Unit- 4 AI

Learning
Learning refers to the process by which machines acquire knowledge or skills through
experience, data, or instruction, enabling them to improve performance on specific tasks.
Forms of Learning
1. Supervised Learning: In supervised learning, the algorithm learns from labeled
data, where each input is associated with a corresponding target output. The
algorithm learns to map inputs to outputs by minimizing the error between its
predictions and the actual labels in the training data.
2. Unsupervised Learning: Unsupervised learning involves learning patterns and
structures from unlabeled data. Algorithms in unsupervised learning aim to identify
hidden patterns or groupings within the data without explicit guidance.
3. Semi-Supervised Learning: This approach combines elements of supervised
and unsupervised learning. It leverages a small amount of labeled data along with
a larger pool of unlabeled data to improve learning accuracy and efficiency.
4. Reinforcement Learning: Reinforcement learning involves training an agent to
interact with an environment in order to achieve a goal. The agent learns through
trial and error, receiving feedback in the form of rewards based on its actions.
Supervised Learning
In supervised learning, the algorithm learns from labeled data, where each input is
associated with a corresponding target output. The algorithm learns to map inputs to
outputs by minimizing the error between its predictions and the actual labels in the
training data.

Example: Consider a scenario where you have to build an image classifier to

differentiate between cats and dogs. If you feed the datasets of dogs and cats labelled
images to the algorithm, the machine will learn to classify between a dog or a cat from
these labeled images. When we input new dog or cat images that it has never seen
before, it will use the learned algorithms and predict whether it is a dog or a cat. This is
how supervised learning works, and this is particularly an image classification.
There are two main categories of supervised learning :
• Classification
• Regression
Classification
Classification is a type of supervised learning that is used to predict categorical values,
such as whether a customer will churn or not, whether an email is spam or not, or
whether a medical image shows a tumor or not.
The algorithm learns to classify input data into predefined categories or classes.
Some common classification algorithms include:
Logistic Regression
Support Vector Machines
Decision Trees
Random Forests
Naive Baye
Regression
Regression is a type of supervised learning that is used to predict continuous values,
such as house prices, stock prices.It learn a function that maps from the input features to
the output value.
Some common regression algorithms include:
Linear Regression
Polynomial Regression
Ridge Regression
Lasso Regression
Decision Tree
Random forest
Advantages of Supervised Learning:
1. Clear Objective: Supervised learning has a clear objective as the model is
trained to predict an output based on input data. This makes it suitable for tasks
where the desired outcome is well-defined, such as classification or regression.
2. Availability of Labeled Data: Supervised learning requires labeled training data,
which is often easier to obtain compared to unlabeled data. Many real-world
datasets come with labels, making supervised learning widely applicable.
3. High Accuracy: When trained on high-quality data, supervised learning models
can achieve high accuracy in making predictions.
Disadvantages of Supervised Learning:
1. Dependency on Labeled Data: Supervised learning heavily relies on labeled
 data for training. Collecting and labeling large datasets can be time-consuming
and expensive.
2. It has limitations in knowing patterns and may struggle with unseen or unexpected
patterns that are not present in the training data.
3. It may lead to poor generalizations based on new data.
Applications of Supervised Learning:
• Image classification: Identify objects, faces, and other features in images.
• Natural language processing: Extract information from text, such as
sentiment,entities, and relationships.
• Speech recognition: Convert spoken language into text.
• Recommendation systems: Make personalized recommendations to users.
• Predictive analytics: Predict outcomes, such as sales, customer churn, and
stock prices.
• Medical diagnosis: Detect diseases and other medical conditions.
• Fraud detection: Identify fraudulent transactions.
• Autonomous vehicles: Recognize and respond to objects in the environment.
• Email spam detection: Classify emails as spam or not spam.

Machine Learning
Machine learning is a subset of AI that allows a computer automatically to learn patterns
in data without any explicit instructions and make predictions based on that learning.
Decision Tree
A decision tree is a type of supervised learning algorithm that is commonly used in
machine learning to model and predict outcomes based on input data.
It is a tree-like structure where each internal node tests on attribute, each branch
corresponds to attribute value and each leaf node represents the final decision or
prediction.
Decision Tree Terminologies
1. Root Node: The topmost node in a decision tree is called the root node. It
represents the entire dataset and is the starting point for the tree's decision-
making process.
 2. Internal Nodes (Decision Nodes): Nodes in the tree whose choices are
determined by the values of particular attributes. There are branches on these
nodes that go to other nodes.
3. Leaf Nodes (Terminal Nodes): The branches’ termini, when choices or forecasts
are decided upon. There are no more branches on leaf nodes.
4. Branches (Edges): Links between nodes that show how decisions are made in
response to particular circumstances.
5. Splitting: The process of dividing a node into two or more sub-nodes based on a
decision criterion.
6. Parent Node: A node that is split into child nodes. The original node from which a
split originates.
7. Child Node: Nodes created as a result of a split from a parent node.
8. Decision Criterion: The rule or condition used to determine how the data should
be split at a decision node.
9. Pruning: The process of removing branches or nodes from a decision tree to
improve its generalisation and prevent overfitting.
Regression and Classification with Linear Models
The Linear Model is one of the most straightforward models in machine learning.linear
models are a class of models that assume a linear relationship between the input
features and the target variable.
Classification
Classification is the process of finding a model or function that helps in separating the
data into multiple categorical classes i.e. discrete values.
In classification, data is categorized under different labels according to some parameters
given in the input and then the labels are predicted for the data.
Classification algorithms are used to predict/Classify the discrete values such as Male or
Female, True or False, Spam or Not Spam, etc.
Types of Classification Algorithms
• Decision Tree
• Random Forest Classifier
• K – Nearest Neighbors
• Support Vector Machine
Regression
Regression is a process of finding the association between dependent and independent
variables. It helps in predicting the continuous variables such as prediction of Market
Trends, prediction of House prices, etc.
Regression are used to predict the continuous values such as price, salary, age, etc.
Types of Regression Algorithms
Linear Regression
Polynomial Regression
Ridge Regression
Lasso Regression

Artificial Neural Networks

• Artificial Neural Networks contain artificial neurons which are called units.
• These units are arranged in a series of layers that together constitute the whole
Artificial Neural Network in a system.
• A layer can have only a dozen units or millions of units as this depends on how the
complex neural networks will be required to learn the hidden patterns in the dataset.
• Commonly, Artificial Neural Network has an input layer, an output layer as well as
hidden layers. The input layer receives data from the outside world which the neural
network needs to analyze or learn about.
• Then this data passes through one or multiple hidden layers that transform the input
into data that is valuable for the output layer. Finally, the output layer provides an output
in the form of a response of the Artificial Neural Networks to input data provided.
In the majority of neural networks, units are interconnected from one layer to another.
Each of these connections has weights that determine the influence of one unit on
another unit. As the data transfers from one unit to another, the neural network learns
more and more about the data which eventually results in an output from the output
layer.

The structures and operations of human neurons serve as the basis for artificial neural
networks. It is also known as neural networks or neural nets.
The input layer of an artificial neural network is the first layer, and it receives input from
external sources and releases it to the hidden layer, which is the second layer.
In the hidden layer, each neuron receives input from the previous layer neurons,
computes the weighted sum, and sends it to the neurons in the next layer.
These connections are weighted means effects of the inputs from the previous layer are
optimized more or less by assigning different-different weights to each input and it is
adjusted during the training process by optimizing these weights for improved model
performance.
Types of Artificial Neural Networks
1. Feedforward Neural Networks (FNNs)
2. Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs)
3. Recurrent Neural Networks (RNNs)
4. Modular Neural Network
5. Radial basis function Neural Network
Applications of Artificial Neural Networks
1. Social Media
2. Marketing and Sales
3. Healthcare
4. Personal Assistants
Support Vector Machine(SVM)
Visit https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/support-vector-machine-
algorithm/ clearly explained(Till SVM terminology)
Types of SVM:
1.Linear SVM: Linear SVMs use a linear kernel to create a straight-line decision
boundary that separates different classes. ...
2.Nonlinear SVM: Nonlinear SVMs address scenarios where the data cannot be
separated by a straight line in the input feature space.
Advantages of SVM
• Effective in high-dimensional cases.
• Its memory is efficient as it uses a subset of training points in the decision
function called support vectors.
• Different kernel functions can be specified for the decision functions and its
possible to specify custom kernels.