1 Machines

 A machine is a device that makes work easier.

 In machines, an effort (force in Newtons) is applied to move the load.
 The effort can be

A muscular effort from man

Force derived from an engine.

1.1 Principle of simple machines

The principle used in a simple machine is to produce a bi force overall small distance by using a small
force over a large distance.

The force which we apply to the machine is known as effort (E) and the load we have to overcome is
known as the load (L). both force and load are measured in newton.

1.2 Simple machines

These are devices that work with one movement and change the size and direction of the force.

Examples of simple machines include levers, pulley, hydraulic, gears, screws, and inclined planes

1.3 Levers

A lever is a rigid bar which is free to move about a fixed point, the Fulcrum or pivot

Levers are divided into three classes

(i) The first-class levers

(ii) The second class lever and,

(iii) Third class levers

1.3.1 First-class lever

This is a type of lever in which the fulcrum is between the effort and the load.

Examples of the first-class lever include Craw bar, scissor, beam balance, scissor and pair of pliers,

1.3.2 Second class lever

Here the load is between the effort and fulcrum.

Examples are a wheelbarrow, nutcracker, and office punch

1.3.3 Third class lever

Here the effort is between the load and fulcrum.

Examples are a wheelbarrow, nutcracker and office punch

1.4 Mechanical advantage (M.A)

This is the ratio between the load and the effort applied.

1.4.1 Significance of mechanical advantage

 The bigger the mechanical advantage the better the machine since small effort can lift a bigger
load.
  Mechanical advantage is the amount of help you get using a machine in comparison to doing
something with just human effort, and it is created by levers.

1.4.2 Factors that may lower mechanical advantage

 Friction; the higher the friction the lower the mechanical advantage
 Weight of moving parts: the heavier the parts the lower the mechanical advantage

1.5 Velocity ratio

This is the ratio of the distance moved by effort over the distance moved by the load

Velocity ratio has no units

1.5.1 Significance of velocity ratio

The bigger the velocity ratio the less effort required to do work and the more efficient the machine.

In other words, the machines require less effort to overcome a big load when effort moves a bigger
distance compared to the load in a unit time.

1.6 Example

A load of 100N is raised through 6m when an effort of 40N moves through 24m.

Calculate
(i) mechanical advantage

(ii) velocity ratio

Solution

Levers use mechanical advantage to make lifting or applying pressure easier.

All levers are made of a bar and a pivot, called a fulcrum. Levers have three main parts:

effort - the amount of force applied by the user, also referred to as the input

fulcrum - where the lever pivots

load - the weight that needs to be moved, also referred to as the output

1.7 Example

A person lifting a load of 200 N but only using 100 N of effort:

Therefore, the mechanical advantage = 200 ÷ 100 = 2.

This can also be written as 2:1. The person is able to lift twice the load using 100 N of effort.

The mechanical advantage can also be calculated theoretically by measuring the distance between the
load and pivot and the effort and pivot.

In the picture below the distance between the load and fulcrum is 2 m. The distance between the effort
and fulcrum is 6 m.

Therefore, the mechanical advantage = 6 ÷ 2 = 3 or 3:1

The person will find this load three times easier to lift.

In both examples the mechanical advantage could be calculated. It is possible to calculate any part of
the formula as long as there are two pieces of information from the formula available:
  mechanical advantage = load ÷ effort
 load = mechanical advantage × effort
 effort = load ÷ mechanical advantage

1.8 Question

A person is using a lever to lift a rock with a 50 N load. The mechanical advantage is 5:1. How
much effort is the person having to give?

Mechanical advantage = load ÷ effort

5 = 50 N ÷ effort

This could also be rearranged as from the triangle above.

effort × 5 = 50 N

effort = 50 N ÷ 5 = 10 N

1.9 Pulleys

A pulley is a wheel with a groove ring that passes or string.

The effort is applied to one end of the rope and the disk of the pulley rotate as the rope moves over it

If there are several pulleys in a framework, it is called a block

1.9.1 Types of pulley

Pulleys may be categorized into

Single fixed pulley

Single movable pulley

Block and Tackle system

Pulleys reduce the effort to lift an object by increasing the distance and /or direction over which the
effort is applied.

1.9.2 Single fixed Pulley

 A single fixed pulley is a single wheel with concave grooves fixed to support as shown in the
figure above. A rope, chain, or cable passes over the groove of the pulley. One end of the rope is
attached to the load and the effort is applied at the other end.
 If a user pulls down on one end of the rope (Effort), the other end (Load) will raise up an equal
distance in the opposite direction
 The primary benefit of a single fixed pulley is to change the direction of the effort to move a
load to a point (such as the top of a flagpole) that cannot be reached by the user.
1.9.3 Characteristics of a fixed pulley system

i. It has one wheel inside the pulley

ii. The pulley is mounted to a strong solid support
iii. Its mechanical advantage = 1
iv. Velocity ratio = 1
v. It is a first-class lever because the fulcrum is between the effort and the load
vi. Has uniform tension in the rope

1.9.4 Application of a single pulley system

(i) Removing water from a well

(ii) Lifting building material in the site

1.10 A single movable Pulley

This is a pulley that moves along with the load attached to it. One end of the rope is tied to a fixed
support and passes over the pulley and the other end where effort is applied makes a U-turn to the user
as shown below.

1.10.1 Characteristics of the single fixed pulley

(i) Its mechanical advantage = 2, that is the effort required to lift the load is half the size of the load.
(ii) Its velocity ration = 2, that is the effort moves twice the distance moved by the load.

1.10.2 Example

A block weighing 500N is pulled up an inclined plane with a force of 300N. The frictional force between
the block and the surface of the plane is 50N. The height of the inclined plane is 2m and the length of
the incline is 6m. Calculate the efficiency of the inclined plane.

Solution

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 300 – 50

𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 (𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒) × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

250 × 6

𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎𝑱
 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑

= 500 × 2

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝑱

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

1000
= × 100
1500

Alternate method

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡

500
=
250

= 𝟐

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

𝑉. 𝑅. =
𝐻𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒

6
=
2

=𝟑

𝑀. 𝐴.
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = × 100
𝑉. 𝑅.
2
= × 100
3

= 𝟔𝟔. 𝟕%
1.11 Block and Tackle system

This is a pulley system consisting of both fixed and movable pulleys as shown below

The framework of pulleys is called block and the rope passing over each pulley is called tackle.

1.11.1 Characteristics of the block and tackle system

Mechanical advantage (MA) = n (number of pulleys in the system

Velocity ration (VR) = n (number of strings supporting the load or number of pulleys in the system)

1.11.2 Application of Block and Tackle

They are commonly used to raise or move load in

i. Sailing
ii. Crane
iii. Lifts

1.11.3 Example 2
A force of 10N is required to raise a load, L, using a smooth (frictionless) and weightless block and tackle
system of four pulleys. Calculate:

(i) Load

(ii) M.A

(iii) Effort distance if the load rises by 2m

Solution

Given

E = 10N,

M.A = ?,

Effort dis. ?

Load distance = 2m

L?

No of pulleys = 4

(a)(i) in equilibrium

Downward force = upward force

L = 4E = 4 x 10 = 40N

(ii) mechanical advantage

(iii) Neglecting friction,

Work in put = work out put

Work done by effort = work done by load

Effort x effort distance = Load x distance

E x E.d = L x L.d

10 x E.d = 40 x 2

Effort distance = 8

Therefore, effort distance = 8m

1.12 Efficiency of machines

The efficiency of a machine indicates how well its input energy is converted to useful output energy or
work.

𝑴. 𝑨.
𝒏=
𝑽. 𝑹.

Efficiency = Mechanical Advantage / Velocity ratio.

In an ideal machine (with no friction), the efficiency = 1, also known as 100%.

1.12.1 How can efficiency be increased

By reducing friction. This usually is done by adding a lubricant, such as oil or grease, to surfaces that rub
together

Friction can also be reduced by using ball bearings, by making the moving surface roll rather than slide
over each other, This reduces the area of contact.

For the case of pulleys, by making the string and the block plus the pulleys as light as possible.

1.12.2 Graphical relationship between M.A and Load

When M.A or n are plotted against load, the following graphs are obtained.
1.12.3 Explanation of the shape of the graph

 In both, a small increase in load cause a high increase in M.A and efficiency, n. on the further
increase on the load, graphs begin to level as M.A and efficiency reach their maximum values
and the remain constant.
 The efficiency of the pulley system increase with the load because when the load is small, the
weight of the lower moving pulley block and friction is significant.
 The weight of the lower movable pulley block and friction become negligible to the load as the
size of the lad increases.
 NB. For figure (a), the graph levels at the value of M.A. while (b), the graph levels below 100%
for imperfect machine and levels at 100% for perfect machines

Example 3

(a) Define the following terms

(i) Mechanical advantage

(ii) Velocity ration

(b) The diagram in the figure shows a pulley system used to raise the load
(i) What is the velocity ratio of the system

(ii) Find how far the load is raised if the effort moves down by 4m

(iii) Calculate the effort required to raise a load of 800N, if MA = 4

(c) Explain what happens to the efficiency of the system in (b) above if the load is much

(i) Less than 800N

(ii) More than 800N

(d) Draw a sketch graph to show how mechanical advantage of the system in (b) varies with the load

(e) Give two practical applications where the pulleys are used.

Solution

(a) (i) mechanical advantage is the ratio of load to the effort

(ii) Velocity ratio is the ratio of effort distance to load distance

(b) (i) VR = number of pulleys = 5

Effort distance = 4m, load distance = ?, V.R = 5

Load distance = 0.8m

(iii) E = ?,

L = 800N,

M.A = 4

(d)
 NB. leveling occurs M.A is reached

(e) they are used in cranes, breakdown, ships, for lifting

1.13 Inclined Plane