SE - UNIT-2

UNIT II: Chapter 1: Agility, Agility and the Cost of Change, Agile Process, Extreme
Programming (XP), Other Agile Process Models, A Tool Set for the Agile Process,
Chapter 2:Software Engineering Knowledge, Core Principles, Principles That Guide
Each Framework Activity
Chapter 3: Requirements Engineering, Establishing the Groundwork, Eliciting
Requirements, Developing Use Cases, Building the Requirements Model,
Negotiating Requirements, Validating Requirements.

Chapter 1

 Agile software engineering has a set of development guidelines. The

mechanism encourages customer satisfaction and early incremental
delivery of software.
 Software engineers and other project stakeholders (managers, customers,
end users) work together on an agile team
 Agile software engineering represents a reasonable alternative to
conventional software engineering .
Agility:
 Agility means effective (rapid and adaptive) response to change, effective
communication among all stakekholder. 
 Drawing the customer onto team and organizing a team so that it is in
control of work performed. The Agile process is light-weight methods and
People-based rather than plan-based methods.
 The agile process forces the development team to focus on software itself
rather than design and documentation. 
 The agile process believes in iterative method.
 The aim of agile process is to deliver the working model of software quickly
to the customer For example: Extreme programming is the best known of
agile process.

AGILITY AND THE COST OF CHANGE

The cost of change increases as the project progresses.(Figure 3.1, solid black
curve). It is relatively easy to accommodate a change when a software team is
gathering requirements (early in a project).
 The team is in the middle of validation testing (something that occurs
relatively
late in the project), and stakeholder is requesting a major functional change. The
change requires a modification to the architectural design of the software, the
design and construction of three new components, modifications to another five
components, the design of new tests, and so on. Costs and time increases
quickly.
A well-designed agile process “flattens” the cost of change curve (Figure 3.1,
shaded, solid curve), allowing a software team to accommodate changes late in a
software project without cost and time impact. the agile process encompasses
incremental delivery.
What is an Agile Process:
Any agile software process is characterized in a manner that addresses a number
of key assumptions about the majority of software projects:
1. It is difficult to predict(estimate for future change) in advance which software
requirements will persist and which will change.
2. For many types of software, design and construction are performed
simultaneously. It is difficult to predict how much design is necessary before
construction is used to prove the design.
3. Analysis, design, construction, and testing are not expected. (from a
planning point of view)
Agility Principles
12 agility principles for those who want to achieve agility:
1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and continuous
delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a couple of
Months.
4. stake holders and software engineers must work together daily throughout the
project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the environment and
support they need, and trust them to get the job done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information to and
within a development team is face-to-face conversation.
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development.
9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design
enhances(increases)agility.
10. Simplicity—the art of maximizing the amount of work not done—is
essential.
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from self–
organizing teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more effective and
then adjusts its behavior accordingly.
Not every agile process model applies these 12 principles with equal weight, and
some models choose to ignore (or at least downplay) the importance of one or
more of the principles.
The Politics of Agile Development

 There is debate about the benefits and applicabilityof agile software

development as opposed to more conventional software engineering
processes(produces documents rather than working product).
 Even within the agile, there are many proposed process models each with a
different approach to the agility .
Human Factors
Agile software development take the importance of “people factors”. Number of
different talents must exist among the people on an agile team and the team
itself:
Competence:“competence” encompasses talent, specific software-related
skills, and overall knowledge of the process .
Common focus: Members of the agile team may perform different
tasks and all should be focused on one goal—to deliver a working software
increment to the customer within the time promised.
Collaboration: Team members must collaborate with one another and all other
Stakeholders to complete the their task.
Decision-making ability: Any good software team (including agile teams)
must be allowed the freedom to control its own destiny.
Fuzzy problem-solving ability: The agile team will continually have to deal with
ambiguities(confusions or doubts).
Mutual trust and respect: The agile team exhibits the trust and respect .
Self-organization:
(1) the agile team organizes itself for the work to be done
(2) the team organizes the process to best accommodate its local environment
(3) the team organizes the work schedule to best achieve delivery of the software
increment.
Extreme Programming:
Extreme Programming (XP), the most widely used approach to agile software
development. XP proposed by kent beck during the late 1980’s.
XP Values
Beck defines a set of five values —communication, simplicity, feedback, courage,
and respect. Each of these values is used in XP activities, actions, and tasks.
 Effective communication between software engineers and
other stakeholders .
 . To achieve simplicity, XP restricts developers to design only for immediate
needs, rather than future needs.
 Feedback is derived from three sources: the implemented software itself,
the customer, and other software team members
 courage.(discipline) An agile XP team must have the discipline (courage) to
design for today, recognizing that future requirements may change
dramatically.
 the agile team inculcates respect among it members, between other
stakeholders and team members.
The XP(Extreme Programming) Process
XP Process have four framework activities: planning, design, coding, and testing.
Planning. The planning activity begins with listening—a requirements gathering
activity.
 Listening leads to the creation of a set of “stories” (also called user stories)
that describe required output, features, and functionality for software to be
built.
  Each story is written by the customer and is placed on an index card.The
customer assigns a value (i.e., a priority) to the story based on the overall
business value of the feature or function.
 Members of the XP team then assess each story and assign a cost—
measured in development weeks—to it.
 If the story is estimated to require more than three development
weeks,the story into smaller stories and the assignment of value and cost
occurs again. It is important to note that new stories can be written at any
time.
 the stories with highest value will be moved up in the schedule and
implemented first.

Design: XP design follows the KIS (keep it simple) principle.

 If a difficult design problem is encountered as part of the design of a story,
XP recommends the immediate creation of an operational prototype of
that portion of the design. Called a spike solution.
 XP encourages refactoring—a construction technique that is also a method
for design optimization.
 Refactoring is the process of changing a software system in a way that it
does not change the external behavior of the code and improves the
internal structure.
Coding:design work is done, the team does not move to code, develops a series of
unit tests for each of the stories that is to be included in the current release
(software increment).
 Once the unit test has been created, the developer is better able to focus
on what must be implemented to pass the test.
 Once the code is complete, it can be unit-tested immediately,and providing
feedback to the developers.
 A key concept during the coding activity is pair programming. i.e..,two
people work together at one computer workstation to create code for a
story.
 As pair programmers complete their work, the code they develop is
integrated with the work of others.
Testing:
 As the individual unit tests are organized into a “universal testing suite”
integration and validation testing of the system can occur on a daily basis.
 XP acceptance tests, also called customer tests, are specified by the
customer and focus on overall system features and functionality.
Acceptance tests are derived from user stories that have been
implemented as part of a software release.
Industrial XP
Joshua Kerievsky describes Industrial Extreme Programming (IXP)
IXP has six new practices that are designed to help XP process works successfully
for projects within a large organization.
Readiness assessment. the organization should conduct a readiness assessment.
(1) Development environment exists to support IXP(Industrial Extreme
Programming).
(2) the team will be populated by the proper set of stakeholders.
(3) the organization has a distinct quality program and supports continuous
improvement.
(4) the organizational culture will support the new values of an agile Team.
Project community.
 Classic XP suggests that the right people be used to populate the agile team
to ensure success.
 The people on the team must be well-trained, adaptable and skilled.
 A community may have a team members and customers who are central to
the success of the project.
Project chartering.:
  Chartering examines the context of the project to determine how it
complements, extends, or replaces existing systems or processes.
Test-driven management.
 Test-driven management establishes a series of measurable “destinations”
and then defines mechanisms for determining whether or not these destinations
have been reached.
Retrospectives.
 An IXP team conducts a specialized technical reviews after a software
increment is delivered. Called a retrospective.
 The review examines “issues, events, and lessons-learned” across a
software increment and/or the entire software release.
Continuous learning.
 learning is a vital part of continuous process improvement, members of the
XP team are encouraged to learn new methods and techniques that can
lead to a higher quality product.
The XP Debate
Requirements volatility. The customer is an active member of the XP team,
changes to requirements are requested informally. As a consequence,
the scope of the project can change and earlier work may have to be
modified to accommodate current needs.
• Conflicting customer needs. Many projects have multiple customers, each with
his own set of needs.
• Requirements are expressed informally. User stories and acceptance tests are
the only explicit manifestation of requirements in XP. specification is often
needed to remove inconsistencies, and errors before the system is built.
• Lack of formal design:when complex systems are built, design must have the
overall structure of the software then it will exihibit quality.

Other Agile Process Models:

The most widely used of all agile process model is Extreme Programming (XP). But
many other agile process models have been proposed and are in use across the
industry. Among the most common are:
• Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
• Scrum
• Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
• Crystal
• Feature Drive Development (FDD)
• Lean Software Development (LSD)
• Agile Modeling (AM)
• Agile Unified Process (AUP)
Adaptive Software Development (ASD)Adaptive Software Development
(ASD) has been proposed by Jim High smith as a technique for building
complexsystems. ASD focus on human collaboration and team self-
organization.
 ASD “life cycle” (Figure 3.3) has three phases:- speculation, collaboration,
and learning.
 speculation, the project is initiated and adaptive cycle planning is
conducted.Adaptive cycle planning uses project initiation information—the
customer’s statement, project constraints (e.g., delivery dates or user
descriptions), and basic requirements—to define the set of release cycles
(software increments) that will be required for the project.

 Motivated people use collaboration

 People working together must trust one another to (1) without criticize, (2)
work as hard as or harder than they do, (3) have the skill set to contribute
to the work and (4) communicate problems in away that leads to effective
action.
 learning will help them to improve their level of real understanding.
Scrum
 Scrum is an agile software development method that was coined by Jeff
Sutherland and his development team in the early 1990’s.
 Scrum has the following framework activities: requirements, analysis,
design, evolution, and delivery. Within each framework activity, actions and
work tasks occur within a process called a sprint.
  scrum defines a set of development actions:
Backlog—a prioritized list of project requirements or features that provide
business value for the customer. Items can be added to the backlog at any time
(this is how changes are introduced). The product manager assesses the backlog
and updates priorities as required.
Sprints—consist of work units that are required to achieve a requirement defined
in the backlog .

Scrum meetings—are short (typically 15 minutes) meetings held daily by the

Scrum team. Three key questions are asked and answered by all team members.
• What did you do since the last team meeting?
• What obstacles are you encountering?
• What do you plan to accomplish by the next team meeting?
A team leader, called a Scrum master, leads the meeting and assesses the
responses from each person.
Demos—deliver the software increment to the customer so that functionality that
has been implemented can be demonstrated and evaluated by the customer.
Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
 The Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM) is an agile software
development approach.
 The DSDM—80 percent of an application can be delivered in 20 percent of
the time it would take to deliver the complete (100 percent) application.
  DSDM is an iterative software process in which each iteration follows the
80 percent rule. That is, only enough work is required for each increment to
facilitate movement to the next increment.
 The remaining detail can be completed later when more business
requirements are known or changes have been requested and
accommodated.
 The activities of DSDM are:
Feasibility study—establishes the basic business requirements and constraints
associated with the application to be built and then assesses whether the
application is a viable candidate for the DSDM process.
Business study—establishes the functional and information requirements that
will allow the application to provide business value.
Functional model iteration—produces a set of incremental prototypes that
demonstrate functionality for the customer.
 The intent during this iterative cycle is to gather additional requirements by
eliciting feedback from users as they exercise the prototype.
Design and build iteration—prototypes built during functional model
iteration to ensure that each has been engineered in a manner that it will provide
operational business value for end users.
Implementation—places the latest software increment (an “operationalized”
prototype) into the operational environment. It should be noted that (1) the
increment may not be 100 percent complete or (2) changes may be requested as
the increment is put into place.
Crystal
 Alistair Cockburn and Jim Highsmith created the Crystal family of agile
methods .
 Cockburn characterizes as “a resource limited, cooperative game of
invention and communication, with a primary goal of delivering useful,
working software and a secondary goal of setting up for the next game”.
 Cockburn and Highsmith have defined a set of methodologies, each with
core elements that are common to all, and roles,process patterns, work
products, and practice that are unique to each.
 The Crystal family is actually a set of example agile processes that have
been proven effective for different types of projects.
Feature Driven Development (FDD)
 Feature Driven Development (FDD) was originally coined by Peter Coad and
his colleagues as a process model for object-oriented software engineering.
  A feature “is a client-valued function that can be implemented in two
weeks or less”.
 the definition of features provides the following benefits:
 features are small blocks of deliverable functionality, users can
describe them more easily.
 Since a feature is the FDD deliverable software increment, the
team develops operational features every two weeks.
 Because features are small, their design and code representations
are easier.
 the following template for defining a feature:
<action> the <result> <by for of to> a(n) <object>
Where
<object> is “a person, place, or thing.”
Examples of features for an e-commerce application might be:
1) Add the product to shopping cart
2) Store the shipping-information for the customer

 A feature set groups related features into business-related categories and is

defined as:
<action><-ing> a(n) <object>
For example: Making a product sale is a feature set that would encompass the
features noted earlier and others.
 The FDD approach defines five “collaborating” framework activities as
shown in Figure 3.5.
 It is essential for developers, their managers, and other stakeholders to
understand project status.
  For that FDD defines six milestones during the design and implementation
of a feature: “design walkthrough, design, design inspection, code,
code inspection, promote to build”.
Lean Software Development (LSD)
 Lean Software Development (LSD) has adapted the principles of lean
manufacturing to the world of software engineering.
 LSD process can be summarized as eliminate waste, build quality in, create
knowledge, defer commitment, deliver fast, respect people, and optimize
the whole.
 For example,
eliminate waste within the context of an agile software project as
1)adding no extraneous features or functions
(2) assessing the cost and schedule impact of any newly requested requirement,
(3) removing any superfluous process steps,
(4) establishing mechanisms to improve the way team members find information,
(5) ensuring the testing finds as many errors as possible,
Agile Modeling (AM)
Agile Modeling(AM) suggests a wide array of “core” and “supplementary”
modeling principles,
Model with a purpose. A developer who uses AM should have a specific
goal (e.g., to communicate information to the customer or to help better
understand aspect of the software) in mind before creating the model.
Use multiple models. There are many different models and notations that
can be used to describe software.
 Each model should present a different aspect of the system and only those
models that provide value to their intended audience should be used.
Travel light. As software engineering work proceeds, keep only those models
that will provide long-term value .
Content is more important than representation. Modeling should impart
information to its intended audience.
Know the models and the tools you use to create them. Understand
the strengths and weaknesses of each model and the tools that are used to
create it.
Adapt locally. The modeling approach should be adapted to the needs of
the agile team.
Agile Unified Process (AUP)
The Agile Unified Process (AUP) adopts a “serial in the large” and “iterative in the
small” philosophy for building computer-based systems.
Each AUP iteration addresses the following activities:
• Modeling. UML representations of the business and problem domains are
created.
• Implementation. Models are translated into source code.
• Testing. Like XP, the team designs and executes a series of tests to uncover
errors and ensure that the source code meets its requirements.
• Deployment. focuses on the delivery of a software increment and the
acquisition of feedback from end users.
• Configuration and project management.configuration management addresses
change management, risk management,and the control of any persistent work
products that are produced by the team.
Project management tracks and controls the progress of the team and
coordinates team activities.
• Environment management. Environment management coordinates a process
infrastructure that includes standards, tools, and other support technology
available to the team.
A tool set for agile development
 Automated software tools (e.g., design tools) should be viewed as a minor
supplement to the team’s activities, and not to the success of the team.
 Collaborative and communication “tools” are generally low technology and
incorporate any mechanism(, whiteboards, poster sheets) that provides
information and coordination among agile developers.
 other agile tools are used to optimize the environment in which the agile
team works ,improve the team culture by social interactions, physical
devices (e.g., electronic whiteboards), and process enhancement (e.g., pair
programming or time-boxing)”
Chapter 2
 practice is a collection of concepts, principles, methods, and tools that a
software engineer calls upon on a daily basis.
 Practice allows managers to manage software projects and software
engineers to build computer programs.
 Practice populates a software process model with the necessary technical
and management how-to’s to get the job done.
Software Engineering knowledge:
Steve McConnell made the following comment:
  Many software practitioners(developers) think of software engineering
knowledge as knowledge of specific technologies: Java, Perl, html, C , and
so on. Knowledge of specific technology details is necessary to perform
computer programming.
 software engineering knowledge had evolved to a “stable core”and
represented as “75 percent of the knowledge needed to develop a complex
system.”
 As McConnell indicates, core principles are the elemental ideas that guide
the software engineers in the work that they do.It provide a foundation
from which software engineering models, methods, and tools can be
applied and evaluated.
Core principles
 Software engineering is guided by a collection of core principles that help in
the application of a meaningful software process and the execution of
effective software engineering methods.
 At the process level, core principles establish a foundation that guides a
software team as it performs framework and umbrella activities,navigates
the process flow, and produces a set of software engineering work
products.
 At the level of practice, core principles establish a collection of values and
rules that serve as a guide to gather the requirements, analyze a problem,
design a solution, implement and test the solution, and deploy the software
in the user community.
Principles That Guide Process
The following set of core principles can be applied to the framework, and by
extension, to every software process.
Principle 1. Be agile. Whether the process model you choose is prescriptive or
agile.
 keep your technical approach as simple as possible
 keep the work products you produce as concise(short) as possible
 Make decisions locally whenever possible.
Principle 2. Focus on quality at every step. For every process activity, action, and
task should focus on the quality of the work product that has been produced.
Principle 3. Be ready to adapt. adapt your approach to conditions imposed by the
problem, the people, and the project itself.
Principle 4. Build an effective team. Build a self-organizing team that has mutual
trust and respect.
Principle 5. Establish mechanisms for communication and coordination.
Projects fail because stakeholders fail to coordinate their efforts to create a
successful end product.
Principle 6. Manage change. The methods must be established to manage the
way changes are requested, approved, and implemented.
Principle 7. Assess risk. Lots of things can go wrong as software is being
developed.
Principle 8. Create work products that provide value for others.
Create only those work products that provide value for other process activities,
actions and tasks.
Principles That Guide Practice
 Software engineering practice has a single goal i.e..,to deliver on-time, high
quality, operational software that contains functions and features that
meet the needs of all stakeholders.
 To achieve this goal, should adopt a set of core principles that guide the
technical work.
 The following set of core principles are fundamental to the practice of
software engineering:
Principle 1. Divide and conquer. A large problem is easier to solve if it is
subdivided into a collection of elements(or modules or components).
 Ideally, each element delivers distinct functionality that can be developed.
Principle 2. Understand the use of abstraction. At its core, an
abstraction(overview) is a simplification of some complex element of a system
used to communicate meaning in a single phrase.
Principle 3. Strive for consistency. Whether it’s creating a requirements model,
developing a software design, generating source code, or creating test cases. All
these are consistent so that the software is easier to develope.
.Principle 4. Focus on the transfer of information. Software is about information
transfer—from a database to an end user, from an operating system to an
application,
Principle 5. Build software that exhibits effective modularity.
Modularity provides a mechanism for any complex system can be divided into
modules (components).
Principle 6. Look for patterns. Brad Appleton suggests that:
The goal of patterns within the software community is to create a body of
literature to help software developers resolve recurring problems encountered
throughout all of software development process.
Principle 7. When possible, represent the problem and its solution
from a number of different perspectives. When a problem and its solution are
examined from a number of different perspectives(ways).
Principle 8. Remember that someone will maintain the software.
software will be corrected as defects are remove, adapted
as its environment changes, and enhanced as stakeholders request more
capabilities.
Principles That Guide The Each Framework Activity:
Communication Principles
customer requirements must be gathered through the communication activity.
Communication has begun.
Principle 1. Listen. Try to focus on the speaker’s(stake holder) words, rather than
response to those words. Ask for clarification if something is unclear, but avoid
constant interruptions(disturbances).
Principle 2. Prepare before you communicate. Spend the time to understand the
problem before meet with others.
Principle 3. Someone should facilitate the activity.
 Every meeting should have a leader (a facilitator) to keep the conversation
moving in a productive direction.
 to mediate any conflict(disturbances) that does occur.
Principle 4. Face-to-face communication is best. it usually works
better when some other representation of the relevant information is present.
For example,A document having all the details..
Principle 5. Take notes and document decisions.
Someone participating in the communication should serve as a “recorder” and
write down all important points and decisions.
Principle 6. Strive for collaboration. Each small collaboration serves to build trust
among team members and creates a common goal for the team.
Principle 7. Stay focused; modularize your discussion. The more people involved
in any communication, the more likely that discussion will move from one topic to
the next. The facilitator should keep the conversation modular, leaving one topic
only after it has been resolved.
Principle 8. If something is unclear, draw a picture. A sketch or drawing can often
provide clarity when words fail to do the job.
Principle 9. (a) Once you agree to something, move on. (b) If you can’t agree to
something, move on. (c) If a feature or function is unclear and cannot be
clarified at the moment, move on.
Principle 10. Negotiation is not a contest or a game. It works best
when both parties win.
If the team has collaborated well, all parties have a common goal. Still,
negotiation will demand compromise from all parties.
Planning Principles
 The communication activity helps you to define your overall goals and
objectives.
 The planning activity encompasses a set of management and technical
practices that enable the software team to define a road map as it travels
toward the objectives.the following principles always apply:
Principle 1. Understand the scope of the project:Scope provides the software
team with a destination.
Principle 2. Involve stakeholders in the planning activity. Stakeholders define
priorities for which feature to develop first and establish project
constraints(conditions).
Principle 3. Recognize that planning is iterative.
 As work begins, it is very likely that things will change.
 The plan must be adjusted to accommodate these changes.
Principle 4. Estimate based on what you know. The estimation
is to provide an indication of effort, cost, and task duration, based on the
team’s current understanding of the work to be done.
Principle 5. Consider risk as you define the plan. If you have identified
risks that have high impact and high probability, planning is necessary.
Principle 6. Be realistic. People don’t work 100 percent of every day.
 Noise always enters into any human communication.
 Change will occur. Even the best software engineers make mistakes.
 These should be considered as a project plan is established.
Principle 7. Adjust granularity as you define the plan. Granularity
refers to the level of detail that is introduced as a project plan is developed.
Principle 8. Define how you intend to ensure quality. The plan should
identify how the software team intends to ensure quality.
Principle 9. Describe how you intend to accommodate change. Even
the best planning can be obviated by uncontrolled change. You should identify
how changes are to be accommodated as software engineering work proceeds.
Principle 10. Track the plan frequently and make adjustments as required.
 Software projects fall behind schedule one day at a time.
 To track progress on a daily basis, looking for problem areas and situations
in which scheduled work does not conform to actual work conducted.
Modeling Principles
Create models to gain a better understanding of the actual entity to be built.
The modeling principles are:
Principle 1. The primary goal of the software team is to build software,
not create models. Agility means getting software to the customer in the fastest
possible time.
Principle 2. Travel light—don’t create more models than you need.
 Every model that is created must be kept up-to-date as changes occur.
 Create only those models that make it easier and faster to construct the
software.
Principle 3. Strive to produce the simplest model that will describe the
problem or the software.
software that is easier to integrate, easier to test, and easier to maintain.
Principle 4. Build models in a way that makes them amenable to change.
The problem with this attitude is that without a reasonably
complete requirements model, you’ll create a design (design model) that will
invariably miss important functions and features.
Principle 5. Be able to state an explicit purpose for each model that
is created. Every time you create a model, ask yourself why you’re doing so. If you
can’t provide solid justification for the existence of the model, don’t spend time
on it.
Principle 6. Adapt the models you develop to the system at hand. It
may be necessary to adapt model notation .
Principle 7. Try to build useful models, but forget about building perfect models.
When building requirements and design models, that the models should be
complete and consistent .
Principle 8. Don’t become dogmatic about the syntax of the model. If
it communicates content successfully, representation is secondary.
Although everyone on a software team should try to use consistent notation
during modeling.
Principle 9. If your instincts tell you a model isn’t right even though it
seems okay on paper, you probably have reason to be concerned. you are an
experienced software engineer, trust your instincts(friends).If something tells you
that a design model is to fail (even though you can’t prove it explicitly), then to
spend additional time examining the model or developing a different one.
Principle 10. Get feedback as soon as you can. Every model should be reviewed
by members of the software team. These reviews is to provide feedback that can
be used to correct modeling mistakes.

Requirements modeling principles. Investigators have been identified

requirements analysis problems and their causes and have developed a
variety ofmodeling notations and corresponding sets of methods to
overcome them.Each analysis method has a unique point of view. All
analysis methods are related by a set of operational principles:
Principle 1. The information domain of a problem must be represented
and understood. The information domain encompasses the data that flow into
the system, the data that flow out of the system, and the data stores that collect
and organize persistent data objects
Principle 2. The functions that the software performs must be defined.
Software functions provide direct benefit to end users
Principle 3. The behavior of the software (as a consequence of external events)
must be represented. The behavior of computer software is driven by its
interaction with the external environment.
Principle 4. The models that depict information, function, and behavior must be
partitioned in a manner that uncovers detail in a layered (or hierarchical)
fashion
Principle 5. The analysis task should move from essential information
toward implementation detail.
Develope the user defined functions using programming languages.
Design Modeling Principles.
 The design model that is created for software provides a variety of different
views of the system.
 Set of design principles that can be applied regardless of the method that is
used:
Principle 1. Design should be traceable to the requirements model.
 The requirements model describes the information domain of the
problem,user-visible functions, system behavior.
  The design model translates this information into an
architecture.(diagrams)
 The elements of the design model should be traceable to the requirements
model.
Principle 2. Always consider the architecture of the system to be built.
Software architecture is the skeleton of the system to be built. It
affects interfaces, data structures, program control flow and behavior.
Principle 3. Design of data is as important as design of processing
functions. Data design is an essential element of architectural design.
A well-structured data design helps to simplify program flow, makes
the design and implementation of software components easier.
Principle 4. Interfaces (both internal and external) must be designed
with care.
A well-designed interface (communication between components)makes
integration easier and assists the tester in validating component functions.
Principle 5. User interface design should be tuned to the needs of the
end user. However, in every case, it should stress ease of use. The
user interface is the visible manifestation of the software.
Principle 6. Component-level design should be functionally independent.
Functional independence is a measure of the “single-mindedness” of a
software component. The functionality that is delivered by a component
should be cohesive—that is, it should focus on one and only one function .
Principle 7. Components should be loosely coupled to one another
and to the external environment. Coupling is achieved in many ways—
via a component interface, by messaging, through global data. As the level of
coupling increases, the likelihood of error propagation also increases .
Principle 8. Design representations (models) should be easily understandable.
The purpose of design is to communicate information to practitioners(software
developers,testers,maintainers).
Principle 9. The design should be developed iteratively. With each
iteration, the designer should strive for greater simplicity.
The first iterations work to refine the design and correct errors, but later
iterations should strive to make the design as simple as is possible.
Construction Principles
 The construction activity encompasses a set of coding and testing tasks that
lead to operational software that is ready for delivery to the customer or
end user. coding may be
 (1) the direct creation of programming language source code (e.g., Java),
(2) the automatic generation of source code using an Intermediate design-
like representation of the component to be built.
 The initial focus of testing is at the component level, often called unit
testing.
 Other levels of testing include
i) integration testing (conducted as the system is constructed).
ii) validation testing that assesses whether requirements have been met for
the complete system (or software increment)
(iii) acceptance testing that is conducted by the customer in an effort to
exercise all required features and functions.
The following set of fundamental principles and concepts are applicable to coding
and testing:
Coding Principles. The principles that guide the coding task are related to
programming languages, and programming methods.
Preparation principles: Before you write one line of code, be sure • Understand
the problem you’re trying to solve.
• Understand basic design principles and concepts.
• Pick a programming language that meets the needs of the software to be built
and the environment in which it will operate.
• Create a set of unit tests that will be applied once the component code is
completed.
Programming principles: As you begin writing code, be sure
• Consider the use of pair programming.
• Select data structures that will meet the needs of the design.
• Create nested loops in a way that makes them easily testable.
• Select meaningful variable names and follow other local coding standards.

 Write code that is self-documenting.

Validation Principles: After you’ve completed your first coding pass, be sure
• Conduct a code walkthrough when appropriate.
• Perform unit tests and correct errors you’ve uncovered.
• Refactor the code.

Testing Principles. Glen Myers states a number of rules that can serve well as
testing objectives:
• Testing is a process of executing a program with the intent of finding
an error.
• A good test case is one that has a high probability of finding an as-yet
undiscovered error.
Davis suggests a set of testing principles that have been adapted for use
Principle 1. All tests should be traceable to customer requirements. The objective
of software testing is to uncover errors.
Principle 2. Tests should be planned long before testing begins.
 Test planning can begin as soon as the requirements model is complete.
 Therefore, all tests can be planned and designed before any code has been
generated.
Principle 3. The Pareto principle applies to software testing. In this
context the Pareto principle implies that 80 percent of all errors uncovered during
testing will likely be traceable to 20 percent of all program components.
Principle 4. Testing should begin “in the small”(Components-Unit Test) and
progress toward testing “in the large.”
First test the modules and then test the entire system(software).
Principle 5. Exhaustive testing is not possible.
it is impossible to execute every combination of paths during testing.
Deployment Principles
 The deployment activity encompasses three actions: delivery, support, and
feedback.
 For agile process model each delivery cycle provides the customer and end
users with an operational software increment that provides usable
functions and features.
 Principle 1. Customer expectations for the software must be managed.
the customer expects more than the team has promised to deliver,
and disappointment occurs immediately.
Principle 2. A complete delivery package should be assembled and
tested. A CD-ROM or other media (including Web-based downloads)
containing all executable software, support data files, support documents, and
other relevant information should be assembled and thoroughly beta-tested with
actual users.
Principle 3. A support regime must be established before the software
is delivered. An end user expects responsiveness and accurate information when
a question or problem arises.
Principle 4. Appropriate instructional materials must be provided to
end users. The software team delivers more than the software itself.
Appropriate training aids (if required) should be developed and troubleshooting
guidelines should be provided.
Principle 5. Buggy software should be fixed first, delivered later. Under time
pressure, some software organizations deliver low-quality increments with a
warning to the customer that bugs “will be fixed in the next release.”This is a
mistake.
Chapter 3

Requirements Engineering:
 The tasks and techniques that lead to an understanding of requirements is
called requirements engineering.
 Requirements engineering is a major software engineering action that
begins during the communication activity and continues into the modeling
activity.
 .Requirements engineering builds a bridge to design and construction.
 Requirements engineering provides the appropriate mechanism for
understanding what the customer wants, analyzing need, assessing
feasibility, validating the specification and managing the requirements and
transformed into an operational system.
 It encompasses seven distinct tasks: inception, elicitation, elaboration,
negotiation, specification, validation, and management.
 It is important to note that some of these tasks occur in parallel and all are
adapted to the needs of the project.
Inception:
 At inception, establish a basic understanding of the problem, the people
who want a solution, the nature of the solution that is desired, and the
effectiveness of preliminary communication and collaboration between the
other stakeholders and the software team.
Elicitation:
 Ask the customer, the users, and others what the objectives for the system
or product are, how the system or product is to be used on a day-to-day
basis.
 A number of problems that are encountered as elicitation occurs.
• Problems of scope. The customers/users specify unnecessary technical details
that may confuse, rather than clarify, overall system objectives.
• Problems of understanding. The customers/users are not completely sure
of what is needed, have a poor understanding of the capabilities and limitations
of their computing environment, don’t have a full understanding of the
problem domain.
• Problems of volatility. The requirements change over time. To help overcome
these problems, requirements gathering in an organized manner.
Elaboration:
 The information obtained from the customer during inception and
elicitation is expanded and refined during elaboration.
 Elaboration is driven by the creation and refinement of user scenarios that
describe how the end user will interact with the system.
 Each user scenario is parsed to extract analysis classes.
 The attributes of each analysis class are defined, and the services
that are required by each class are identified.
 The relationships and collaboration between classes are identified, and a
variety of supplementary diagrams are produced.
Negotiation:
 It’s relatively common for different customers or users to propose
conflicting requirements.
 recouncile these conflicts through a process of negotiation.
 Customers,other stakeholders are asked to rank requirements and then
discuss conflicts in priority.
 Using an iterative approach that prioritizes requirements, assesses their
cost and risk, and addresses internal conflicts, requirements are eliminated,
combined, and/or modified so that each party achieves some measure of
satisfaction.
Specification:
 A specification can be a written document, a set of graphical models, a
formal mathematical model, a collection of usage scenarios, a prototype,
or any combination of these.
 A “standard template” should be developed and used for a specification.

Validation:
 The work products produced during of requirements engineering are
assessed for quality during a validation step.
 Requirements validation examines the specification , all software
requirements have been stated unambiguously, inconsistencies, and
 errors have been detected and corrected and that the work products
conform to the standards established for the process, the project, and the
product.
 The primary requirements validation mechanism is the technical review
Requirements management.:
 Requirements for computer-based systems change, and the desire to
change requirements persists throughout the life of the system.
 Requirements management is a set of activities that help the project team
identify, control, and track requirements and changes to requirements at
any time as the project proceeds.

Establishing Ground Work

The steps required to establish the groundwork for an understanding of software
requirements.
Identifying Stakeholders
 Business operations managers, product managers,marketing people,
internal and external customers, end users, consultants, product engineers,
software engineers, support and maintenance engineers, and others.
 Each stakeholder has a different view of the system, achieves different
benefits when the system is successfully developed, and is open to
different risks if the development effort should fail.
Recognizing Multiple Viewpoints
 Because many different stakeholders exist, the requirements of the system
will be explored from many different points of view.
 For example, the marketing group is interested in functions and features
that will excite the potential market, making the new system easy to sell
and End users may want features that are easy to learn and use.
 As information from multiple viewpoints is collected, requirements may be
inconsistent or may conflict with one another.
 categorize all stakeholder information , that will allow decision makers to
choose an internally consistent set of requirements for the system.
Working toward Collaboration
 The job of a requirements engineer is to identify areas of commonality (i.e.,
requirements on which all stakeholders agree) and areas of conflict or
inconsistency
(i.e., requirements that are desired by one stakeholder but conflict with the
needs of another stakeholder).
  stakeholders collaborate by providing their view of requirements, but a
strong “project champion”(e.g., a business manager or a senior
technologist) may make the final decision about which requirements make
the cut.
Asking the First Questions
 Questions asked at the inception of the project should be “context free”.
 The first set of context-free questions focuses on the customer and other
stakeholders, the overall project goals and benefits. For example, you might
ask:
 Who is behind the request for this work?
 Who will use the solution?
 These questions help to identify all stakeholders who will have interest in
the software to be built.
 The next set of questions enables you to gain a better understanding of the
problem and allows the customer to voice his or her perceptions about a
solution:
 What problem(s) will this solution address?
 Can you show me the business environment in which the solution will be
used?
 The final set of questions focuses on the effectiveness of the
communication activity itself. Gause and Weinberg call these “meta-
questions” and propose the following list:
 Are you the right person to answer these questions? Are your answers
“official”?
 Am I asking too many questions?
 Can anyone else provide additional information?
These questions (and others) will help to “break the ice” and initiate the
communication that is essential to successful elicitation.

Elicting Requirements
 Requirements elicitation (also called requirements gathering) combines
elements of problem solving, elaboration, negotiation, and specification.
Collaborative Requirements Gathering:Many different approaches to
collaborative requirements gathering have been proposed.
 Each makes use of a slightly different scenario, but all apply some variation
on the following basic guidelines:
  Meetings are conducted and attended by both software engineers
and other stakeholders.
 Rules for preparation and participation are established.
 An agenda is suggested that is formal enough to cover all important
points but informal enough to encourage the free flow of ideas.
 A “facilitator” (can be a customer, a developer, or an outsider)
controls the meeting.
 A “definition mechanism” (can be work sheets, flip charts, or wall
stickers or an electronic bulletin board, chat room, or virtual forum)
is used.
The goal is to identify the problem, propose elements of the solution, negotiate
different approaches, and specify a preliminary set of solution requirements.

Quality Function Deployment

 Quality function deployment (QFD) is a quality management technique that
translates the needs of the customer into technical requirements for
software.
 QFD emphasizes an understanding of what is valuable to the customer and
then deploys these values throughout the engineering process.
 QFD identifies three types of requirements :
Normal requirements. The objectives and goals that are stated for a
product or system during meetings with the customer. If these
requirements are present, the customer is satisfied. Examples of normal
requirements might be requested types of graphical displays.
Expected requirements. These requirements are implicit to the productor
system and may be so fundamental that the customer does not explicitly
state them. Their absence will be a cause for significant dissatisfaction.
Examples of expected requirements are: ease of human/machine
interaction, overall operational correctness and reliability, and ease of
software installation.
Exciting requirements. These features go beyond the customer’s
expectations and prove to be very satisfying when present. For example,
softwarefor a new mobile phone comes with standard features, but is
coupled with a set of unexpected capabilities (e.g., multitouch screen,
visual voice mail) that
delight every user of the product.
 QFD uses customer interviews and observation, surveys, and examination
of historical data (e.g., problem reports) as raw data for the requirements
gathering activity.
  These data are then translated into a table of requirements called the
customer voice table.It is reviewed with the customer and other
stakeholders.
Usage Scenarios
 As requirements are gathered, an overall vision of system functions and
features begins to materialize.
 understand how these functions and features will be used by different
classes of end users.
 To accomplish this, developers and users can create a set of scenarios that
identify a thread of usage for the system to be constructed.
 The scenarios, often called use cases , provide a description of how the
system will be used.
Elicitation Work Products
 The work products produced as a consequence of requirements elicitation
will vary depending on the size of the system or product to be built.
 For most systems, the work products include
1. A statement of need and feasibility.
2. A bounded statement of scope for the system or product.
3. A list of customers, users, and other stakeholders who participated
inrequirements elicitation.
4. A description of the system’s technical environment.
5. A list of requirements (preferably organized by function) and the domain
constraints that apply to each.
6. A set of usage scenarios that provide insight into the use of the system or
product under different operating conditions.
7. Any prototypes developed to better define requirements.
 Each of these work products is reviewed by all people who have
participated in requirements elicitation.

Developing Usecases:
 “A use case describes the system’s behavior under various conditions as
the system responds to a request from one of its stakeholders . ”
 A use case tells a stylized story about how an end user interacts with the
system under a specific set of situations.
 The first step in writing a use case is to define the set of “actors” that will
be involved in the story.
  Actors are the different people represent the roles that people (or devices)
play as the system operates.
 Every actor has one or more goals when using the system.
 Once actors have been identified, use cases can be developed.
 number of questions that should be answered by a use case:
• Who is the primary actor, the secondary actor(s)?
• What are the actor’s goals?
• What preconditions should exist before the story begins?
• What main tasks or functions are performed by the actor?
Basic SafeHome requirements, we define four actors: homeowner
(a user), setup manager (likely the same person as homeowner, but playing a
different role), sensors (devices attached to the system), and the monitoring and
response subsystem (the central station that monitors the SafeHome home
security function). For the purposes of this example, we consider only the
homeowner actor. The homeowner actor interacts with the home security
function in a number of different ways using either the alarm control panel or a
PC:
.Considering the situation in which the homeowner uses the control panel, the
basic use case for system activation follows:
1. The homeowner observes the SafeHome control panel to determine if the
system is ready for input. If the system is not ready, a not ready message is
displayed on the LCD display.

2. The homeowner uses the keypad to key in a four-digit password. The password
is compared with the valid password stored in the system. If the password is
incorrect and reset itself for additional input. If the password is correct, the
control panel awaits further action.
3. The homeowner select the keys in stay or away to activate the system.
 Stay activates only perimeter sensors (inside motion detecting sensors are
deactivated).
 Away activates all sensors.
4. When activation occurs, a red alarm light can be observed by the homeowner.
The basic use case presents a high-level story that describes the interaction
between the actor and the system.

Building The Requirement Model

 The analysis model is to provide a description of the required information,
 functional, and behavioral domains for a computer-based system.
 The model changes dynamically as learn more about the system to be
built, and other stakeholders understand what they really require.
Elements of the Requirements Model
 There are many different ways to look at the requirements for a computer-
based system.
 Different modes of representation force to consider requirements from
different viewpoints and to find inconsistencies and ambiguity of the
gathered requirements.
 Scenario-based elements: The system is described from the user’s point of
view using a scenario-based approach. For example, basic use case.
 Class-based elements: Each usage scenario implies a set of objects that are
manipulated as an actor interacts with the system. These objects are
categorized into classes—a collection of things that have similar attributes
and common behaviors.
 Behavioral elements: The behavior of a computer-based system can have a
effect on the design that is chosen and the implementation approach that
is applied. Therefore, the requirements model must provide modeling
elements that represent behavior.
Analysis PatternsAnyone who has done requirements engineering on more than a
few software projects then identify the some problems reoccur across all projects
within a application domain.
 These analysis patterns suggest solutions (e.g., a class, a function, a
behavior) within the application domain that can be reused when modeling
many applications.
 Advantages of Analysis patterns are:
 Analysis patterns speed up the development of abstract analysis models
that capture the main requirements of the concrete problem
 Analysis patterns facilitate the transformation of the analysis model into
a design model by suggesting design patterns and reliable solutions for
common problems.
 Analysis patterns are integrated into the analysis model by reference to the
pattern name. They are also stored in a repository so that requirements
engineers can use.
Negotiating Requirements:
  The negotiation is to develop a project plan that meets stakeholder needs
while at the same time reflecting the real-world constraints (e.g., time,
people, budget) that have been placed on the software team.
 The best negotiations strive for a “win-win” result.
 That is, stakeholders win by getting the system or product that satisfies the
majority of their needs and you (as a member of the software team) win by
working to realistic and achievable budgets and deadlines.
 Boehm defines a set of negotiation activities at the beginning of each
software process iteration.
 The following activities are defined:
1. Identification of the system or subsystem’s key stakeholders.
2. Determination of the stakeholders’ “win conditions.”
3. Negotiation of the stakeholders’ win conditions to reconcile them into a set
of win-win conditions for all concerned (including the software team).
Successful completion of these initial steps achieves a win-win result.

Validating Requirements:
 As each element of the requirements model is created, it is examined for
inconsistency,omissions, and ambiguity.
 The requirements represented by the model are prioritized by the
stakeholders and grouped within requirements packages that will be
implemented as software increments.
 A review of the requirements model addresses the following questions:
• Is each requirement consistent with the overall objectives for the
system/product?
• Have all requirements been specified at the proper level of abstraction? That
is, do some requirements provide a level of technical detail that is inappropriate
at this stage?
• Is the requirement really necessary or does it represent an add-on feature
that may not be essential to the objective of the system?
• Is each requirement bounded and unambiguous?
• Does each requirement have attribution?
• Do any requirements conflict with other requirements?
• Is each requirement achievable in the technical environment ?
• Is each requirement testable, once implemented?
• Does the requirements model properly reflect the information, function, and
behavior of the system to be built?

 These and other questions should be asked and answered to ensure that
the requirements model is an accurate reflection of stakeholder needs and
that it provides a solid foundation for design.