Chapter 3

 Agile Development
Software Engineering: A Practitioner’s
Approach, 7/e
by Roger S. Pressman
use.

1
The Manifesto for
Agile Software
Development
“We are uncovering better ways of developing
software by doing it and helping others do it.
Through this work we have come to value:
•Individuals and interactions over processes
and tools
•Working software over comprehensive
documentation
•Customer collaboration over contract
negotiation
•Responding to change over following a plan
That is, while there is value in the items on the
right, we value the items on the left more.”

2
What is
“Agility”?

3
Agility and the Cost of
Change

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A

Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 4
 `
 In software development the cost of change increases
nonlinearly as a project progresses (Figure 3.1, solid black
curve).
 It is relatively easy to accommodate a change when a
software team is gathering requirements (early in a project). A
usage scenario might have to be modified, a list of functions
may be extended, or a written specification can be edited. The
costs of doing this work are minimal, and the time required will
not adversely affect the outcome of the project.
 But what if we fast-forward a number of months? The team is
in the middle of validation testing, and an important
stakeholder is requesting a major functional change. The
change requires a modification, Costs go up quickly, and the
time and cost required to ensure that the change is made
without unintended side effects is nontrivial.

5
 Proponents of agility argue that a well-designed agile process
“flattens” the cost of change curve (Figure 3.1, shaded, solid
curve), allowing a software team to accommodate changes
late in a software project without dramatic cost and time
impact.
 The agile process encompasses incremental delivery. When
incremental delivery is coupled with other agile practices
such as continuous unit testing and pair programming
(discussed later in this chapter), the cost of making a change
is attenuated.
 Although debate about the degree to which the cost curve
flattens is ongoing, there is evidence to suggest that a
significant reduction in the cost of change can be achieved.

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A

Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 6
 An Agile Process
 Is driven by customer descriptions of what is required
(scenarios). Some assumptions:
 Recognizes that plans are short-lived (some requirements will
persist, some will change. Customer priorities will change)
 Develops software iteratively with a heavy emphasis on
construction activities (design and construction are interleaved, hard
to say how much design is necessary before construction. Design models are
proven as they are created. )
 Analysis, design, construction and testing are not predictable.

 An incremental development strategy should be instituted. Software increments

must be delivered in short time periods so that adaptation keeps pace with
change (unpredictability).
 This iterative approach enables the customer to evaluate the software
increment regularly, provide necessary feedback to the software team , and
influence the process adaptations that are made to accommodate the feedback.

7
Agility Principles - I
1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the customer through early and
continuous delivery of valuable software.
2. Welcome changing requirements, even late in development. Agile
processes harness change for the customer's competitive
advantage.
3. Deliver working software frequently, from a couple of weeks to a
couple of months, with a preference to the shorter timescale.
4. Business people and developers must work together daily
throughout the project.
5. Build projects around motivated individuals. Give them the
environment and support they need, and trust them to get the job
done.
6. The most efficient and effective method of conveying information
to and within a development team is face–to–face conversation.

8
 Agility Principles - II
7. Working software is the primary measure of progress.
8. Agile processes promote sustainable development. The
sponsors, developers, and users should be able to maintain a
constant pace indefinitely.
9. Continuous attention to technical excellence and good design
enhances agility.
10. Simplicity – the art of maximizing the amount of work not
done – is essential.
11. The best architectures, requirements, and designs emerge from
self–organizing teams.
12. At regular intervals, the team reflects on how to become more
effective, then tunes and adjusts its behavior accordingly.

9
 Human Factors

 the process molds to the needs of the people and team, not the other
way around
 key traits must exist among the people on an agile team and
the team itself:
 Competence. ( talent, skills, knowledge)
 Common focus. ( deliver a working software increment )
 Collaboration. ( peers and stakeholders)
 Decision-making ability. ( freedom to control its own destiny)
 Fuzzy problem-solving ability.(ambiguity and constant changes, today
problem may not be tomorrow’s problem)
 Mutual trust and respect.
 Self-organization. ( themselves for the work done, process for its local
environment, the work schedule)

10
 Extreme Programming (XP)
In order to illustrate an agile process in a bit more detail, an
overview of Extreme Programming (XP) is given, the most widely
used approach to agile software development. Although early work
on the ideas and methods associated with XP occurred during the
late 1980s, the seminal work on the subject has been written by
Kent Beck

1. XP Values
 Beck defines a set of five values that establish a foundation for all
work performed
as part of XP—communication, simplicity , feedback, courage, and
respect.
Each of these values is used as a driver for specific XP activities,
actions, and tasks.

11
 In order to achieve effective communication between software
engineers and other stakeholders (e.g., to establish required features
and functions for the software),XP emphasizes close, yet informal
(verbal) collaboration between customers and developers, the
establishment of effective metaphors for communicating important
concepts, continuous feedback, and the avoidance of voluminous
documentation as a communication medium.(a metaphor is “a story that
everyone—customers, programmers, and managers can tell about how the system works)
 To achieve simplicity, XP restricts developers to design only for
immediate needs, rather than consider future needs.
 Feedback is derived from three sources: the implemented software
itself, the customer, and other software team members. By designing
and implementing an effective testing strategy, the software (via test
results) provides the agile team with feedback. XP makes use of the
unit test as its primary test
 the agile team inculcates respect among it members, between other
stakeholders and team members, and indirectly, for the software
itself.
12
 Extreme Programming (XP)
 The XP Process
The most widely used agile process, originally proposed by Kent Beck in 2004.
It uses an object-oriented approach.
XP Planning
 Begins with the listening, leads to creation of “user stories” that
describes required output, features, and functionality. Customer assigns
a value(i.e., a priority) to each story.
 Agile team assesses each story and assigns a cost (development weeks. If
more than 3 weeks, customer asked to split into smaller stories)
 Working together, stories are grouped for a deliverable increment next
release.
 A commitment (stories to be included, delivery date and other project
matters) is made. Three ways: 1. Either all stories will be implemented in a few
weeks, 2. high priority stories first, or 3. the riskiest stories will be implemented
first.
 After the first increment “project velocity”, namely number of stories
implemented during the first release is used to help define subsequent
delivery dates for other increments. Customers can add stories, delete
existing stories, change values of an existing story, split stories as
development work proceeds.
13
 Extreme Programming
(XP)

 XP Design ( occurs both before and after coding as refactoring is

encouraged)
 Follows the KIS principle (keep it simple) Nothing more nothing less than
the story.
 Encourage the use of CRC (class-responsibility-collaborator) cards in an
object-oriented context. The only design work product of XP. They
identify and organize the classes that are relevant to the current
software increment. (see Chapter 8)
 For difficult design problems, XP recommends the immediate creation of an
operational prototype of that portion of the design called “spike solutions”—
a design prototype for that portion is implemented and evaluated .
 Encourages “refactoring”—an iterative refinement of the internal
program design. Does not alter the external behavior yet improve the
internal structure. Minimize chances of bugs. More efficient, easy to
read.

14
 XP Coding
 The team develops a series of unit tests. Once the unit test has been
created, the developer is better able to focus on what must be
implemented to pass the test. Once the code is complete, it can be
unit-tested immediately, thereby providing instantaneous feedback to
the developers.
 A key concept during the coding activity is pair programming. XP
recommends that two people work together. This provides a
mechanism for realtime problem solving and real-time quality
assurance. In practice, each person takes on a slightly different role.
For Example, one person might think about the coding details of a
particular portion of The design while the other ensures that coding
standards are Being followed or that the code for the story will satisfy
the unit test.
 As pair programmers complete their work, the code they develop is
integrated with the work of others. In some cases this is performed on
a daily basis by an integration team. In other cases, the pair
programmers have integration responsibility

15
 XP Testing
 All unit tests are executed daily and
ideally should be automated. Regression
tests are conducted to test current and
previous components.
 “Acceptance tests” are defined by the
customer and executed to assess
customer visible functionality

16
Extreme Programming (XP)
sp ike so lut io ns
simp le d esig n
p ro t o t yp es
CRC card s
user st o ries
values
accep t ance t est crit eria
it erat io n p lan

refact o ring

p air
p ro g ramming

Release
soft wa re incre m e nt unit t est
proje ct v e locit y com put e d co nt inuo us int eg rat io n

accep t ance t est ing

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A
Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 17
 The XP Debate
 Requirements volatility: customer is an active member of XP
team, changes to requirements are requested informally and
frequently. As a consequences the scope of the project can change
and earlier work may have to be modified to accommodate current
needs.
 Conflicting customer needs: different customers' needs need to be
assimilated. Different vision or beyond their authority.
 Requirements are expressed informally: Use stories and acceptance
tests are the only explicit manifestation of requirements. Formal
models may avoid inconsistencies and errors before the system is
built. Changing nature makes such models obsolete as soon as they
are developed.
 Lack of formal design: XP deemphasizes the need for architectural
design. Complex systems need overall structure to exhibit quality
and maintainability. The incremental nature limits complexity as
simplicity is a core value.

18
 Other Agile Process
Models
 The most widely used of all agile process
models is Extreme Programming (XP). But
many other agile process models have been
proposed and are in use across the industry.
Among the most common are.
 Adaptive Software Development (ASD)
 Scrum
 Dynamic Systems Development Method (DSDM)
 Crystal
 Feature Drive Development (FDD)
 Lean Software Development (LSD)
 Agile Modeling (AM)
 Agile Unified Process (AUP)
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Adaptive Software
Development (ASD)
 Originally proposed by Jim Highsmith
(2000)focusing on human collaboration and
team self-organization as a technique to build
complex software and system.
 ASD — distinguishing features
 Mission-driven planning
 Component-based focus
 Uses “time-boxing” (See Chapter 24)
 Explicit consideration of risks
 Emphasizes collaboration for requirements gathering
 Emphasizes “learning” throughout the process

20
 Three Phases of ASD
1. Speculation:
 project is initiated and adaptive cycle planning is
conducted.
 Adaptive cycle planning uses project initiation
information- the customer’s mission statement,
project constraints (e.g. delivery date), and basic
requirements to define the set of release cycles
(increments) that will be required for the project.
 Based on the information obtained at the
completion of the first cycle, the plan is reviewed
and adjusted so that planned work better fits the
reality.

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Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 21
 Three Phases of ASD
2. Collaborations are used to multiply their talent and
creative output beyond absolute number . It encompasses
communication and teamwork, but it also emphasizes
individualism, because individual creativity plays an
important role in collaborative thinking.
 It is a matter of trust.
 criticize without animosity,
 assist without resentments,
 work as hard as or harder than they do.
 have the skill set to contribute to the work at hand
 communicate problems or concerns in a way that leas to effective
action.

22
3. Learning:
 As members of ASD team begin to develop the
components, the emphasis is on “learning”.
 Highsmith argues that software developers
often overestimate their own understanding of
the technology, the process, and the project
and that learning will help them to improve
their level of real understanding. Three ways:
 focus groups,
 technical reviews
 project postmortems.

23
Adaptive Software
Development
ad ap t ive cycle p lanning Req uirement s g at hering
uses m issio n st at em ent JAD
pro ject co nst raint s m ini-sp ecs
b asic requirem ent s
t ime-b o xed release p lan

Release
soft wa re incre m e nt
adjust m e nt s f or subse que nt cy cle s
co mp o nent s imp lement ed / t est ed
fo cus g ro up s fo r feed b ack
fo rm al t echnical reviews
p o st mo rt ems

24
 Scrum
 A software development method Originally proposed by
Schwaber and Beedle in early 1990.
 Scrum—distinguishing features
 Development work is partitioned into “packets”
 Testing and documentation are on-going as the product is
constructed
 Work units occurs in “sprints” and is derived from a “backlog”
of existing changing prioritized requirements
 Changes are not introduced in sprints (short term but stable)
but in backlog.
 Meetings are very short (15 minutes daily) and sometimes
conducted without chairs ( what did you do since last
meeting? What obstacles are you encountering? What do you
plan to accomplish by next meeting?)
 “demos” are delivered to the customer with the time-box
allocated. May not contain all functionalities. So customers
can evaluate and give feedbacks.
25
Scru
m

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Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 26
Scrum Proce ss Flow (us e d wit h pe rm is sion)
 Dynamic Systems Development
Method
 It is an agile software development approach that provides
a framework for building and maintaining systems which
meet tight time constraints through the use of incremental
prototyping in a controlled project environment.
 Promoted by the DSDM Consortium (www.dsdm.org)
 DSDM—distinguishing features
 Similar in most respects to XP and/or ASD
 Nine guiding principles
• Active user involvement is imperative.
• DSDM teams must be empowered to make decisions.
• The focus is on frequent delivery of products.
• Fitness for business purpose is the essential criterion for acceptance of deliverables.
• Iterative and incremental development is necessary to converge on an accurate
business solution.
• All changes during development are reversible.
• Requirements are baselined at a high level
• Testing is integrated throughout the life-cycle.
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Roger Pressman. 27
Dynamic Systems Development
Method

These slidesDSDM Life Cycle

are designed (with permission
to accompany of the
Software DSDM consortium)
Engineering: A
Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 28
Crystal
 Proposed by Cockburn and Highsmith
 Crystal—distinguishing features
 Actually a family of process models that
allow “maneuverability” based on problem
characteristics
 Face-to-face communication is emphasized
 Suggests the use of “reflection workshops”
to review the work habits of the team

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 Feature Driven
Development
 Originally proposed by Peter Coad et al as a object-
oriented software engineering process model.
 FDD—distinguishing features
 Emphasis is on defining “features” which can be
organized hierarchically.
• a feature “is a client-valued function that can be
implemented in two weeks or less.”
 Uses a feature template
• <action> the <result> <by | for | of | to> a(n) <object>
• E.g. Add the product to shopping cart.
• Display the technical-specifications of the product.
• Store the shipping-information for the customer.
 A features list is created and “plan by feature” is
conducted
 Design and construction merge in FDD
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Feature Driven
Development

Reprinted with permission of Peter Coad

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Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 31
Agile
Modeling
 Originally proposed by Scott Ambler
 Suggests a set of agile modeling principles
 Model with a purpose
 Use multiple models
 Travel light
 Content is more important than representation
 Know the models and the tools you use to
create them
 Adapt locally

These slides are designed to accompany Software Engineering: A

Practitioner’s Approach, 7/e (McGraw-Hill, 2009) Slides copyright 2009 by
Roger Pressman. 32