MAP READING

Essential elements of maps: Title, Scale, Legend, North Arrow, Border

Conventional symbols: Objects on a map are represented using a variety of symbols. There are
point symbols which represent such things as buildings and trig stations. Line symbols are used
to represent things like roads, railways and rivers. Area symbols are used to represent such things
as vegetation, cultivation and the sea. The meaning of these symbols is contained in the key.
Four and six-figure grid references: Grid references are useful for helping a map user to find
specific locations. On many maps one can see a number of vertical and horizontal lines. These
line crisscross each other to form a neat pattern of squares known as a grid.
The vertical lines, which run from north to south are known as eastings. The horizontal lines,
which run from east to west are known as northings.
It is important to note that the easting must always be stated first, followed by
the northing. Simply put, the vertical line comes before the horizontal line, like when you write
a capital “L”.

Compass Direction

Giving Directions
When giving directions it is important to figure out your starting point and end point. The
question may be posed like this:
Give the direction from A to B. (in this case your starting point is A and your end point is B)
Or the question may be posed like this:
Give the direction of A from B. (In this case your starting point is B and your end point is A)
Note: The word “from” lets you know where to start.

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Bearing
Grid bearings measured clockwise from Grid North (indicated by the direction of the Easting
lines).

Scales and Distances

Map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and the corresponding
distance on the ground. For example, on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on the map equals
100 000 cm or 1km on the ground.

Types of Scales
Ratio: e.g. 1:25 000 of 1:50 000. This means that one unit of length on the map represents 50 000
such units on the ground. Thus 1cm represents 50 000cm.

Statement: These are used to back up the scales expressed as Ratios. For example,
- On 1:50 000 maps, the statement reads, “2cm to 1km”
- On 1:25 000 maps, the statement reads, “4cm to 1km”
Note: 100 000cm = 1km

Linear: This is a line marked in units that this length represents on the ground. Linear scales
enable measurements to be taken in Km, yards or miles. Note that in each case only the divisions
to the left of zero are sub-divided.

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Using the Linear Scale to Measure Curved Distances on a Map

Enlarging a map
Step 1: Draw a grid over the map or the section of the map you want to enlarge. The map you
are dealing with may already have a grid. The eastings and northings on a map form a grid.
Step 2: Draw a larger grid on a piece of paper. The exact size of this larger grid depends on how
much larger you want to draw your map. If you make your grid squares twice as long and twice
as wide as the grid squares on the original map, then your enlarged drawing will be twice as long
and twice as wide as the original map. Include the numbers of the eastings and northings if they
are present on your map.
Step 3: Carefully draw the features that you need onto your grid. Make sure your features are in
the correct grid squares. Ensure that each feature is placed in the correct position within the grid
square. These features may include the coastline, contour lines, roads, rivers, areas of cultivation,
particular buildings and so on.
Step 4: Include a north arrow and a key. Only include relevant symbols in your key. For
instance, if you are not required to draw contour lines on your map, there is no need to include a
symbol for contour lines in your key.
Reducing a map or section of a map
The process of reducing the size of a map or a section of a map is exactly the same as the process
of enlarging it except for one thing. If you are going to reduce the size of a map, you are going to
need to draw a grid which is smaller than the grid on the original map.

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Cross Sections
"A cross-section provides a side view, or profile, of a landscape.
How to draw cross section:
1. Locate two points on a map between which the cross-section is to be made. Label these points
A and B
2. Place a straight edge of paper from point A to point B and join the dots. Also, you need to
mark points A and B on your piece of paper.
3. On your paper, mark the position where your paper crosses each contour line. Write the value
of each contour line on your piece of paper.
4. On graph paper, draw the horizontal and vertical axes from your cross-section. The length of
the horizontal access should be as wide as the distance between points A and B. Your vertical
axes need to use a scale that will not exaggerate the height of the cross-section.
5. Place your piece of paper along the horizontal axis. Plot (dot) the contour points and heights as
if you were drawing a line graph.
6. Join the dots with a single smooth, curved line.
7. Label any features intersected by your cross-section (i.e., river, major roads etc.)
8. Finish off your cross-section by:
 Shading in the area below the line
 Labelling the scale on the horizontal and vertical axes
9. Give your cross-section a title.

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Gradients
A slope is the angle, fall, rise, steepness, gradient, or inclination of the land surface.
Types of slope: Steep, Moderate, gentle slopes, concave, convex slope
Gradient is a measure of how steep or gentle a slope is.

Gradient is calculated using this formula:

GRADIENT= Difference in Altitude OR Rise

Distance Apart Run

Points to note:
1. The numerator and the denominator must be expressed in the same units;
2. The numerator is always reduced to 1;
3. To express average gradients, the nearest whole number is an acceptable approximation;
4. Accurate use of the linear scale is advised;
5. The scale for meters (1:50,000), of feet (1:25,000) is chosen, depending on the unit of height
used on the map.

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 Landscapes
- Types of slopes (concave, convex, straight, terraced/stepped)
- Nature and height of slopes (steep, gentle, undulating, uneven),

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Relief Landforms: spurs, valleys, plains, depressions, ridges, plateaux, escarpments,
cliffs, passes (cols, saddles)

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Drainage Patterns
- Dendritic
- Trellis
- Radial

Relief affects the way water flows. On steep slopes water flows quickly, cutting downwards and
creating steep-sided V-shaped valleys. In areas with a gentle slope river flow slowly and
meanders are common. There is more lateral erosion and valleys are wider. In areas that are flat
or nearly flat, there may be swampy or marshy areas where water collects.

Types of land use

- Vegetation: There may be natural vegetation in the area you are analysing. There may be
areas with scrub, woodland, forest, mangrove, or some other form of natural vegetation. Your
key will be very useful in helping you describe the natural vegetation of an area. Each type of
natural vegetation has a distinct symbol in your key.
- Agriculture: There may be areas where people grow crops. This can range from small scale
mixed or scattered cultivation to large scale commercial agriculture. The key will be very
useful in helping you to describe the types of cultivation in an area. Some crops such as
sugarcane or rice may be represented by distinct symbols as well.
- Industry: The key helps in the identification of mining activity, especially quarries. Map
evidence which may suggest the presence of secondary industrial activity will include:
a. Large buildings in groups;
b. Factories in rural areas;
c. Place names such as “Factory”;
d. Gas and oil tanks
e. Oil refinery

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- Transport networks: In its broadest sense, communication refers to the ways in which people
or things are taken from one place to another. Forms of communication which may be
represented on a map include:
a. Roads e.g., major roads, minor roads, footpaths and tracks. There are also railroads.
b. Airports and seaports: These also facilitate the movement of people and things from one
place to another.
- Settlement: The presence of buildings indicates that the area is used for human settlement.
Within settlements some land may be used for commercial activity or to provide services
such as education and healthcare.
Types of Settlement: Clusters of buildings are known as nucleated settlements. Settlements
where buildings are widely spaced are known as dispersed settlements. Some settlements
consist of buildings that are strung out in a line along a road, river or some other feature.
These are known as linear settlements.

The influence of Relief on the following:

Relief: The term relief refers to the variations in elevation and slope of an area of the earth’s
surface. When we say that an area is flat, gently sloping or mountainous, we are speaking about
the relief of the area. Relief is major influence in many aspects of our lives including the climate
and where we choose to live.
a) Drainage: Relief affects the way water flows. On steep slopes water flows quickly, cutting
downwards and creating steep sided V-shaped valleys. In areas with a gentle slope, rivers flow
slowly, and meanders are common. There is more lateral erosion and valleys are wider. In areas
that are flat or nearly flat, there may be swampy or marshy areas where water collects.
b) Vegetation and cultivation
Very steep slopes are difficult to settle or cultivate. Therefore, natural vegetation is usually
allowed to thrive on these slopes. Can you see any forested areas or other natural vegetation on
steep slopes? Sometimes there are areas of small-scale cultivation on steep slopes.
Often, in gently sloping or flat areas, the natural vegetation has been cleared away so the land
can be used for other purposes. There may be some large-scale commercial agriculture in these
areas.
c) Settlement
It is easier to build in flat or gently sloping areas. Major settlements such as towns and cities are
usually located in these areas. These settlements are major residential and commercial areas.
Also, hospitals, schools, churches and recreational facilities (among other things) are often
located in these settlements. Steep slopes are often sparsely populated or even uninhabited.
d) Communication
Major roads are usually built in flat or gently sloping areas where possible. It is more difficult to
build roads on steep or rugged terrain. When roads are built on steep slopes, they tend to zigzag

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their way up the slope with many sharp bends. On steep slopes you may find smaller minor
roads. In some rugged or mountainous regions, you may find areas with footpaths or tracks but
no roads.
e) Land Use
Generally, it is more difficult to build on steep slopes. Natural vegetation and wildlife are often
able to thrive in these areas. These areas are often uninhabited or sparsely populated and there
may be some small-scale agriculture.
In flat or gently sloping areas, the natural vegetation has often been cleared away so the land can
be used for other purposes. Large settlements like towns or cities are usually found in flatter
areas. Large scale commercial agriculture, such as growing sugarcane, often takes place in flat or
gently sloping areas. Recreational or sporting facilities, such as football or cricket stadiums, are
often built on land which is flat or almost flat.

The influence of drainage on the following:

Drainage: This describes the flow of water off the land through defined channels.
1. Settlement
Large settlements are often located near rivers. Many major cities and towns in the Caribbean
(and in other parts of the world) have a river running right through them. Water from these rivers
is often used to supply these settlements with water. Also, sometimes you may
see linear settlements along the banks of rivers.
Poorly drained areas such as swamps or marshes are often uninhabited or very sparsely
populated. Areas with no rivers (very dry areas) are often sparsely populated as well.
2. Vegetation and Cultivation
Plants that inhabit waterlogged areas need to have special adaptations in order to survive.
Therefore, areas that are poorly drained usually have distinct types of vegetation. For instance,
poorly drained low-lying coastal areas may be covered in mangrove forests. These plants are
adapted to survive in areas with brackish water.
In very dry areas distinct types of vegetation such as scrub may be found. This type of
vegetation is dominated by small bushes and short trees. These plants are adapted to survive in
drier conditions.
Cultivation occurs on well-drained land. There are usually many rivers near to areas of
cultivation to provide drainage and water for irrigation.
3. Communication
When building roads and railways, waterlogged areas such as swamps and marshes are usually
avoided. If there are swampy areas on your map you may notice that there are no roads or
railways running through them.

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Settlement:
The presence of buildings indicates that the area is used for human settlement. Within
settlements some land may be used for commercial activity or to provide services such as
education and healthcare.
Types of settlement
Clusters of buildings are known as nucleated settlements. Settlements, where buildings are
widely spaced, are known as dispersed settlements.
Some settlements consist of buildings that are strung out in a line along a road, river or some
other feature. These are known as linear settlements.
Relationship between settlement and drainage
Large settlements are often located near rivers. Water from these rivers is often used to supply
these settlements with water. Also sometimes linear settlements are located along the banks of
rivers. Poorly drained areas such as swamps or marshes are often uninhabited or very sparsely
populated. Areas with no rivers (very dry areas) are often sparsely populated as well.
Relationship between settlement and relief
It is easier to build in flat or gently sloping areas. Major settlements such as towns and cities are
usually located in these areas. These settlements are major residential and commercial areas.
Also, hospitals, schools, churches and recreational facilities (among other things) are often
located in these settlements. Steep slopes are often sparsely populated or even uninhabited.

The Influence of Relief and Drainage on Communication

Communication refers to the ways in which people or things are taken from one place to another.
Forms of communication which may be represented on a map include roads, railways, airports
and seaports.
Relationship between each type of land use and
a. Relief
b. Drainage
Communication and relief- Major roads are usually built on flat or gently sloping areas where
possible. It is more difficult to build roads on steep or rugged terrain. When roads are built on
steep slopes, they tend to zigzag their way up the slope with many sharp bends. On steep slopes
you may find smaller minor roads. In some rugged or mountainous regions, you may find areas
with footpaths or tracks but no roads. Look for these patterns when analysing your map.
Communication and drainage-when building roads and railways, waterlogged areas such as
swamps and marshes are usually avoided. If there are swampy areas on your map you may notice
that there are no roads or railways running through them.

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