INTRODUCTION TO

HEAT TRANSFER
WHAT IS HEAT TRANSFER?
DIFFRENCE BETWEEN THERMODYNAMICS & HEAT TRANSFER

THERMODYNAMICS HEAT TRANSFER

• It deals with equilibrium state of • It is inherently a non-equilibrium
matter and precludes the existence of process (temp gradient must exist for
temperature gradient. exchange of heat to take place)
• When system changes from one state • It helps to determine the distribution
to another thermo-dynamics helps to of temperature and to determine the
determine the quantity of work and rate at which energy is transferred
heat interactions. across a surface due to temp. gradient
• It describes how much heat is to be at the surface,and difference of temp
exchanged during the process but does between the surface.
not hint about how the same is
achieved.
MODES
APPLICATION OF HEAT TRANSFER
 CONDUCTION HEAT TRANSFER
Conduction: conduction is transfer of heat from one part of the substance to other
part of the same substance.

Example: Hold a metal rod in a Bunsen burner flame. After some time the end you‟re
hold will heat up. This is because of conduction of heat by collision of molecules due
to increase in K.E of the molecules within the metal.
Cooking: - while cooking food on the stove by heat conduction from
container to the food indirectly.
 CONVECTION HEAT TRANSFER
Convection: It is mode of heat transfer between the solid surface and adjacent liquid
or gas that is in motion and it involves the combined effect of conduction and fluid
motion.

• Forced convection: If the mixing motion induces by some external means such as Fan, Pump or
blower is said to be forced convection.
• Free or Natural convection : If the mixing motion takes places due to density gradient or
buoyancy effects caused by temperature gradient is said to be Free or Natural convection.
 RADIATION HEAT TRANSFER
Radiation: it is the process of by which heat flows from a higher temperature body to a
body at lower temperature when the bodies are separated in space even when a vacuum
exists between them.
Properties of radiant heat are similar to those of light.

Properties:
• It does not require the presence of material medium for transmission.
• Radiant heat can be reflected from the surfaces and obeys the ordinary laws of
reflection.
• It travels with velocity of light.
• It shows interference, diffraction and polarization
• Example: Heat transfer from human body to atmosphere.  Cooking by microwave
oven.
 CONDUCTION
NEEDS MEDIUM AND TEMPERATURE GRADIENT
Governing law of conduction (Fourier’s law of conduction)
 Conduction heat transfer is governed by Fourier's law of heating. It states that “The rate of heat
flow by conduction in any direction is proportional to the temperature gradient and area
perpendicular to the flow direction”.
RATE OF EQUATION (1D)
Characteristics features of Fourier’s law are
• It is applicable to all matter (Solid, liquid or gas).
• It is based on experimental evidence and cannot be derived from first
principle.
• It helps to define thermal conductivity of the medium through which
heat is conducted.
Thermal Conductivity
• It is a physical property of the material. It is defined as the ability of
material to conduct heat through it.
• Thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of how fast heat will
flow in that material. The SI unit of thermal conductivity is W/m0C.
Governing law of convection heat transfer (Newton’s law of cooling)

It states that heat flow is directly proportional to the exposed surface
area and temperature difference between surface and fluid.

Q= Heat transfer rate, watts

As= Surface area exposed to heat transfer, m2
 Ts = Surface temperature, K
 = Fluid temperature, K
h= Heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
• Heat Transfer Coefficient: It is also defined as “The amount of heat
transmitted for a unit temperature difference between the fluid and
unit area of surface in unit time”.
CONVECTION
RATE OF CONVECTION
TYPES OF CONVECTION
CONVECTION
RADIATION
 Radiation Heat Transfer
• Governing Law of Radiation heat transfer
• Radiation heat transfer is governed by stefan –boltzmann law. It states
that the heat radiated is proportional to the fourth power of the
absolute temperature of surface and its area,

• T= Surface temperature from which heat is emitted in K

• =Surface area in m2
• = Stefan –Boltzmann constant= 5.67*10-8 W/ m2K4
 When the net rate of heat transfers between a real surface and is surroundings, then Stefan-
Boltzmann law become
Radiation Heat Transfer
RATE OF RADIATION
RATE EQUATION
Objectives Of Conduction Analysis
Derivation of general heat conduction equation
C

• Consider a three dimensional rectangular elements in cartesian

coordinates as shown in fig.
• Let ∆x, ∆y, ∆z are dimensions of element in x,y,z coordinates
• 𝜌 = density of the element material
• C= specific heat of the element material
• Gelement= heat generated by the element x,y,z are the distances
from origin at which element is lying in X,Y,Z coordinates
• Temperature in the material is the function of time t and X,Y,Z
coordinates T=f(x,y,z,t)

•
Generalize heat conduction equation for
Cartesian co-ordinates
Different application
 Boundary conditions
• The mathematical expressions of the thermal conditions at the
boundaries are called as boundary conditions
• The temperature distribution in a medium depends on the
conditions at the boundaries of the medium as well as the heat
transfer mechanism inside the medium.
• To describe heat transfer problem completely two boundary
conditions must be given to each direction of the coordinate system
along which heat transfer is significant.
• Therefore, it is needed to specify two boundary conditions for one
dimensional problem, four boundary conditions for two
dimensional problem and six boundary conditions for three
dimensional problems.
 1. Boundary condition of First Kind
• There are many situations, where the temperature of the boundary surface is known or
the distribution of temperature at the boundary surface may be known as the function of
time.
• Let L= length of the plate be maintained at a uniform temperature T1 and T2 at x=0 and
x=L, respectively. As shown in fig
• One dimensional conduction heat transfer
• T(x,t)x=0= T(0,t)= T1
• T(x,t)x=L= T(L,t)= T2
• As the temperatures are known at the
boundary surfaces, the boundary conditions
are known as those of first kind.
 2.Boundary condition of Second Kind
• There are many situations where the heat flux at the surface is
known. Fig shows the boundary conditions of the second kind If
the heat flux is specified at the boundaries, then it is called as
boundary condition of 2nd kind

• In the above equations, q0 and qL are positive which means that heat flows
into the medium, where negative values of q 0 and qL means that heat flows
from the medium.
3.Convection boundary condition or Boundary
condition of third Kind
• This is more common practical situation. Consider a slab of thickness L .
At left surface, hot fluid at temperature T1 is flowing with heat transfer
coefficient h1.
• At right surface, a cold fluid at temperature T2 and heat transfer
coefficient of h2 is flowing at x=0

• at x=L

•
 4.Radiation boundary conditions

• In some space and cryogenic application, the transfer surface is

surrounded by an evacuated space and thus there is no convection heat
transfer between the surface and the surrounding medium. In such
conditions, radiated boundary conditions are used. It is expressed as
•

• For one dimensional heat transfer in the x-direction in a plate of

thickness L the radiation boundary conditions on both surfaces are

• i

• at x=0 and time t

• ii

• at x=L and time t

• Where and are the emissivity's of the
boundary surface
•
 Thermal Resistance

• When two physical systems are described by similar

equation and have similar boundary condition, these are
said to be analogous.
• The heat transfer process may be compared by analog
with flow of electricity in electric resistance.
• As the flow of electric current (I) in the electrical
resistance is directly proportional to potential difference
(dv).
• Similarly the heat flow (Q) is directly proportional to the
temperature differences (dt), the driving force for heat
conduction through a medium.
•

• (a)Heat Flow (b)Current Flow

• As per Ohm's law (in electric- circuit theory)
• Current (I) = ……………………… (1)
• By analogy, the heat flow equation (Fourier's equation) may be
written as
• Heat Flow rate (Q) = …………… (2)
• By comparing equation (1) & (2), we find that I is analogous to Q , dV
analogous to dt and R is analogous to .
• The quantity is called thermal conduction resistance (Rth)cond.
•

• The reciprocal of the thermal resistance is called thermal

conductance.
Heat conduction through plane walls {Without Heat Generation}

• Considerer a simple plane wall of homogeneous material having

constant thermal conductivity, and with each face held at a constant
uniform temperature and without heat generation
• Let: dx = L = Thickness of plane wall (m)
• A = Cross-sectional Area perpendicular to the rate of heat transfer
(m2)
• k = thermal conductivity of the material (W/m-k)
• T1, T2 = constant uniform temperature at x=0, x=L, respectively (K or
0
C)
• We know that general heat conduction equation in Cartesian co ordinates,

• 1D , steady state and No heat generation then above equation becomes

• Integrating above equation Twice, We get

• T= C1x+C2
• Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants
• The values of these constant can be obtained from
• the boundary conditions.
• At x=0, T = T1; At x=L, T = T2
• Substituting these conditions in equations in equation (2)
• T1 = 0 +C2; Therefore C2= T1
• T2 = C1L + C2
• T2= C1L + T1
• C
• Substitute C1 and C2 in equation (2)
•T
• The above equation is temperature distribution equation
for one dimensional steady state, no heat generation in
Cartesian coordinates Differentiate equation (3) with
respect x, we get

•
• Substitute equation (4) in Fourier Equation then
• Q=
• R= =Thermal resistance to heat flow
Heat conduction through composite walls
(Without Heat Generation)
• Composite wall is composed of several different layers, each having a different
thermal conductivity. Consider a composite wall made up of three parallel layers
in perfect thermal contact. Let: L1, L2 and L3 are thickness of layer 1,2 and 3
respectively. K1, K2 and K3 are the thermal conductivity of the material .
•
• Heat transfer through layer (1)
•=
• =
• Heat transfer through layer (2)
• =
• =
• Heat transfer through layer (2)
•=
• =
• Now, =
• =
• Under steady conditions, heat flow does not vary across the wall
• Q1 = Q2= Q3= Q
• = Q( )
• Q=
• Q==
• For a composite wall, A1=A2=A3=A For n Layers
• Q=
Steady state heat conduction through composite wall
with overall heat transfer co-efficient .

• In most of the time science and engineering application, fluid flows

on the both side of the composite walls.
• In such situation the overall heat transfer coefficient is used.
Denoted by „U‟.
• Consider a composite wall made of two layers.
The layer (1) is exposed to hot gases while the
layer (2) is exposed to cold air or fluid
• Let Ti = Hot gas temperature or fluid
temperature at inside of the composite wall
• hi = Heat transfer coefficient from hot gas to surface
• To= Temperature of cold fluid or fluid temperature at outside of
composite wall
• ho =Heat transfer coefficient from surface to the cold fluid
• For steady state heat conduction
• Qci = Q1=Q2=Qco = Q
• Qci = convection heat transfer from hot fluid to inside layer of
composite wall
• Qco =convection heat transfer from outside layer of composite wall to
cold fluid
• Qci
•Q

•Q

• Qco

•
• (
=
• = Q)
• Q=
 W/m2

• Q=
• Heat flow through a composite wall can also be written in the form
of
• Q=UA()
• Where U is overall heat transfer co-efficient
• Considering = A
• U=
• =
• Overall heat transfer coefficient represents the intensity of heat
transfer when the heat is transferred from one fluid to another
through a wall separating them.
• Numerically it is equal to the quantity of heat passing through unit
area of wall surface in unit time with a temperature difference of
unit degree.
• It has a dimension of W/m2 K= UA for unit area = (W/K)
 Numericals
1) Calculate the rate of heat transfer per unit area through
a copper plate 45 mm thick ,whose one face is maintained
at 350◦ C and the other face at 50 ◦ C .Take thermal
conductivity of copper as 370 W/m◦ C.
T1=350 ◦ C K=370
W/m◦ C

L=45mm
T2=50 ◦ C
2) A plane wall is 150mm thick and its wall area is 4.5m2.If
its conductivity is 9.35 W/m◦C and surface area is steady
at 150 ◦C and 45 ◦C determine (1)Heat Flow across the
plane wall.(2)Temperature gradient in the flow direction.

T1=150 ◦ C
K=9.35 W/m◦ C

L=150mm T2=45 ◦ C
3)The inner surface of a plane brick wall is at 60 ◦ C and
the outer surface is at 35 ◦ C .Calculate the rate of heat
transfer per m2 of surface area of the wall ,which is
220mm thick .The thermal conductivity of brick is 0.51
W/m ◦ C .

T1=60 ◦ C
K=0.51 W/m◦ C

L=220mm T2=35 ◦ C
4) A reactor’s wall,320mm thick is made up of an inner layer of fire
brick (k=0.84 W/m◦C ) cover with a layer of insulation (k=0.16
W/m◦C ).The reactor operates at a temperature of 1325 ◦C and the
ambient at 25 ◦C (i)Determine the thickness of fire brick and
insulation which gives minimum heat loss(ii) Calculate the heat loss
presuming that the insulating materials has a maximum
temperature of 1200 ◦C .

T1=1325 ◦C Insulation
Fire brick T3=25 ◦C

T2=1200 ◦C

LA LB
5)Consider a composite plane wall as shown in figure
.Develop an appropriate solution for the rate of heat
transfer through the wall.

K1=20W/m k
T1=0 ◦C Tf =100 ◦C
L=1m
A1=1m2
h=1000 W/m2K
K2= 10 W/m K
 Three dimensional heat conduction equation

 Three dimensional heat conduction

equation in Cylindrical co-ordinates .

 Three dimensional heat

conduction equation in spherical co-ordinates .

Heat Conduction Through Hollow Cylinder
• Consider 1-dimensional heat conduction through a cylindrical wall as
shown in figure
• Let r1= inner radius of cylindrical tube
• r2 =outer radius of cylindrical tube
• L= length of the tube
• k= thermal conductivity of the tube material
• Writing the 1-dimensional heat conduction equation in cylindrical
coordinates

• Considering no heat generation and steady state the equation will

come down to
• Integrating the above equation once

• dT=
• Integrating the above equation we get
• T=
• Applying boundary condition At r=r1, we get T=T1 equation
• T1= C1lnr1 +C2
• At r=r2, we get T=T2 equation
• T2= C1lnr2 +C2
• Solving above equations
• T1 – T2 = C1 (lnr1 – lnr2 )
• C1 =
• Substituting the value of C1 in equation
• T1 = lnr2 + C2
• T1 = lnr2 + C2

• C2 = T1 - lnr1

• =
•=
• C2 =
• Substituting the value of C1 and C2 in equation of T
• T=
• = (-- ()
• =(- ]
• =(- ]
•
•T= [
•Q = -KA
• =- KA
• =-

• =-

• =
•Where

•
Heat conduction through composite
Cylinders with heat transfer coefficient
• Consider a composite cylindrical wall made of two layers which is
exposed to hot fluid at inner side and cold fluid at outer side as
shown in previous figure.
• Let Ti and To are hot and cold fluid temperatures.
• hi and ho are heat transfer coefficients between hot fluid and inner
layer, cold fluid and outer layer respectively
• For a steady state conduction, the heat flow through each layer is
same i.e, Qci =Q1=Q2=Qco=Q
• Qci = = = Qci Rci
• Q1 === =Q1Rt1
• Q2 ==== Q2Rt2
• Qco = = = Qco Rco
• Overall temperature difference
• = +++
• = Qci Rci + Q1Rt1 + Q2Rt2+Qco Rco
• = (Rci + Rt1 + Rt2+Rco) Q
• Q =
•
• =
 Numerical based on heat conduction through cylinder.
•6) Steam at in a cast iron pipe (k=80 W/m-k) whose inner
and outer diameter are The pipe is covered with 3cm thick
glass wool insulation with k =0.05 w/m-k .Heat is lost to
surrounding at by natural convection and radiation with a
combined heat transfer co-efficient of h2=18 W/m2K
.Taking co-efficient inside the pipe to be h1=60 W/m2K.
(i)Determine the rate of heat loss from the steam per unit
length of the pipe .Also determine the temperature drop
across the pipe shell and the insulation.
•7) A steel pipe is carrying steam at a pressure of 30 bar
.It’s outside diameter is 90mm and is lagged with a layer of
material 45mm thick(k=0.05 W/m ).The ambient
temperature is 20and the surface of lagging has a heat
transfer co-efficient of 8.4w/m2 .Neglecting resistance due
to pipe material and due to steam film on the inside of
steam pipe. Find the thickness of the lagging (k=0.07
W/m )which must be added to reduce the steam
condensation rate by 50% if the surface co-efficient
remains unchanged.
CRITICAL INSULATION THICKNESS
Heat flow through the Hollow sphere
• Consider the hollow sphere made of a material having constant
thermal conductivity.
• Let r1,r2 = inner and outer radii
• T1,T2= Temperature of inner and outer surface
• k = thermal conductivity of the material with the given temperature
range .
• One dimensional heat conduction equation in spherical coordinates is
given by

• For a steady state and without heat generation

• =0 and =0
• =0
• =0
• Integrating the above equation
•=
• dT=dr
• Integrating this equation again
• T=-
• Applying boundary condition
• T=T1 at r=r1
• T=T2 at r=r2
• T1=-
• T2=-
•

• Substituting in the equation of T1

• T1=-

• = T1+(

• T= -(+T1+(

• T= - +T1+(
• T= T1 +()()

• T=()()

• =[
Heat transfer rate through a spherical wall We know Fourier law of heat conduction

• Q = -KA
• = -K4
• Q=-K4

• Q=- -]
• Q[=- -]
• Q[]=k {-}
• Q=
• Q=
• Rt =

• Heat Transfer through a Composite Sphere with heat transfer

coefficient
• Consider a composite spherical wall made up of two layers which is
exposed to hot fluid at inner side and cold fluid at other side as sown in
figure Let Ti and To are the hot and cold fluid temperatures.
• hi and ho are the heat transfer coefficients between hot fluid and inner
layer, outer layer and cold fluid.
• For steady state heat conduction
• Qci =Q1=Q2=Qco
• Heat transfer through layer (1)
Heat conduction in a sphere.
 Thermal contact resistance
• All solids surfaces shows some roughness if they are viewed under
microscope.
• When two such surfaces pressed against each other, the peaks will
form good material contact, but the valleys will form voids filled with
air.
• As a result, the interface will contain numerous air gaps of varying
sizes. These air gaps acts as insulation because of low thermal
conductivity of air.
• Thus interface offers some resistance to heat transfer. This resistance
per unit area is called the thermal contact resistance
Thermal Contact Resistance
• Heat transfer through the solid contact spots and the gaps in the non
contact area is given by
• Q= Qcontact+Qgap
• Qgap =hc AΔTinterface
• Where A = apparent interface area which is same as that of cross
sectional area of voids
• hc=Thermal contact conductance or convection heat transfer
coefficient
• Thermal contact resistance is the reciprocal of thermal contact
conductance Rc=
• ΔTinterface =the effective temperature difference at the interface
8)A spherical thin walled metallic container is used to store
N2 at -196 ℃. The container has diameter of 0.5m and is
covered with an evacuated reflective insulation composed
of silica powder. The insulation is 25 mm thick and its
outer layer is exposed to air at 27 ℃. The convective heat
transfer coefficient on outer surface is 20 W/m2℃. Latent
heat of evaporation of N2 is 2×105 J/kg. Density of N2 =804
kg/m3, k for silica powder =0.0017 W/m℃. Find out the
rate of heat transfer and rate of N2 boil off
9)A 3m inside dia spherical tank made of 20 mm thick stainless steel
(k= 15W/m2 K) is used to store ice water at 00C. The tank is located
in a room whose temperature is 220C. The walls of the room are also
at 220C. The outer surface of the tank is black and heat transfer
between the outer surface of the tank and surrounding is by natural
convection and radiation. The convection heat transfer coefficient at
the inner and outer surfaces of the tank are 80 and 10W/ m2 K
respectively. The radiation heat transfer coefficient at the outer
surface of the tank is 5.34W/m2 K. Determine i) rate of heat transfer
to the iced water in the tank, ii) The amount of ice that melts during
24 hrs period. Assume latent heat of ice as 334 kJ/kg
 Critical radius of sphere

• Critical Thickness of Insulation:

• Insulation is added to reduce the heat loss from surface to ambient if
the surface is hot, or to reduce the heat loss into the surface from the
ambient if the surface is cold. Either way the aim is to reduce the heat
loss
• Consider a sphere of inner radius r1 maintained at uniform
temperature covered with a layer of insulation of radius r2 as shown in
fig. Let be the temperature of ambient air with heat transfer
coefficient .
• Then the rate of heat transfer from the outer surface of pipe to the
surroundings is given by
• Q=
• Since T1, Tair, k, r1 and hair are all constants. Then Q depends only on r2
• Thus Q becomes maximum when the denominator of (1) becomes
minimum Therefore the required condition is
• Rewriting we get

• The above relation represents the condition for minimum resistance

and consequently maximum heat flow rate