What is Machines ?

A piece of equipment with moving parts that is designed to do a

particular job. A machine usually needs electricity, gas, steam, etc.
in order to work.

What is Machine in Physics ?

A machine is an object or mechanical device that receives an input
amount of work and transfers the energy to an output amount of
work.
The six common simple machines are the lever, wheel and axle,
pulley, inclined plane, wedge, and screw.

Machines
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Functions and uses of simple machines : The various functions of
machines are useful to us in the following four ways:

(1) In lifting a heavy load by applying less effort, i.e., as a force

multiplier.
Examples: A jack is used to lift a car, a bar is used to lift a heavy
stone, a spade , pulleys , a wheel barrow etc

(2) In changing the point of application of effort to a convenient

point.
Example: The rear wheel of a cycle is rotated by applying effort on
the pedal.

(3) In changing the direction of effort to a convenient direction.

Example: Single fixed pulley to raise water from well.

(4) For obtaining a gain in speed (i.e., a greater movement of load

by a smaller movement of effort)
Examples: A pair of scissors, Ice tongs.

DEFINE MACHINES:
A machine is a device by which we can either overcome a large
resistive force (or load) at some point by applying a small force (or
effort) at a convenient point and in a desired direction or by which
we can obtain a gain in speed.

TECHNICAL TERMS RELATED TO A MACHINES:

(1) Load
The resistive or opposing force to be overcome by a machine is
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called load (L). SI Unit – Newton, CGS Unit - dyne

(2) Effort
The force applied on the machine to overcome the load is called
effort (E). SI Unit – Newton, CGS Unit - dyne

(3) Mechanical advantage (M.A.)

The ratio of load to effort is called the mechanical advantage of the
machine.
Mechanical Advantage = Load / Effort
Unit: It has no unit.

MA > 1 are Force Multiplier

While using a machine to overcome a certain load, if the effort
needed is less than the load, the machine has mechanical
advantage greater than 1,
A machine having mechanical advantage greater than 1, acts as a
force multiplier,

MA < 1 are Gain in Speed

If it needs an effort greater than the load, it has mechanical
advantage less than 1. A machine having mechanical advantage
less than 1 gives gain in speed.
MA = 1 Change Direction of Effort
The machine having mechanical advantage equal to 1, is generally
used to change the direction of effort as there is no gain in force or
speed.
A machine cannot be used as a force multiplier as well as a speed
multiplier simultaneously.
(4) Velocity Ratio(V.R.):
The ratio of the velocity of effort to the velocity of load is called the
velocity ratio of machine, i.e.,
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Velocity Ratio = Velocity of Effort / Value of Load
Velocity ratio is also defined as the ratio of the displacement of
effort to the displacement of load.

VR < 1 Gain in Speed

A machine in which the displacement of load is more than the
displacement of effort, will have velocity ratio less than 1 and sucha
machine gives gain in speed because load is moving at a faster rate.
VA > 1 Force Multiplier
If velocity ratio of a machine is more than 1, i.e., the displacement of
load is less than the displacement of effort, the machine acts as a
force multiplier.
VR = 1 Changes the direction of effort
The velocity ratio of a machine is 1 if the displacement of load is
equal to the displacement of effort. Such a machine generally
changes the direction of effort.
Unit: Since velocity ratio is also the ratio of two similar quantities
(distances), so it has no unit.

5) Work Input
The work done on the machine by the effort, is called work input.
Work input = work done by the effort
(Work input = Effort * EA)

(6) Work output

The work done by the machine on the load is called work output
(W).
Work output = work done on the load.
(Work output =Load * LA)

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(7) Efficiency (n)

Efficiency of a machine is the ratio of the work done on the load by

the machine to the work done on the machine by the effort.
Efficiency = work output / work input x 100%

PRINCIPLE OF A MACHINE
The point at which energy is supplied to a machine by applying
effort is called the effort point and the point where energy is
obtained by overcoming the load, is called the load point.

Input energy = work done at the effort point = effort x displacement

of the point of application of effort

Output Energy = work obtained at the load point

= load x displacement of the point of application of load
For an ideal machine,
Output energy = Input Energy

Ideal machine : An ideal machine is that in which there is no loss of

energy in any manner. Here the work output is equal to the work
input. i.e., the efficiency of an ideal machine is 100%.

Actual machine: In an actual machine, the output energy is always

less than the input energy i.e., there is always some loss of energy
during its operation. The loss of energy in a machine is due to the
following three reasons:
(1) the moving parts in it are neither weightless nor smooth (or
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 frictionless),
(2) the string in it (if any) is not perfectly elastic, and
) its different parts are not perfectly rigid.
)
) RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFICIENCY (n), MECHANICAL
ADVANTAGE (MA) AND VELOCITY RATIO (VR)
Efficiency (n) = work output / work
inputEfficiency (n) = M.A. / V.R.
M.A. = V.R. x n

PULLEY
A single pulley can be used in two ways:
(1) as a fixed pulley by keeping its axis of rotation stationary i.e.,
keeping its frame fixed in position, and
(2) as a movable pulley by changing its axis of rotation i.e., keeping
the whole frame movable.

SINGLE FIXED PULLEY

A pulley which has its axis of rotation stationary in

position, is called a fixed pulley.
It is the friction between the string and the surface
of the rim of the pulley which rotates the pulley
when the string is pulled down.

M.A., V.R., and n of a single fixed pulley= 1

MA = load/effort

In actual practice, however, there is always some friction at the axle

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or in the pulley bearings, so the effort needed is little more than the
load to be lifted. Thus, mechanical advantage is less than 1 but
velocity ratio is 1, so efficiency is always less than 100%.

A fixed pulley is used only to change the direction of effort to be

applied, i.e., with its use, the effort can be applied in a more
convenient direction.

SINGLE MOVABLE PULLEY

A pulley whose axis of rotation is movable (ie.,
not fixed in position) is called a movable pulley.
VR = 2
M.A. = 2T/T = 2
n = M.A./ V.R. = 2/2 = 1 or 100%

COMBINATION OF PULLEYS
1) Using one fixed pulley and other
movable pulley.
MA = 2n ,where n = No of Movable pulleys
VR = 2n
Efficiency = MA/ VR = 1

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2) Using several pulleys in two
blocks (block and tackle system)

MA= Total Number of pulleys in both

the blocks
VR= No. of strands of the tackle
supporting the load.

In block and Tackle system:

a) No of Pulleys in Upper block is
Equal to or greater than Lower
block.
b) For greater efficiency, the pulleys in lower block should be as
light as possible and friction be reduced.

LEVERS
Levers are the simplest kind of machines used in our daily life.
A lever is a rigid, straight (or bent) bar which is capable of turning
about a fixed axis.
The axis, about which the lever turns, passes through a point of the
lever which is called the fulcrum. It is generally marked by the letter
F. This point does not move, but remains fixed when the lever is in
use.

Principle of a lever (M.A. of a lever)

A lever works on the

principle of moments
according to which at
the equilibrium position
of the lever, moment of load about the fulcrum must be equal to the
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moment of effort about the fulcrum and the two moments must
always be in opposite directions.
Clockwise moment of load about the fulcrum
= Anticlockwise moment of effort about the fulcrum
i.e., Load x load arm = Effort x effort arm
or
L × FB = E × FA

KINDS OF LEVERS
Depending upon the relative positions of effort, load and fulcrum,
there are following three types of levers (1) Class I levers, (2) ClassII
levers, and (3) Class III levers.

(1) Class I levers

In this type of levers, the
fulcrum F is in between
the effort E and the load
L.
Examples: A seesaw, a pair of scissors, etc.
For class I levers, the mechanical advantage and velocity ratio can
have any value either greater than 1, equal to 1 or less than 1.

(2) Class II levers

In this type of levers, the fulcrum F and the effort E are at the two
ends of the lever and the
load L is somewhere in
between the effort E and
the fulcrum F .The effort
arm is always longer
than the load arm.
The mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of class II levers are
always more than 1.
Examples: A nut cracker, a bottle opener, etc.
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(3) Class III levers
In this type of levers, the fulcrum F and the load L are at the two
ends of the lever
and the effort E is
somewhere in
between the
fulcrum F and the
load L .
The mechanical advantage and velocity ratio of class III levers are
always less than 1.
Examples: Sugar tongs, knife, fire tong, spade, fishing rod etc.

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EXAMPLES OF EACH CLASS OF LEVERS AS FOUND IN THE
HUMAN BODY
In a human body, we can find examples of all the
three classes of levers.
(1) Class I lever in the action of nodding of head :
In this action, the spine acts as the fulcrum F, load
L is at its front part, while effort E is at its rear
part.

(2) Class II lever in raising the weight of the

body on toes:
The fulcrum F is at the toes at one end, the loadL
(i.e., weight of the body) is in the middle and
effort E by muscles is at the other end.

(3) Class III lever in raising a load by

forearm:
The elbow joint acts as fulcrum F at
one end, biceps exerts the effort E in
the middle and load L on the palmis
at the other end.

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