 𝐶∆𝑇 0.33

∆𝑇 = difference in temperature between the fluid bulk and the

solid surface
l = vertical dimension of the surface
Values of empirical constant C for air

Conditions (Gr * Pr) C Eqn

Horizontal plates and cylinders, vertical dimension L or D
• Laminar 104 -109 0.541 5.27
• Turbulent condition 109 1.241 5.28
Vertical plates and cylinders, vertical dimension L
• Laminar 104 -109 0.581 5.27
• Turbulent condition 109 1.310 5.28
Horizontal heated plates up or cooled plates down side
dimension L;
• Laminar 104 -109 0.541 5.27
• Turbulent condition 109 1.517 5.28
Horizontal heated plates down or cooled plates up side
dimension L; 104 -109 0.146 5.27
• Laminar
 Convection heat transfer

Force Convection
• Recap: In free convection situation where the velocity relatively low, thermal
expansion coefficient plants a vital role, hence the Gr is significant.
• For higher velocities of flow where considerable turbulence occurs, as in forced
convection, the Re is the limiting factor. (𝛽 losses its influence in favor of the
velocity)
• Nu for turbulent condition can be evaluated by
𝑎 𝑏
𝑁𝑢 = 𝑘 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
where: K, a and b are empirical constant that are characteristics of various flow conditions under forced
convection (Refer to table for the values)
− For heating and cooling inside small diameter tubes, the physical properties is evaluated at the fluids bulk
temperature
− When fluid is outside a tube and a heat transfer is from the tube to the fluid in question, the physical
properties is evaluated at the mean temperature between the tube surface and the fluid bulk.
Values of empirical constant k, a and b for force convection

Conditions Re Pr k a b
Heating and cooling inside tube
with moderate temperature and >2100 >0.5 0.023 0.8 0.4
turbulent flow
Heating and cooling of gas
>1000 - 0.02 0.8 0
inside tubes
Heating and cooling outside
1-2100 - 0.86 0.43 0.3
tubes, laminar conditions
Heating and cooling outside
tubes, moderate to turbulent 2100 - 0.26 0.6 0.3
conditions
 Convection heat transfer

• Flat and smooth surface exposed to a moving fluid have surface heat transfer
coefficient that can be estimated based on the fluid velocity. If velocity, v , on the
surface is less than 4.9 m/s, the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2-°C) can be
determined using the equation
ℎ𝑐 = 5.68 + 3.91𝑣

• As the fluid velocity increases beyond 4.9m/s the relationship between hc and
velocity changes into one that described by the power law. For flow over surface
with velocities greater than 4.9 m/s 30.5 m/s, the equation below may be used

ℎ𝑐 = 7.345𝑣 0.8
*Note: There are other possible convection situation that may be encountered in food processing plant
 Illustrative Problem

• A 20% sucrose solution is heated from an initial temperature of 4.5°C in

a tubular heat exchanger. The solution is pump through a 5.08cm id
heat exchanger pipe at a rate of 0.756kg/s. If the tube wall temperature
is maintained at 38 °C , estimate the convection heat transfer
coefficient.

Physical properties obtained from the table:

𝐶𝑝 = 3.768 𝑘𝐽Τ𝑘𝑔 − ℃ k=0.159 𝑊 Τ𝑚 − ℃
𝜌 = 1073.2kg/m3 𝜇 = 1.919 x 10-3 Pa-s

* The problem clearly involves a forced convection process. In order to evaluate the constant k, a and b,
the fluid velocity through the pipe must be determined first
Solution 𝑤 0.756 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠 ∗ 4
𝑣= =
𝐴 1073.2 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 ∗ 𝜋 0.0508 2

𝜌𝑉𝐷 1073.2 ∗ 0.3475 ∗ 0.0508

𝑅𝑒 = = = 9870.15
𝜇 1.919

𝐶𝑝 𝜇 3768.14 ∗ 1.92𝑥10−3
𝑃𝑟 = = = 13.93
𝑘 0.519
Since Re>2100, Pr>0.5, the constants can be obtain from the table
0.8 0.4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
0.8 0.4
𝑁𝑢 = 0.023 9870 13.9 = 103.37
𝑁𝑢𝑘 103.37 ∗ 0.519
ℎ𝑐 = = = 1056.54 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 ℃
𝐷 0.0508
 Radiation heat transfer

• A hot body will radiate energy , the magnitude of which is dependent on its temperature
• At low temperature, radiation from the body can be sensed by the warmth it produces
• Radiation from the body at temperature higher than 600°C may be perceived by the human as a glow
• Radiation is an energy in form of electromagnetic waves moving through space
• This energy may be emitted due to an electric charge, an electron bombardment or even a chemical
reaction
• Radiant energy travels through the space in a straight oath until it is intercepted by a body that is the
“line of sight”.
• Depending on the nature of the intercepting body, the incident radiation can be reflected , transmitted
or absorbed.
• In general, bodies with light colors and smooth surface will reflect most of the incident light they
intercept while darker and rough surface bodies will absorb it.
• Once radiant energy is absorbed, it is converted to heat
* Note= radiation and heat are not the same
 Radiation heat transfer

Emissivity
• The fraction of the incident radiation that can be absorbed by an object is known as the absorptivity
of that object.
• Certain bodies will absorb more radiation than the others depending on their color and surface
conditions
• A “black body” which is an ideal body will absorb all the radiation it intercepts hence it has an
absorptivity equal to one
• Also, black body is a perfect radiator of energy because its surface will emit the maximum amount
of radiation at a given surface temperature.
• Definition: The ratio of the radiation power of the substance to that of a black body , and is
mathematically expressed as
𝐸 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝜀=
𝐸 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
• 𝜀is dependent on the nature and composition of material
Emissivity of surfaces of selected materials (Adapted McAdams,1954)
Temp, °C Emmisivity, 𝜺
Asbestos, paper 3.22 0.93-0.945
Aluminum, polished plate -5.11 0.40
Copper, polished 47.06 0.023
Enamel, white fused on iron -7.28 0.897
Galvanized sheer iron, fairly bright -2.28 0.228
Galvanized sheer iron, gray oxidized -4.50 0.276
Glass, smooth -5.44 0.937
Ground sheet steel 937.8-1098.9 0.55-0.61
Lacquer, flat black 3.22 0.96-0.98
Snow-white enamel varnish on rough iron -5.11 0.906
plate
Nickel. 98.9% pure, polished 226.7-376.7 0.07-0.087
Emissivity of surfaces of selected materials
Temp, °C Emissivity, 𝜺
Oxidized iron 37.78 0.736
Polished iron 426.7-1026.7 0.144-0.377
Steel plate, rough 3.22 0.94-0.97
Paints, oil paints, 16 different, all colors 37.78 0.92-0.96
Aluminum paints, varying age and AI 37.78 0.27-0.67
content
Paper -7.28 0.924-0.944
Porcelain, glazed -5.50 0.924
Water -17.78 0.95-0.963
Wood, planed -6.06 0.895
Zinc, 99.1% pure polished 226.7-326.7 0.045-0.053
 Radiation heat transfer

• Stefan-Boltzman law
– The amount of radiation from a body is proportional to its absolute
temperature raised to the 4th power
𝐸 = 𝜎𝑇 4
𝜎= universal constant dependent on the units used to measure T. When
temperature is expressed as K, 𝜎= 5.6997x 10 -8 W/m2-K4.
• For real substance with total radiating area of A and emissivity 𝜀, the
radiation rate is estimated as
𝑞 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀𝑇 4

Where: q = rate of energy transfer along the direction perpendicular to

the radiating surface A.
 Radiation heat transfer

• The net energy transfer from a body at a temperature

of T1 to another body at a temperature T2 can be
calculated using the below equation:
4 4
𝑞 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀(𝑇1 −𝑇2 )

Where: A =surface area

𝜀 = emissivity of the hotter body
 Illustrative problem

• A cubical food material with

a side dimension of 15cm and
an average surface
temperature, Ts of 104°C is
placed on top of the table. If
the product has an emissivity
of 0.85, estimate the total
radiation from its surface.
 Solution

• The total area of the 5 radiating surface is

𝐴 = 5 ∗ 𝑆 2 = 5 ∗ (0.15𝑚)2 = 0.1125𝑚2
• The absolute temperature is
T=104℃ +273.15 = 377.15
𝑇 4 = 202.3𝑥 108 𝐾 4
• Therefore:
𝑞 = 𝐴𝜎𝜀𝑇 4
= 0.1125𝑚2 5.6997 𝑥 10−8 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 𝐾 4 0.85 202.3𝑥 108 𝐾 4
= 110.26 W
 REFERENCES
• Carpio, 2000. E.V. Engineering for Food Technologist. UPLB Publishing Center.

• Singh R. P and Heldman, D.R.. 2009. Introduction to Food Engineering Fourth Edition. Elsevier Inc.
Retrieved at http://www.ucarecdn.com/fb7332e8-c35a-47b0-9805-051fa171f8fa/.

• Food Process Engineering and Technology. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-812018-7.00003-8# 2018

Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Thank you for listening
Stay safe and healthy
God bless