PH3256 PHYSICS FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE

UNIT – IV (OPTICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS)

1. What are optical materials?
The materials which are sensitive to light are known as optical materials. These optical
materials exhibit a variety of optical properties.
2. What are the classification of optical materials?
Transparent materials – Materials that are capable of transmitting all light, with absorption
and reflection are called transparent materials.
Example: Plain Glass, Clear water, etc
Translucent materials – Materials that allow only certain amount of light to pass through it
are called translucent materials.
Example: Butter paper, trace paper, Smoke, etc.
Opaque materials. – Materials which are not allowing any light to pass through it are called
opaque materials.
Example: Wood, bricks etc.
3. Define carrier generation and recombination.
Carrier generation: The carrier generation is the process whereby electrons and holes
are created.
Types: Photo generation, Phonon generation and impact ionization.
Recombination: The recombination is the process whereby electrons and holes are
annihilated.
Types: Radiative recombination, Shockley-Read-Hall recombination.
4. What is meant by scattering of light?
It is a process by which the intensity of the wave attenuates as it travels through a
medium.
1. Rayleigh scattering – In elastic scattering of light, the wavelength of the scattered
light is the same as that of the incident light.
2. Raman scattering – When the wavelength of the scattered light is different from that
of incident light.
3. Compton Scattering – A smaller wavelength of ultraviolet and X-ray scattering
occurs by the electrons. This results in scattered radiation having smaller frequency
than the incident wave.

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5. What is exciton? Give its importance.

The combination of an electron in an excited state and the associated hole in valence
band is known as exciton.
Types: 1. Frenkel exciton and 2. Mott and Wannier exciton
Importance:
 It play an important role in the luminescence of solids.
 Excitons are unstable and they will separate at high temperature.

6. What is the basic principle of photo diode?

When light is incident on the depletion region of the reverse biased p-n junction, the
concentration of minority carriers increases. Therefore, reverse saturation current increases.
7. Give the applications of photo diode.
i. They are used in charge-couple devices [CCD].
ii. They have wide applications in clocks, radio, camera, street lights, etc.
iii. They are used for lighting regulation and in optical communication systems.
iv. In medicine they are used in computed tomography (CT) instrument.
8. What are the advantages and disadvantages of photo diode?
Advantages:
1. They have long life period.
2. It is very compact.
3. It is light in weight.
4. It can be rugged mechanically.
5. Noise of the photo diode is very less.
Dis-advantages:
1. The thermal stability is very poor.
2. Efficiency is poor in rainy seasons.
9. What is solar cell? Mention the advantages and disadvantages of solar cell.
Solar cell is a P-N junction diode which converts solar energy into electrical energy.
Advantages:
1. The energy used by solar cell is a renewable energy source.
2. It is a pollution free device with higher efficiency.
3. Life time and durability is longer.
Disadvantages:
1. Installation cost is high.
2. It occupies more space for solar panels to be installed

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10. Write the principle of operation in a solar cell.

A solar cell is a basically a large area photo-diode which converts sunlight directly into
electricity, with larger efficiency.
11. What is the working principle of OLED (Organic LED)?
An electron move from the cathode to the emissive layer and the holes moves from the
anode to the conductive layer and they recombine to produce photons, is the principle used
emits light in OLED.
12. List out the application of OLED.
1. They are widely used in cell phones, digital cameras, etc.
2. They are also used in TV screens, computer monitors.
3. They are used in automotive dash boards and backlight in cars.
4. They are used in flexible display boards, for displaying video’s in real time.
13. What are the advantages and disadvantages of OLED?
Advantages:
1. They can be viewed upto 170 degree.
2. OLED is very thin and more flexible.
3. They are light in weight.
4. Light emission is brighter than normal LED’s
Disadvantages:
1. The intrusion of water into displays can damage or destroy the organic materials.
14. What is the principle meant by Light Emitting Diode (LED)?
LED is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy to light
energy under forward biasing. It emits light in both visible and IR region.
15. Mention the advantages and disadvantages of LED.
Advantages:
1. They are smaller in size and low cost.
2. It has long life time.
3. They are available in different colors at low cost.
4. It can be operated at a wide range of temperature.
5. Dome shaped LED has less scattering losses.
Disadvantages:
1. Power output is low.
2. Intensity is less than laser.
3. The light will not have directionality.

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PART – B
1. Describe the principle, construction and working of photo current in p-n junction
diode [photo diode].
Principle:
When a p-n junction diode is exposed to light, under reverse bias, it produces electron
and hole pairs. Due to the flow of these charge carriers, it produces a reverse current.
Construction:
The photo-diode is made up of p and n type materials with a small glass window on the
top for the light to pass through it and strike the p-n junction. The p-n junction mounted on the
insulated substrate is sealed inside the metal case for safety.

Working:
 When no light is incident on the junction, then no charges are created and therefore no
current (or) small reverse current flows through the circuit. This current is called Dark
current
 Now, when light is made to incident on the p - n-junction, then each photon creates an
electron-hole pair at the junction.
 These photo-generated charge carries move towards the potential and therefore
constitute a current known as photo current.
 The photo current increases with the increase in intensity of light falling on the p-n
junction.
 The current reaches a maximum and is called as saturation current.
Modes of operation:
There are three modes,
1. Photo-voltaic mode.
2. Photo-conductive mode and
3. Avalanche diode mode.

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Advantages:
 They have long life period.
 It is light in weight.
 It is very compact (small in size).
 Noise of the photo diode is very less.
Disadvantages:
 Here the dark current is temperature dependent.
 The thermal stability is very poor.
 Efficiency is poor in rainy/winter seasons.
Applications:
 They used in clocks, radio, camera, street lights, etc.
 They are used for lighting regulation and in optical communication systems.
 Photo-diodes are used in electronic devices such as smoke detectors, CD players, TVs,
remote controls etc.
 In medicine they are used in computed tomography (CT) instrument.
2. Explain the construction and working of a solar cell.
Principle:
A solar cell is a basically a large area photo-diode which converts sunlight directly into
electricity, with larger efficiency of photon absorption.
Construction:
A solar cell is made up of a heavily doped p
and n type materials grown over the substrate, with
larger exposure area for the sunlight to pass through
it. Here, the thickness of the p-region and n-region is
made small, so that the charge carriers generated in
this region can easily diffuse to the junction. The p
and n type material is connected to the load resistance
RL, through the ohmic contacts.
Working:
 The solar cell is exposed to the light without load resistance and the photons are allowed
to fall on the p and n type materials. Then electron-hole pairs are generated
 There electrons and holes quickly diffuses and reaches the depletion region.
 Now, due to strong barrier field, the electrons from p type moves towards the n side and
similarly holes from n type move towards the p side

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 As the p-n-junction diode is open circuited, the electrons and holes accumulate on either
side of the junction, which gives rise to an open-circuit voltage (Vo).
 Now if a load resistance R is connected across the diode, then a reverse current I flows
through the circuit.
 Here, the current generated in the solar cell is proportional to the intensity of light.
Advantages:
1. The energy used by solar cell is a renewable energy source.
2. These cells are eco-friendly and save electricity charges.
3. It is a pollution free device with higher efficiency.
4. Life time and durability is longer.
Disadvantages:
1. Investment/installation cost is high.
2. It is a seasonal energy, which can't work under winter/rainy seasons.
Applications:
1. Solar cells are used in the production of electricity to our daily needs.
2. They are used in artificial satellites and in space probes.
3. Solar panels are used in calculators, watches, street lights, toys etc.
3. Explain the construction and working of a light emitting diode (LED):
LED is a semiconductor p-n junction diode which converts electrical energy to light
energy under forward bias. It emits light in both visible und IR region
Construction:
The p-n junction is made by doping silicon with GaAs crystal. In order to increase the
recombination process, the thickness of the n layer is higher than the p layer. Ohmic contacts
are made with the help of aluminum in such a way that top layer of the 'p' material is left
uncovered, for the emission of light. Biasing can be applied at the ohmic contacts. The whole
p-n junction is surrounded by plastic material so that the losses due to reflection can be
minimized.

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Working:
The diode is forward biased, the majority charge carriers from n and p regions cross the
junction and become minority charge carriers in the other region. Similarly, majority charge
carries in p region cross the junction and reaches n region and become minority charge carriers.
By the similar process, excess of minority carriers is injected in both p and n regions. This
phenomenon is called minority carrier injection.

Now voltage is further increased, these excess minority carriers diffuse and they directly
recombine with the majority carriers. Similarly, the holes minority carriers in n region
recombine with the electrons which are majority carriers in n region and emits light. Therefore
electron hole recombination process occurs more and more and light (photons) is emitted
through the top layer of the p material which is left uncovered.
Advantages:
(i) They are smaller in size.
(ii) Its cost is very low.
(iii) It has long life time.
(iv) They are available in different colors at low cost.
(v) It operates even at very low voltage.
(vi) Dome shaped LED has less scattering losses.
Disadvantages:
(i) Power output is low.
(ii) Intensity is less than laser.
(iii) The light cannot travel through longer distance.
(iv) The light output is incoherent and are not in phase.
(v) The light will not have directionality.

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4. Describe the construction and working of laser diodes.

Homojunction Semiconductor:
Principle:
When p-n junction is forward biased, the holes are moving towards n region and
electrons are moving towards p region. The recombination of charge carrier takes place in the
junction region which results laser radiation.
Construction:
The p-n junction diode of a single
crystalline material is act as an active
medium. The thickness of junction layer
is very narrow so that radiation has large
divergence. The faces of p and n regions
at the junction region are made parallel
and well-polished. This plays a roll of
optical resonator.
The upper and lower electrodes connected with p and n regions helps for the supply of
current to the diode.
Working:
The Diode is forward biased with the help of electrons. The charge carriers produced
are injected into the active region till the population inversion achieved. The photons are
emitted during recombination of electrons and holes and the rate of recombination increases.
The emitted photons from recombination process are having the sample phase and frequency
as that of original induced photons and will be amplified to get a beam of laser.

The efficiency of laser emission increases by cooling the Ga-As diode. The wavelength of
light emitted is 8400 Å.

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5. Describe in detail, the construction and working of organic LED (OLED).

Principle:
An electron moves from the cathode to the emissive layer and the hole moves from the
anode to the conductive layer and they recombine to produce photons.
Construction:
The 2-layer OLED consists of a cathode and an anode, in between which there are two
organic layers Emissive and Conductive made up of different conductivities.
All the layers are grown over a transparent substrate, through which the light has to be
emitted. Necessary biasing is given for the OLED, in such a way that the anode is given positive
and the cathode is given negative.

Working:
 Voltage is applied across the OLED. Due to the applied voltage, the cathode gives
electrons to the emissive layer.
 The anode withdraws an electron from the conductive layer and creates
a hole in the conductive layer.
 Soon, the emissive layer becomes rich in negatively charged particles and the
conductive layer becomes rich in positively charged particles.
 Now, due to the electrostatic forces between these electrons and holes, they come closer
and recombine with each other.
 The recombination occurs closer to the emissive layer, because
in organic semiconductors, holes moves faster than electrons.
 Thus, the recombination of electrons and holes produces light and is emitted through
the transparent substrate.

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Advantages:
1. OLED is very thin, and more flexible.
2. They are light in weight.
3. Light emission is brighter than normal LED's.
4. They have large field of view [About 170°].
Disadvantages:
1. Cost of manufacturing is very high.
2. OLED's can be easily damaged when water falls on it.
3. Blue OLED have less life time, when compared to Red OLED.
4. Maintenance cost also increases due to different life time.

Applications:
1. OLED's are widely used in cell phones, digital cameras etc.
2. They are also used in TV screens, computer monitors.
3. Nowadays, they are used in automotive dash boards & backlight in cars.
4. OLEDs are used in flexible display boards, for displaying video's in real time.
5. In future, newspapers also may have OLED displays to refresh us with the latest.
Additional Questions:
1. Compare the absorption, emission and scattering of light in metals, semiconductor and
insulator.
2. Explain carrier generation and recombination process.
3. Describe optical data storage techniques.

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