Precision engineering principles

Design principles

1. Functional independence
● Controllable functional requirements (FRs): pertain to the system’s operation, e.g. the
fuel consumption of a car
● In case multiple controllable FRs preferably system with independent system functions
rather than choosing a system with dependent system functions.
● Not applicable to non controllable FRs → weighted value analysis

2. Total design
● Simultaneous or concurrent engineering
● All FRS are evaluated simultaneously and cumulatively to get optimal design
● Better than additive or combinatorial
● Additive is a method where part of existing design is changed, or new part is added to
fulfill FR → existing system will serve as limitations
● Combinatorial design is where pre-existing subsystems are combined into a larger
system that meets the FRs → again requirement for modular design will serve as
limitation for the whole system

3. Zero play
● Precise movements require no play between the perfect kinematic reference and the
moving parts that follow the reference, e.g. flexure guides, leaf spring guide, plain guide
● Use of adjusting mechanism to eliminate play → don’t make too complex
● Use of pretension of guide-ways
● Using interference → hyper-static contacts average out errors of individual contacts

4. Abbe
● For high precision when measuring length, the measurement should be in line with the
distance to be measured
● Difficult to realize in multiple dimensions at the same time → when not designed
according to this principle, a sine/cosine error proportional to the Abbe distance is
present
● If not according to principle a double measurement can be used, that way angle can be
calculated and the error can be eliminated
5. Compliance
● To achieve high precision, reduce compliance, thus high stiffness (also reduces the
effect of hysteresis and virtual play due to friction)
● Machine has to be stable when subject to external forces (robust design), to allow high
bandwidth in case of positioning system
● Elastic properties are important for static stiffness, topology optimization → optimal
stress distribution, watch out for unmodeled scenario’s!
● Closed volumes → higher torsional stiffness
● External constraints can supply stiffness
● Minimize the dimension of force loop → watch out for hidden joints that can cause weak
points
● Minimize number of rolling contacts + maximize radius
● Pretension is increasing stiffness → increases lifetime (compression better than tension)
● Watch out for position dependent stiffness due to ball-joints etc

6. Thermal design
● Minimize thermal deformation to realize high precision
● Big difference for design for in a lab vs production by millions
● Avoid heat sources, evacuate heat asap, avoid heat transmission, materials with a low
coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) (like Zerodur, Glass ceramics, ULE (corning):
TiSIO4, Invar LR-35, Super Invar)
● Another solution is thermal symmetry, defining a thermal center, you want it to be stable
in one spot when machine starts to deform → this means the deformation is uniform and
thus minimal thermal stresses occur, furthermore it makes sure the functionality stays
the same. An ideal place would be the geometric center of the machine.
● Materials with good conductivity will cause the heat to spread out and thus have uniform
deformation → more homogenous

7. Motion
● In order to generate accurate motion, a guide should exhibit minimal and constant
friction under varying load conditions
● Types of guides and bearings: plain bearing guides, hydrostatic/hydrodynamic guides,
magnetic guides, elastic guides, rolling guides
● Experimental measurement of friction coefficient
● Use of hardened sliding surfaces, use of low contact pressure, use sealing to avoid
problems with dust, chips etc., lubrication
● Hydrostatic bearings use oil or air, to move without too much friction → is scratch on
surface these bearings won’t notice, ball bearings would feel the scratch for example, no
stick slip, good damping, the bearing gap can be used as a mean to regulate flow by
cross coupling of upper and lower surface leads to self-compensating bearings
● Hydrodynamic bearings need enough speed to work properly because the oil film
thickness is a function of the speed and active control can be used to reach infinite
control
● Magnetic bearings, large gaps are possible with high stiffness, no lubrication needed, no
sealing, high speeds possible, rotational accuracy high
● Long guides, F > 2*mu*M/l, the aim is to reduce F and insensitive for variations in M so l
should be large, same result is analyzing for a moment M, driving force should be within
self-braking limit (clamping mechanism e.g.) in medical situations you want to be able to
push and pull away in case of emergency so no self-braking
● Use of counterweight → functional independence the weight takes care of the weight of
the slide and the guides can take care of positioning of the slide
● Watch out for stick slip, self-induced vibration due to negative damping characteristic
● Elastic guides advantages: no wear, can be monolithic, thermally stable, predictable,
repeatable when brittle materials are used, safe when resilient materials are used.
Disadvantages: difficult to make accurate calculations, hysteresis, short stroke, low
transversal stiffness, limited load carrying capacity, not robust against overloading
● Notch hinges are elastic hinges (think spout/nipple of a bottle) → mobility law from
‘Beweging’
● Roller bearings → mounting of bearings: matching of bearings, preloaded to eliminate
play → roller guide-ways: no stick-slip, dimensional errors in the balls lead to variations
in the preload and stiffness

8. Kinematic design
● Achieve high precise and smooth motion with minimal force and avoid excessive
kinematic constraints, sometimes conflict with Stiffness principle and Filter effect
principle
● No relation between constraining points and degrees of freedom → optimal motion
requires minimal possible restrictions
● A kinematic contact is a point contact (no line or plane contacts), if pressure high the
accuracy will be reduced. An equivalent point contacts offers a solution and allows to
exploit the filter effect
● Reduces effect of manufacturing errors and increases the precision of static connections

9. Error correction
● When machining and assembly cannot achieve required machine precision, use
corrective techniques which employ computers or mechatronics to improve the precision
● Basics are sensors and actuators which should be a good foundation
● Repetitive errors (e.g. geometric errors): predictable for any point in time and space, can
be compensated by feed-forward of stored-data
● Non-repetitive errors: thermal deformation, wear, vibrations. Not always predictable but
due to more and better modeling they become more predictable → digital twin concept.
To be compensated by in-process sensing and feedback
● 4 general methods for error correction: Predicting the corrections via theoretical
calculations and models used as feed-forward. Static models: online measurement of
repetitive errors on the working machine and store the information in a memory as a
table or equation. Dynamic modelling of the effect of different parameters and influence
on the non-repetitive errors → identified model-based feed-forward. Feedback based on
a comparison of actual errors to the set values (disturbance rejection vs stability and
tracking optimization problem).
● Resolution of the sensor should be at least as small as the resolution of the controlled
variable. The precision of the sensor should be 5 to 10 times higher than the resolution.
The bandwidth of the sensor should be much higher than the bandwidth of the control
system where it is integrated in.

10. Filter effect

● When output errors are caused by noise, absorb or eliminate the noise as close as
possible to its source or point of entry
● Air/oil bearings damp and average out errors so there is less noise in contrast with ball
bearings etc.
● Vibration isolators (not the same as absorbers), inertial filter (big flywheel that keeps
going even though there is a disturbance)

11. Reduction principle

● Reduction mechanisms achieve high precision in movement and positioning if no noise
is present, disturbances such as play in joints, deflection in levers, or thermal
deformations will make this principle not applicable
● Example input a+/- error → b+/- error/n with b = a/n, so the error is a lot smaller
● Enlargement principle is the inverse principle allows for accurate measurements if no
noise is present (because errors will be magnified) mostly applied when low loads are
involved
Manufacturing principles

12. Upper limit for machining precision

● Measurement capabilities (resolution, precision) determine the upper limit
● Machining precision → dimensional precision, form precision, surface roughness,
work-affected surface layer
● Distinction measurement resolution and measurement precision
○ Resolution is the minimum value that can be roud out in measurement (minimal
input change that results in changed output)
○ precision/accuracy express the correctness of measurement
● Precision of measurement instrument is 5 times better than that of measured object
○ Upper limit for machining precision is 5 times larger than limit of measurement

13. Element technology

● Technologies for creating flat planes, lengths, cylinders, circle divisions and spheres to
high precision are fundamental for high-precision engineering
○ Examples: kinematic reference elements (guideway, straight edge, reference
plane), rotary and linear joints (avoiding play)
● Whitworth 3-plate method (slides 19-20)
● 6 DoF piezo-stepper
● Laser interferometer
● Gauge blocks → traceable
● Lapping mechanism for ball bearings, lens polishing
● Cup wheel principle
● Synchrotron surface spectroscopy in vacuum
● Watt balance

14. Principle of machining units

● A small machining unit is necessary condition for improving the machining precision
○ Machining unit = minimal amount of material that can be added or removed
○ Must be controllable, repeatable, can also be defined as material removed per
minimum controllable machining time (for time-based processes such as laser
machining)
● Finished dimension can only be controlled in multiple units of the machining unit
● Small machining unit is necessary condition to improve machining precision but it is not
sufficient
○ Examples: Elastic emission machining, Spinning polyurethane ball, Collision to
the workpiece of fine particles
○ Cutting: use sharp tool blade as well as small depth of cut and feed
 ○ Grinding and lapping, fine and uniformly sized abrasives
○ Use tool material that has low affinity with workpiece material
■ Diamond single crystals → for steel shorten contact time by vibrations
and use coatings to shield from carbon
○ Wear resistant tool material

15. Copying principle

● The precision in forced machining is governed by the copying principle
○ Forced → tool forcibly removes from the workpiece what is in its way
○ Error in the movement/form of the tool or machining process will be transferred to
workpiece
○ Precision tool transferred to machined part
● Requirements machine
○ Built-in kinematic reference must not vary
○ Tool follow kinematic reference at hightest precision (interference due heat,
vibration, dust)
○ Machine’s movement must be accurately transferred to work piece (machining
unit principle)
● Generating vs forming-tool methods
○ Generating: envelope of tool determines workpiece form
○ Simple tool can be made with high precision
○ Complex machine, using control methods for higher precision → predict tool
wear, control temperature
○ Examples: diamond turning, fly cutting
○ Aim: accurately position tool and workpiece
■ Tool holders with reference marks
■ Active/passive chucks to locate the work piece
○ Forming-tool: tool’s contour directly transferred to workpiece
○ Tools difficult and expensive to fabricate
○ Final precision not as high as with generating
○ Examples: die sinking EDM, ECM, profile grinding, nano-imprint lithography,
glass moulding

16. Evolution principle

● The precision in selective pressure machining is governed by the principle of evolution
● Method: which surfaces of the tool and workpiece are pressed together selectively and
automatically remove the high spots on the surfaces, amount removed depends on
pressure
● Examples: Lapping, honing, super-finishing, scraping, mechanochemical polishing
● Possible to reach higher precision than of the tool via 2 principles
○ Precision of both tool and workpiece is improved simultaneously
 ○ Tool and workpiece are guided over each other, machining improves because
precision of machine tool’s kinematic reference improves
○ Very high precision is possible, not determined by tool’s precision, no tool wear
because errors are worn away, the longer the smaller the machining unit → time
○ Precision of shape might be negatively influenced due uneven wear → frequent
change in direction of machining motion required to achieve uniformly machined
surface
○ Lapping is not abrasive machining, it uses free particles, wet lapping → lapping
powder + machining fluid (influenced by mixing ratio, grain size, time and
velocity) = good efficiency, low quality finish, dry lapping (little fluid) = superior
finish and precision
○ Polishing, similar to lapping but finer abrasives
○ Zeeko process → figure correction, shape correction + surface finish
○ Honing and super-finishing → bonded abrasive tools, with super-finishing tool is
vibrated and pressed against workpiece and uses softer abrasives
○ Dry mechanochemical polishing → pressure activiates chemical reactions to
facilitate material removal → small machining units
○ Chemomechanical polishing → uses lapping fluid that is oxidising and hard
abrasives leads to combined chemical and mechanical action → semiconductors

17. Anisotropic principle

● The anisotropic principle governs the fabrication precision of energy processing methods
● Isotropy is the property of energy-impinging surface to spread evenly in all directions
● Anisotropy is the property of the finished surface to progress only in one direction
● Methods:
○ Physical energy processing: high anisotropy, ion beam (Ar, Kr) machining →
etching (RF) and sputtering (DC), slow, masks required for anisotropy
○ Physico-chemical energy processing: reactive ion-etching/sputtering (RF) (DC),
masks required
○ Electro-chemical energy machining: ELID, electrolytical
polishing/etching/machining → copying principle
○ Chemical energy machining: photo-etching → photoresist masks/moulds (nickel),
lithography with synchrotron radiation, anisotropic etching for MEMS and ICs
○ Thermal energy processing: laser machining → anisotropy is in most cases not
sufficient to reach high precision, electron-beam machining → material removing
by energy of accelerated electrons, again anisotropy not enough for high
precision, additive manufacturing → electron beam welding gun + wirefeed
additive layering
● Higher precision can be obtained with higher anisotropy, machining unit determined by
time
18. Abbe’s principle
● The machining point must lie along the axis of the position detector scale of the
processing machine
○ Distance between measurement line and machining zone minimal
● Design fixtures for machine tools such that the workpiece is as clamped as close as
possible to position detector
● Indirect solution → damping
● Angular errors don’t influence the contact point on the workpiece only the contact on the
tool shifts → if spherical tool it does not matter

19. Work material

● The machining precision is governed by the homogeneity and stability of the workpiece
material
● Homogeneity
○ Most materials have anisotropic properties, have structural defects, impurities,
irregularly sized crystals
○ Heterogeneity → fluctuations in cutting force and thus dimensional fluctuations or
imprecisions
● Small machining unit fixes it partially but not really a solution, for high precision use
singly crystals and amorphous materials Examples: Acrylin resin replacing aluminium,
monocrystalline silicon for hard disks
● Solid solutions also very homogeneous: solid solution = material in solid phase in which
several distinct substances are uniformly in single phase
● If polycrystalline materials are required:
○ Fine grained
○ Grains of equal size and hardness of crystal matrix and crystal boundaries equal
○ Or machining process insensitive (eg ELID)
● Stability of work material
○ Material quality and dimensions remain unchanged over long time
○ Heat treatment allows produce structures that resist changes with age or
alterations during machining
○ Meehanite cast iron is considered suitable for high precision
○ Steel changes with age due:
■ Structural changes, austenite → martensite → volume decrease
■ Release of residual stresses
■ Gauge blocks good example

20. Distortion-less support

● Support the workpiece to minimize the distortion caused by the machining force
or the holding force
 ● Workpiece can be held up by vacuum-chuck face plate
● Workpiece has to be clamped distortionless
● Machine uses friction wheels as transmission elements → low backlash
● Workpiece with large compliance (thus weak) must be fully supported, perhaps
even setup that allows cutting workpiece together with support
● Workpiece can also be held without distortion by adhesion perhaps
● Camping and supporting by auxiliary part that is removed afterwards → think as
of like the supports when 3d printing
● Support workpieces in natural unconstrained state over as wide area as possible
with as small as force possible, support it such that uniform compliance achieved
if not possible control the machining conditions so that deflections caused by
machining force do not exceed allowable values

21. Multistage machining

● Machine a part in several stages to eliminate carry-over errors
○ Machining unit be reduced progressively
○ Normal cycle: roughing (productivity) then finishing (precision)
○ Carry-over error is defined as the error created by the machining stage
preceding the one under consideration
○ After last finishing step, carry-over error should be zero, carry over errors
can be errors in form precision, scratches, or other deviations from ideal
shape
○ Thicker cuts cause more push-back then smaller cuts → profile keeps
same shape but becomes smaller
○ To reduce transmission of form errors, need machining method with large
process stiffness in comparison with machine-workpiece compliance
○ Identify carry-over errors that cannot be removed by later stages and
eliminate them in the preparatory stages
○ Apply concept of functional independence to establish machining
conditions that do not create carry-over errors
○ The work-affected layer, type of carry-over error for cutting depth a, extent
of plastically deformed layer → less for ductile materials
■ Work affected layer is 2 to 10 times depth

22. In situ machining

● By using in situ machining methods, a high assembly precision can be achieved
without having to raise the precision of individual parts
● Two methods
○ Incorporate a tool into the assembled machine, so that the latter can
machine itself to achieve target precision, this is called self-cutting or
self-grinding
○ Machining a pair of mating parts, each part acts as a tool to machine the
other part so that a pair of high precision parts is obtained. Parts thus
machined are no longer interchangeable and so it becomes necessary to
replace both parts of a pair together