ANALOG AND DIGITAL ELECTRONICS MODULE 1

1. OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES
Optoelectronic device is the field that deals with study of devices that emit, detect and control light in
the wavelength spectrum ranging from ultraviolet to far infrared. They include electrical-to-optical
(convert electrical energy into light energy) and optical-to-electrical (convert light energy into electrical
energy) transducers. Opto-couplers also come in this broad category.
1.1 PHOTODIODES
Photodiode is a light detector semiconductor device that converts light energy into electric current or
voltage which depends upon the mode of operation. The upper cut-off wavelength of a photodiode is
given by; 𝜆𝑐 =1240/𝐸𝑔 where, 𝜆𝑐 is the cut-off wavelength in nm and 𝐸𝑔 is the band gap energy in eV.
A normal p-n junction diode allows a small amount of electric current, under reverse bias, due to
minority charge carriers. To increase the electric current under reverse bias condition, we need to
generate more minority carriers. The external reverse voltage applied to the p-n junction diode will
supply energy to the minority carriers, but it will not increase the population of minority charge carriers.
A small number of minority carriers are generated due to external reverse bias voltage. The minority
carriers generated at n-side or p-side will recombine in the same material, before they cross the junction.
As a result, no electric current flows due to these charge carriers. For example, the minority carriers
generated in the p-type material experience a repulsive force from the external voltage and try to move
towards n-side. However, before crossing the junction, the free electrons recombine with the holes
within the same material. As a result, no electric current flows. To overcome this problem, we need to
apply external energy directly to the depletion region to generate more charge carriers. A special type of
diode called photodiode is designed to generate more number of charge carriers in depletion region. In
photodiodes, we use light or photons as the external energy to generate charge carriers in depletion
region.

*****Explain the construction, working principle and V-I- characteristics of Photodiode with neat
diagram.
Construction
The typical construction of a photodiode is illustrated in the following Figure 1-1. This example uses a
construction technique called ion implantation where the surface of a layer of N-type is bombarded with
P- type silicon ions to produce a P-type layer of about 1μm (micrometre) thick. During the formation of
the diode, excess electrons move from N-type towards P-type and excess holes move from P-type

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towards N-type; this process is called diffusion, resulting in the removal of free charge carriers close to
the PN-junction, so creating a depletion layer as shown in the following Figure.

Figure 1-1: Construction of Photo Diode

The (light facing) top of the diode is protected by a layer of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) in which there is a
window for light to shine on the semiconductor. This window is coated with a thin anti-reflective layer
of Silicon Nitride (SiN) to allow maximum absorption of light and an anode connection of aluminium
(AI) is provided to the P-type layer. Beneath the N-type layer, there is a more heavily doped N+ layer to
provide a low resistance connection to the cathode.
Working Principle: When the conventional diode is reverse biased, the depletion region starts
expanding and the current starts flowing due to minority charge carriers. With the increase of reverse
voltage, the reverse current also starts increasing. The same condition can be obtained in photodiode
without applying reverse voltage.
The following Figure 1-2 shows photo diode bias symbol. The junction of Photodiode is illuminated by
the light source; the photons strike the junction surface. The photons impart their energy in the form of
light to the junction. Due to which electrons from valence band get the energy to jump into the
conduction band. This leaves positively charged holes in the valence band, so producing 'electron-hole
pairs' in the depletion layer. Some electron-hole pairs are also produced in P and N layers, but apart from
those produced in the diffusion region N layers, most will be re-absorbed within the P and N materials as
heat. The electrons in the depletion layer are then swept towards the positive potential on the cathode,
and the holes swept towards the negative potential on the anode, so creating a photo current. In this way,
the photodiode converts light energy into electrical energy.

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Figure 1-2: photo diode bias symbol

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode: The characteristics curve of the photodiode can be understood with
the help of the following Figure 1-3. The characteristics are shown in the negative region because the
photodiode can be operated in reverse biased mode only.

Figure 1-3: V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

The reverse saturation current in the photodiode is denoted by I0, It varies linearly with the intensity of
photons striking the diode surface. The current under large reverse bias is the summation of reverse
saturation current and short circuit current. 𝐼= 𝐼𝑠c+ 𝐼0 (1− 𝑒𝑉/Δ𝑉t) Where Isc is the short circuit current, V is
positive for forward voltage and negative for reverse bias, Vt is volt equivalent for temperature, Δ is
unity for germanium and, 2 for silicon.
Applications:
 Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices like smoke detectors, compact disc
players, and televisions and remote controls in VCRs.

 In other consumer devices like clock radios, camera light meters, and street lights,
photoconductors are more frequently used rather than photodiodes.

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 Photodiodes are frequently used for exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry. Generally, they have an enhanced, more linear response than photoconductors.

1.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The LED is a PN-junction diode which emits light when an electric current passes through it in the
forward direction. A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current.
The same process is reversed here (i.e. the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to
it). This phenomenon is generally called Electroluminescence.
Electroluminescence is the properly of the material to convert electrical energy into light energy and
later it radiates this light energy. Different sizes of light emitting diodes are available in market form l
mm2 to onward.
Construction: The semiconductor material used in LED is Galliurn Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium
phosphide (GaP) or Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP). Any of the above-mentioned compounds can
be used for the construction of LED, but the color of radiated light changes with the change in material
(for example, GaP material gives green/red color with forward voltage of 2.2V). The semiconductor
layer of P-type is placed above N-type because the charge carrier recombination occurs in P-type.
Besides, it is the surface of the device, and thus, the light emitted can be easily seen on the surface. If P-
type is placed below the N-type, the emitted light cannot be seen. The following Figure 1-4 shows cross
sectional view of diffused LED.

Figure 1-4: Cross sectional view of diffused LED

The P-type layer is formed from diffusion of semiconductor material. On the other side, in N-type
region, the epitaxial layer is grown on N-type substrate. The metal film is used on the P-type layer to
provide anode connection to the diode. Similarly, Gold-film layer is coated on N-type to provide cathode
connection. The Gold-film layer on N-type also provides reflection from the bottom surface of the diode.
If any significant part of radiated light tends to hit bottom surface then that will be reflected from the

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bottom surface to the device top surface. This increases LED's efficiency. Working Principle: The
charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and
recombine with the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy
levels, while holes are in the valence energy band. Thus the energy level of the holes is less than the
energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be dissipated to recombine the electrons
and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.

The working of the LED depends on the quantum theory. The quantum theory states that, when the
energy of electrons decreases from the higher level to lower level, it emits energy in the form of
photons. The energy of the photons is equal to the gap between the higher and lower level, as shown in
the following Figure 1-5.

Figure 1-5: Working of LED

The LED is forward biased, which allows the current to flow in the forward direction. The flow of
current is because of the movement of electrons in the opposite direction. The recombination shows that
the electrons move from the conduction band to valence band and they emit electromagnetic energy in
the form of photons. The energy of photons is equal to the gap between the valence and the conduction
band. Color of light can be determined by the band gap of semiconductor material.

Applications:
 LEDs are used in remote control systems such TV or LCD remote.

 Used in traffic signals for controlling the traffic crowds in cites.

 Used in digital computers for displaying the computer data.

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 Used in electronic calculators for showing the digital data.

 Used in digital watches and automotive heat lamps.

1.3 OPTOCOUPLER
Optocoupler or Photo-coupler is a device that transfers electrical signals between two isolated circuits by
using light. Opto-couplers are used in many functions: they can be used to link data across two circuits;
they can be used within optical encoders, where the optocoupler provides a means of detecting visible
edge transitions on an encoder wheel to detect position, etc., and they can be used in many other circuits
where optical links and transitions are needed. As a result, optical couplers or photocouplers are found in
many circuits.
Construction: All optocouplers consist of two elements: a light source (a LED) and a photosensor (a
photoresistor, photodiode, phototransistor, silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), or triac); which are
separated by a dielectric (non-conducting) barrier.
Working Principle: When input current is applied to the LED, it switches ON and emits infrared light;
the photosensor then detects this light and allows current to flow through the output side of the circuit;
conversely, when the LED is off, no current will flow through the photosensor. By this method, the two
flowing currents are electrically isolated. It consists of LED and photodiode; where the circuits are
isolated electrically. In the following Figure, LED is forward biased, photodiode is reverse biased and
output exists across R2.

Figure 1-6(a) & (b): Operation of Optocoupler

The Figure 1-6(a) describes the basic operation of an optocoupler. When current is not being applied via
Pin 1, the LED is off, and the circuit connected to Pins 4 and 5 is experiencing no current flow. When
power is applied to the input circuit, the LED switches on, the sensor detects the light, closes the switch
and initiates current flow in the output circuit, as shown in the Figure 1-6(b).

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Applications:
 Input and output switching in electronically noisy environments.
 Controlling transistors and triacs.
 Switch-mode power supplies.
 PC/ Modem communication.
 Signal isolation. Power control.
2. BJT BIASING
A transistor (Bipolar Junction Transistor-BJT) is a sandwich of one type of semiconductor (P-type or
N-type) between two layers of other type. Transistors are of two types: p-n-p transistor and n-p-n
transistor. There are three distinct regions (hence, terminals) in a transistor: Emitter, Base, and
Collector. For any circuit, four-terminals would be required: two-input-terminals and two-output-
terminals. Hence, for a transistor, one of the three terminals will be common to both input and output in
a circuit. Thus, there are three different modes of operation for a transistor: Common-Base Connection
(CB), Common Emitter Connection (CE), and Common Collector Connection (CC).
Transistor Biasing is the establishment of suitable dc-values such as IC, VCE, IB, etc., by using a dc-
source. When BJT is properly biased, amplification of signal takes place. There are mainly three types of
biasing a transistor:
1. Base bias or Fixed bias,
2. Collector-to-Base bias,
3. Voltage-divider bias.
2.1 FIXED BIAS or BASE BIAS:
Explain base bias or fixed biasing circuit with neat diagram
Base biasing configuration is given in the following Figure. A base resistance R B is used between VCC
and base to establish the base current IB. Since VCC and RB are fixed quantities, IB remains fixed.

Figure: 2-1(a): Fixed (Base) biasing circuit Figure 2-1(b): DC equivalent of Fixed Bias circuit

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Applying Kirchoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) to the base circuit;

VCC – IBRB – VBE = 0 Or,

IB = (VCC – VBE)/RB --------------------- (1) we know that

VBE is 0.7 V for Silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium transistor.

Applying the KVL to the collector circuit; VCC – ICRC – VCE = 0
Or,
VCE = VCC - ICRC -------------------- (2)

The operating Point (IC , VCE) =

Figure 2-2 Bas bias circuit

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Figure 2-3

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Figure 2-4:
2.2 COLLECTOR-TO-BASE BIAS CIRCUIT:
The collector-to-base bias circuit shown in the following Figure, has the base resistor RB connected
between the transistor collector and base terminals. This circuit has significantly improved bias stability
for hfe changes compared to base bias.

Figure 2-5: Collector bias circuit

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Effect of IC or β: Any changes in VCE changes IB, the change in IB causes IC to change. If IC increases
above the design level, there is an increased voltage drop across RC; resulting in reduction of VCE. The
reduced VCE causes IB to be lower. If IB decreases, IC also decreases, as IC = βIB. Similarly, a reduction
in IC produces an increase in VCE, which increase IB, thus tending to increase IC back to the original
level. Thus an increase/ decrease in IC produces a feedback effect that tends to return IC toward its
original level. In the collector-to-base bias circuit, the feedback from the collector-to-base reduces the
effect of β (due to transistor replacement). Thus collector-to-base bias has greater stability than base
bias, for a given range of β values.
2.3 VOLTAGE DIVIDER (EMITTER CURRENT) BIAS CIRCUIT:
******With neat circuit diagram and mathematical analysis explain voltage divider bias circuit
Voltage divider bias is the most stable of the three basic transistor biasing circuits. A voltage divider
circuit is shown in the following Figure.

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Figure 2-6: Voltage Divider Bias with Emitter Bias circuit

Figure 2-7: DC equivalent of Voltage Divider Bias Circuit

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As collector current is approximately equal to emitter current IC = IE = VE / RE

Operating point for VDB circuit is = ( IC , VCE) = ( VE / RE , V – IC (RC + RE) )

CC

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3. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER (OP-AMP) APPLIATION CIRCUITS

An Op-Amp is a direct-coupled high gain, high bandwidth differential amplifier with very high value
of input impedance and very low value of output impedance.

Figure 3-1: Basic Differential Amplifier & Circuit Representation of an OP-Amp

The ideal Op-Amp model was derived to simplify circuit calculations. The ideal Op-Amp model makes
three assumptions:
1. Input resistance (impedance), Ri = ∞ 2. Output resistance (impedance), Ro = 0
3. Open-loop (differential voltage) gain, Ad = ∞
Based on these three assumptions, other assumptions can be derived:
1. Since Ri = ∞, Ii = Ini = 0 2. Since Ro = 0, Vo = Ad * Vd
3. Zero DC input and output offset voltages 4. Bandwidth and slew rate are also infinite, as no
frequency dependencies are assumed.
5. Drift is also zero, as there is no changes in performance over time, temperature, power supply
variations, and so on 6. Since output voltage depends only on differential input voltage, it rejects any
voltage common to both inputs. Hence, common mode gain = 0
Open-loop gain is the differential voltage gain in the absence of any positive or negative feedback.
Practical Op-Amps have –
1. Input impedance can vary from hundred of kilo-ohms (for some low-grade Op-Amps) to tera-ohms
(for high grade Op-Amps).
2. Output impedance may be in the range of 10 to 100 Ω
3. Open-loop gain in the range of 10,000 to 1, 00,000
4. Bandwidth is limited and is specified by gain-bandwidth product
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5. There may be some finite DC output (referred to as output offset voltage), even when both the inputs
are grounded.

Table 3-1 Comparison of Ideal & Practical Opamp

3.1 MULTIVIBRATORS USING IC-555
A multivibrator (like an oscillator) is a circuit with regenerative feedback, which produces a pulsed
output. There are three basic types of multivibrator circuits:
 ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR – has no stable states, but switches continuously between two
states. This action produces a train of square wave pulses at a fixed frequency.

 MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR – one of the states is stable, but the other state is unstable
(transient).

 BISTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR – the circuit is stable in either state.

Explain the internal structure of 555 Timer IC with neat diagram.
Timer IC-555 is the one of the most commonly used general-purpose linear integrated circuits

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Figure 3-1: Internal structure of 555 Timer IC

The Timer IC 555 comprises two Op-Amp comparators, a flip-flop, a discharge transistor, a reset
transistor, three identical resistors and an output stage. The resistors set the reference voltage levels at
the non-inverting input of the lower comparator and inverting input of the upper comparator at +V CC/3
and 2VCC/3, respectively. The output of two comparator feed SET and RESET inputs of the Flip-Flop.
This decided the logic state of its output and subsequently the final output. The Flip-Flops
complementary outputs feed the output stage and the base of the discharge transistor. Hence, when the
output is HIGH, the discharge transistor is OFF and when the output is LOW, the discharge transistor is
ON.
MONOSTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
Explain the working of Mono-stable Multi-vibrator using 555 Timer IC
Monostable multivibrator using 555 timer IC is as shown in the following Figure. This 555 timer is
called monostable multivibrator because it has only one stable state. Resistor R A and capacitor C, are
components connected externally to the IC-555. Threshold voltage (6) and discharge (7) pins are
connected to each other.

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Figure 3-2: Monostable Multi-vibrator

Initially the SR-FF is set (Q = 1); transistor T is driven into saturation, and the capacitor is by passed by
the transistor. Therefore, the capacitor voltage VC = 0, and also the output voltage Vout = 0 (as Q = 1).
When the negative going trigger pulse (which should be more than 1/3 VCC) is applied at trigger input
of lower comparator, the comparator output goes high; and SR-FF is reset (Q = 0), forcing 𝑄’ to go
high and transistor T turns off.
 As T is off, capacitor starts charging through RA. Now, the output will remain high (from t1 to
t2, in waveform shown).
 At time t2; the voltage across the capacitor VC becomes more than 2/3 VCC and upper
comparator output goes high. This will set the SR-FF (Q = 1).
 Since, SR-FF output Q = 1; transistor T is ON, and hence, capacitor discharges, and also output
goes low. The output remains low till the next trigger pulse is applied..
From the waveform of monostable multivibrator, it is clear that, the ON time TON of the output voltage is
same as charging time of the capacitor. Therefore, TON → is the time taken by capacitor to charge from 0
to 2/3 VCC.
Therefore, TON = 1.1 RA C
Applications: A monostable multivibrator can be used in many applications, few important applications are
1. Frequency divider
2. Missing pulse detector
3. Pulse width modulator
4. Pulse position modulator etc.

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ASTABLE MULTIVIBRATOR
***************Show how 555 Timer can be used as an astable multi-vibrator
An astable multivibrator does not have any stable state; it keeps changing its state from low to high and
high to low. This multivibrator is also called free running multivibrator or rectangular wave generator

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circuit. Astable multivibrator does not require an external trigger pulse to change the state of the output.
The circuit configuration of an astable rnultivibrator is as shown in the following Figure

Figure 3-3: Astable Multi-vibrator

To understand the operation of above circuit. let us divide the circuit operation into two time interval
TON and TOFF.
ON time operation:
At t = 0, the voltage on the capacitor VC = 0, the same capacitor voltage is applied to both trigger point
of lower comparator and threshold point of upper comparator. As capacitor voltage VC = 0, which is less
1/3 VCC, the output of lower comparator goes high (𝑄’=1) and Q = 0. This causes Transistor to go off
and capacitor starts charging through series resistors RA and RB. When capacitor voltages reaches 2/3
VCC, on time is terminated.
OFF time operation:
As soon as VC exceeds 2/3 VCC, the upper comparator output goes high and it will set the SR FF. i.e., S
= 1 and R = 0 and Q = 1 and 𝑄’= 0. This will turn on transistor T, and output at pin (3) goes low. Now,
the capacitor discharges through RB, and through transistor T. The discharge time (also called off time
(TD); and it depends on the values of RB and C. When capacitor voltage is VC = 1/3 VCC, lower
comparator output goes high. This process of charging and discharging is continuous and hence circuit
oscillates. The schematic diagram and waveforms are as shown in the Above Figure
The output voltage waveform is the sum of charging and discharging periods (TC, and TD) of the
capacitor. .'. Period of one cycle T = TC + TD. Frequency can be written as 𝑓= 1/ 𝑇= 1/𝑇𝐶+ 𝑇𝐷
TON = TC = 0.693 (RA + RB) C
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TOFF = TD = 0.693 RB C

Applications:
An astable multivibrator can be used in many applications, few important applications are
1. Square-wave oscillator/ generator
2. Schmitt trigger using IC-555
3. Voltage controlled oscillator

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3.2 PEAK DETECTOR CIRCUIT

******Explain the working of Peak detector circuit
Peak Detector circuit produces a voltage at the output equal to peak amplitude (Positive or Negative) of
the input signal.

Figure 3-4: Peak detector circuit

It is essentially a clipper circuit with a parallel resistor –capacitor connected at its output. The clipper
circuit here produces positive half cycles.
 During this positive half cycle of the input, Diode D-conducts and capacitor charges to peak
(highest) value of the input. Capacitor retains its charged value unless and until it discharges with
a help of switch.

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 As the input starts decreasing beyond the peak value, Diode gets reverse biased, thus isolating
the capacitor from the output of opamp.
 Now the capacitor can discharge only through resistor R connected across it and this resistor
value is much larger than the forward biased diode’s ON resistance
 The op-amp is connected as a voltage follower and its output voltage will be equal the drop across
capacitor which is positive peak value of the applied voltage and will remain that for long periods until
next more higher peak occurs at the input. For negative cycle of input, the diode is reverse biased and
capacitor retains its value.
Applications:
 Used for AM in communication
 Used in test and measurement instrumentation applications
3.3 SCHMITT TRIGGER (REGENERATIVE) COMPARATOR
A Schmitt trigger is a fast-operating voltage level detector. There are two types of Schmitt trigger
circuits
1. Inverting Schmitt Trigger 2. Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger
Inverting Schmitt Trigger:
The input voltage Vin is applied to the inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage goes to the non-
inverting terminal. This means, the circuit uses positive voltage feedback (i.e., feedback voltage aids the
input voltage). If the input voltage at the inverting terminal is slightly positive than feedback voltage at
the non-inverting terminal, the output voltage will be negative (negative saturation, –Vsat); and if the
input voltage is more negative than the reference feedback voltage, the output will be positive (positive
saturation, +Vsat).

Figure 3-5 Inverting Schmitt trigger circuit & Waveform

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Hence, the voltage at the output switches from +Vsat to –Vsat or vice-versa; are called Upper Trigger
Point (UTP) and Lower Trigger Point (LTP). The difference between two trigger points is called
Hysteresis. The upper and lower trigger points can be written as;

Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger:

The input voltage Vin is applied to the non-inverting input terminal and the feedback voltage also goes
to the non-inverting terminal. The inverting terminal is grounded. Initially, assume that the output is in
the negative saturation (–Vsat). Then the feedback voltage is also negative. This feedback voltage will
hold the output in negative saturation, until the input voltage becomes positive enough to make voltage
positive.

Figure 3-6 Non-Inverting Schmitt trigger circuit & Waveform

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Applications of Schmitt Trigger:

Schmitt trigger is used in many applications, where level needs to be sensed. Hysteresis is used to reduce
the multiple transitions that can occur around.
1. Digital to analog conversion
2. Level detection
3. Line reception.

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3.4 ACTIVE FILTERS

Filter is a frequency selective circuit commonly used in signal processing that passes signal of specified
range of frequencies and blocks the signals of frequencies outside the band. Active filters are attractive
due to their –
• Flexibility in gain control, Small component size, No loading Problem, Pass band gain and Use of the
inductors can be avoided

Filters are useful in many areas of applications, such as Communication and Signal Processing. They are
found in electronic systems like Radio, Television, Telephones, Radars, satellites, and Biomedical
instruments.
Most commonly used active filters are –
• Low-pass filter, High-pass filter, Band-pass filter, Band-stop filter (Band-reject filter), and All-pass
filter.
First Oder Active Low-Pass Filter (LPF):
The first-order low-pass butter worth filter consists of a single RC filter stage, providing a low frequency
path to the non-inverting input of an Op-Amp. The circuit diagram and the frequency response of the
circuit is given below:

Figure 3-7 Active Low Pass filter circuit

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Figure 3-8 Active Low Pass filter waveform

From the graph; the gain (AF) is almost constant for the frequency range: 0 < f < fH.

• At cut-off frequency, f = fH, the gain is 0.707AF.

• After cut-off frequency fH, the gain decreases at the rate of 20 dB/decade.

• The cut-off frequency is given by: 𝑓H= 1/2𝜋RC

• Pass band gain is given by: 𝐴𝐹 =1+ 𝑅f /𝑅1

Some applications of low-pass filters are –
 Low-pass filters are used in Audio amplifiers
 LPFs are used in equalizers or speakers to reduce the high frequency noise.
High-Pass Butter Worth Filter: High-pass filters passes higher frequency signals, attenuating all
signals below cut-off frequency, fL.
First Order High-Pass Butter Worth Filter: The filter circuit consists of a passive filter followed by a
non-inverting amplifier

Figure 3-9 Active High Pass filter circuit & waveform

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3.5 NON LINEAR AMPLIFIER

Non linearity is the behaviour of a circuit, particularly an amplifier, in which the output signal strength
do not vary in direct proportion to the input signal strength. A non-linear amplifier in as circuit which
gives non linear relationship between its input and output signals. The Non linear amplification can be
achieved in a simple way by just connecting a non-linear device such as PN-junction diode in the
feedback path. In the circuit shown in the following Figure, large change in input voltage causes small
change in the output voltage. This circuit is a log amplifier, hence the output voltage is logarithm of the
input voltage.

Figure 3-10: Active Low Pass filter circuit

The above Figure shows a non-linear amplifier, where diode ‘D’ is used in negative feedback path.
Applications: Non-linear Amplifiers are used in AC bridge balance detectors
3.6 RELAXATION OSCILLATOR
Relaxation oscillator is a non-linear electronic oscillator circuit that generates a continuous non-
sinusoidal output signal in the form of rectangular wave, triangular wave or a saw-tooth wave. The time
period of non-sinusoidal output depends on the charging time of the capacitor connected in the oscillator
circuit. The relaxation oscillator basically contains a feedback loop that has a switching device in the
form of transistor, relays, operational amplifiers, comparators, or a tunnel diode that charges a capacitor

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through a resistance till it reaches a threshold level then discharges it again. The following Figure shows
the basic circuit of an Op-Amp based relaxation oscillator.
******Explain the working of relaxation oscillator with neat circuit diagram and waveform
Assume that, the output is initially in positive saturation. As a result, voltage at non-inverting input of
Op-Amp is +VSAT * R1 / (R1 + R2). This force the output to stay in positive saturation as the capacitor C
is initially in fully discharged state. Capacitor C starts charging towards +VSAT through R. The moment
the capacitor voltage exceeds the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input, the output switches to
–VSAT.

Figure 3-11: Relaxation Oscillator circuit

Now, the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input changes to –VSAT * R1 / (R1 + R2). The capacitor

starts discharging and after reaching zero, it begins to discharge towards –VSAT. Again, as soon as it

becomes more negative than the voltage appearing at the non-inverting input of the Op-Amp, the output

switches back to +VSAT.

The expression for the time period of the output rectangular waveform is given by;𝑇=2𝑅C ln (1+𝛽/1−𝛽)

By varying the value of resistor R, the time period of the output waveform can be varied. β is the

feedback factor and is given by β = R1/ (R1+R2). When the output voltage V0 is at at +VSAT the

feedback voltage is known as upper threshold voltage VUTP and is given by +VSAT x R1/ (R1+ R2) When

the output voltage V0 is at at –VSAT the feedback voltage is known as lower threshold voltage VLTP and is

given by –VSAT x R1/ (R1+ R2)

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3.7 VOLTAGE TO CURRENT (V TO I) CONVERTER

Figure 3-12: V to I convertor circuit

 Voltage to current converter is a case of a trans conductance amplifier.

 The circuit is characterized by current series feedback

 The above Voltage to current converter circuit operates with a floating load

Expression for Output current

Where Ri is the input impedance of the opamp

CURRENT TO VOLTAGE CONVERTER

Consider the simple Op-Amp circuit to convert I to V, as shown in the following Figure

Figure 3-13: I to V convertor circuit

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 Current to voltage converter is nothing but a trans-impedance amplifier

 The circuit is characterized by voltage shunt feedback with a feedback factor of unity

For AOL >>1

3.8 REGULATED POWER SUPPLY PARAMETERS

All electronic systems that we use daily, requires a stable power supply voltage source; and voltage
regulators accomplish that. Voltage regulator is a circuit that keeps the output voltage constant under all
operating conditions. Voltage regulation is the process of keeping a voltage steady under conditions of
changing applied voltage, changing load and temperature. There are two types of voltage regulators:
shunt and series.
Performance Parameters of a Power Supply:
The power supply is judged by some parameters, called as performance parameters. These performance
parameters are explained below:
1. Line Regulation: This is as source regulation or line regulation. It is defined as the change in
regulated DC output for a given change in input (line) voltage. Ideally the source regulation should be
zero and practically it should be as low as possible.
If the input to the rectifier unit i.e. 230 V changes, the output DC of rectifier will also change and since
the output of rectifier is applied to the regulator, the output of regulator will also vary. Thus the source
causes the change in output.
2. Load Regulation: Load regulation is defined as the change in the regulated output voltage when
load current is changed from zero (no load) to maximum value (full load). The load regulation ideally
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should be zero, but practically it should be as small as possible. The following Figure shows the load
regulation characteristics

Figure 3-14: Load regulation graph

3. Voltage Stability factor (SV)
Voltage stability factor shows the dependency of output voltage on the input line voltage. Voltage
stability factor is defined as the percentage change in the output voltage which occurs per volt change in
input voltage, where load current and temperature are assumed to be constant. Smaller the value of this
factor, better is the performance of power supply.
4. Temperature Stability Factor (Sr):
As in the chain of power supply we are using semiconductor devices (diodes in rectifier block) the
output voltage is temperature dependent. Thus the temperature stability of the power supply will be
determined by temperature coefficients of various temperature sensitive semiconductor devices. So, it is
better to choose the low temperature coefficient devices to keep output voltage constant and independent
of temperature. Sr must be as small as possible, and ideally it should it should be zero for a power
supply.
5. Ripple Rejection Factor (RR)
The output of rectifier and filter consists of ripples. Ripple rejection is defined as a factor which shows
how effectively the regulator rejects the ripples and attenuates it from input to output. As ripples in the
output are small compared to input, the RR is very small and in dB, it is in negative value.

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3.9 ADJUSTABLE VOLTAGE REGULATOR

An adjustable voltage regulator is a kind of regulator, whose regulated output voltage can be varied over
a range. There are positive adjustable voltage regulators and negative adjustable regulators in practice.
LM317 is a classic example of positive adjustable voltage regulator, whose output voltage can be varied
over a range of 1.2 V to 57 V.
LM337 is an example of negative adjustable voltage regulator. LM337 is actually a compliment of
LM317 which are similar in operation and design with the only difference being polarity of regulated
output voltage.

4. DIGITAL TO ANALOG AND ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS:

4.1 D to A CONVERTER
The digital system such as computers also need to communicate with physical processes and with people
through analog signals. So there is a need of digital to analog converters
BASIC DAC TECHNIQUES
The DAC converts digital or binary data into its equivalent analog value. The symbolic representation of
an n-bit DAC is given below:

Figure 4-1: D to A converter block diagram

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BINARY EQUIVALENT WEIGHT

Consider the truth table:

Suppose we want to change 8 possible digital signals shown in truth table into equivalent anlaog
voltages. Between 000 and 111 there are seven discrete levels to be defined. Therefore it is convenient
to divide analog signal into seven levels.
The smallest incremental change in the digital signal is represented by the Least Significant Bit (LSB),
20
Thus 20 bit will cause +7 x 1/7 = +1V at the output
We know that 20 = 1 and 21 = 2, that means 21 bit represents a number that is twice the size of 20 bit.
Therefore 1 in 21 bit position cause a change in analog out voltage that is twice the size of LSB.
Thus 21 bit will cause +7 x 2/7 = +2V at the output. Similarly
22 bit will cause +7 x 4/7 = +4V at the output.
In 3 bit system 22 is MSB which is 4 times LSB. So the sum of the weights must be equal to 1
In general, the binary equivalent weight assigned to the LSB is

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Find the binary equivalent weight of each bit in 4-bit system

LSB has binary weight of = 1 / (24 -1) = 1/ 15
Second LSB has binary weight of = 2 x LSB weight = 2/15
Third LSB has binary weight of = 4 x LSB weight = 4/15
MSB has binary weight of = 8 x LSB weight = 8/15
Sum of the weights must be equal to = 1/15 + 2/ 15 + 4/15 + 8/15 = 1
*****BINARY WEIGHTED RESISTIVE DIVIDER DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER
**********Explain Binary weighted resistive divider D to A converter
The following circuit shows 3 bit resistor divider Digital to Analog circuit

Figure 4-2(a): Resistor divider D to A Converter

The above resistor divider network has 3 digital inputs and one analog output. Assume that digital input
levels are 0 = +0V and 1 = +7V
For an input of 001, the output will be = +7 x 1/ (23 – 1) = +7 x 1/ 7 = +1V
Similarly an input of 010 will provide an output of +2V and an input of 100 will provide an output of
+4V. These three voltages are summed together to form the analog output voltage.
The other desired voltage levels are additive combinations of voltages. For example 011 input will
provide +1V from 20 bit is added to the +2V from 21 bit. This results in +3V analog output voltage for
011 input.
 In the above circuit resistors R0, R1, R2 form the divider network and the resistance RL is load, to
which the divider is connected.
 For example the digital input 001 is applied to the above circuit by assuming that digital input
levels are 0 = +0V and 1 = +7V, the equivalent circuit is shown below

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Figure 4-2(b): Resistor divider D to A Converter for input 001

 Consider RL is large and it is neglected and by applying Milman’s theorem we find the analog
output voltage VA

For 001 input: VA

Therefore in Binary weighted resistive divider network of D to A converter, the analog output voltage
VA can be found for any digital input signal by using the modified form of Milman’s theorem

Where V0, V1, V2, V3,………Vn-1 are the digital input voltage levels (0 or V) and n is the number of
input bits.
Drawback of Resistive Divider D to A converter
*********What is the drawback of Binary weighted Resistive Divider D to A converter circuit
1. Large range of resistor values are required, as resistance values increases like 21R, 22R, 23R…….2nR
2. Practically it’s difficult to fabricate large values of resistors on IC.
For a 5-bit resistive divider network determine the following:
a) The weight assigned to the LSB
b) The weight assigned to the second and third LSB
c) The change in output voltage due to change in LSB, second LSB and the third LSB
d) The output voltage for the digital input 10101. Assume 0 = 0V and 1 = +10V
Answer:
a) The weight assigned to the LSB = 1 /(2n -1) = 1/31 ( here n = 5 bit)
b) The weight assigned to the second LSB = 2/31

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c) The weight assigned to the third LSB = 4/31

d) The LSB causes a change in output voltage of +10V x 1/31 = 10/31. The second LSB causes a
change in output voltage of +10V x 2/31 = 20/31. The third LSB causes a change in output
voltage of +10V x 4/31 = 40/31.
e) The output voltage for the digital input 10101 is

*******R-2R BINARY LADDER D TO A CONVERTER

**********Draw the schematic of 4 bit binary ladder (R-2R binary ladder) and explain how
digital to analog conversion is achieved using

Figure 4-3(a): R-2R Binary Ladder Circuit

 The binary ladder is a resistive network whose output voltage is properly binary weighted sum of
the digital inputs.
 In R-2R ladder, only two values of resistors, R and 2R are used.
 The left end of the ladder is terminated in a resistance of 2R and we shall assume that right end
of the ladder (output) is open circuited
 By assuming all digital inputs are at ground level. Beginning at node A, the total resistance
looking into the terminating resistor is 2R. The total resistance looking out toward the 2 0 input is
also 2R. These two resistors can be combined to form an equivalent resistor value of R

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Figure 4-3(b): R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit looking at node A

 Beginning at node B, the total resistance looking into the branch toward node A is 2R (R+R).
The total resistance looking out toward the 21 input is also 2R. These two resistors can be
combined to form an equivalent resistor value of R

Figure 4-3(c): R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit looking at node B

 Beginning at node C, the total resistance looking into the branch toward node B is 2R (R+R).
The total resistance looking out toward the 22 input is also 2R. These two resistors can be
combined to form an equivalent resistor value of R.

Figure 4-3(d): R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit looking at node C

From the above circuit it is clear that total resistance looking from any node back toward the terminating
resistor or out toward the digital input is 2R. This true regardless of whether the digital inputs are at
ground or +V.
Example: Let us consider 4 bit digital input = 1000 and the equivalent binary ladder network is

Figure 4-4(a): R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit for input 1000

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MSB is at node D and LSB is at node A

Since there are no voltage sources to the left of node D, the entire network to the left of this node can be
replaced by a resistance of 2R to form the equivalent circuit as:

Figure 4-4(b): Reduced R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit

The analog output voltage equivalent to the input 1000 is:

This process can be continued, and it can be shown that for input 0100 (2nd MSB) provides an output
voltage of +V/4, input 0010 (3rd MSB) provides an output voltage of +V/8 and fourth MSB (input 0001)
provides an output voltage of +V/16 and so on. Therefore in general the analog output voltage
corresponding to the digital inputs in binary ladder network is given by

********Explain the Binary Ladder with digital input 0100

The binary ladder with digital input 0100 is as shown below:

Figure 4-5(a): R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit for input 0100
Since there are no voltage sources to the left of node C, the entire network to the left of this node can be
replaced by a resistance of 2R to form the equivalent circuit as:

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Figure 4-5(b): reduced R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit

Now replace the network to the left of node C with its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as

Figure 4-5(c): Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Therefore the analog output voltage equivalent to the input 0100 is:

This process can be continued, and it can be shown that for input 0010 (3rd MSB) provides an output
voltage of +V/8 and fourth MSB (input 0001) provides an output voltage of +V/16 and so on.
********Explain the Binary Ladder with digital input 1100

Figure 4-6(a): R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit for input 1100

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Since there are no voltage sources to the left of node C, the entire network to the left of this node can be
replaced by a resistance of 2R to form the equivalent circuit as:

Figure 4-6(b): Reduced R-2R Binary Ladder equivalent Circuit at node C

Now replace the network to the left of node C with its Thevenin’s equivalent circuit as

Figure 4-6(c): Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

The analog output voltage equivalent to the input 1100 is:
VA = Voltage drop across 2R resistor due to voltage source +V/2 + Voltage drop across 2R resistor due
to voltage source +V
Voltage drop across 2R resistor due to voltage source +V/2 = Current due to voltage +V/2 x 2R

Voltage drop across 2R resistor due to voltage source +V = Current due to voltage +V x 2R

Therefore the analog output voltage equivalent to the input 1100 is

VA = +V/4 + V/2 = +3V/4

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Problem:

In Binary Ladder network the analog output voltage due to LSB = 1/2n where n is the number of
bits.
Problem:

Analog output voltage

*******PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS OF DAC:

Define the terms Accuracy and Resolution with respect to D to A converter

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Problem: What is the resolution of a 9-bit D/A converter which uses a ladder network? What is the
resolution expressed as a percentage? If the full-scale output voltage of this converter is +5 V, what is
resolution in volts?

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***ACCURACY
The accuracy of the D/A converter is primarily a function of the accuracy of the precision resistors used
in the ladder and the precision of the reference voltage supply used. Accuracy is a measure of how close
the actual output voltage is to the theoretical output value.

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Problem:
Calculate the values of the LSB and full scale output voltage for 4 bit DAC for 0 to 10V range
Here 0 to 10V range means digital input levels 0 = 0V and 1 = 10V
We know that output voltage due to LSB = ½4 = 1/16
For 10V range LSB = 10 x 1/16 = 625mV
And voltage due to MSB = ½ x 10V = 5V
Voltage due to 2nd MSB = 10 x ¼ = 2.5V
Voltage due to 3rd MSB = 10 x 1/8 = 1.25V
Full scale output voltage = sum of the individual bit voltages. = 5 + 2.5 + 1.25 + 0.625 = 9.375V
4.2 ANALOG TO DIGITAL CONVERTERS
ADC takes the analog signal as input and converts into digital output. The functional diagram of ADC is
given below:

Figure 4-7: A to D converter block diagram

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ADC is provided with two control inputs start (input to initiate the conversion) and end of conversion
(output to indicate the end of conversion). Direct type ADCs and Integrated type ADCs are the two types
of ADCs available.
Flash or Simultaneous (Comparator/ Parallel) type ADC
A simple, fast, but most expensive conversion technique.
*************With neat diagram explain 2-bit simultaneous or Flash type A to D converter

Figure 4-8: Flash or Simultaneous A to D circuit

2 bit A to D converter contains 4 comparator circuits with Analog signal to be converted into digital
signal is one of the input to each comparator and the second input is standard reference voltage: that is
0V, +VR /4, +VR /2 and +3VR /4 ( system input: 0 to +V).
 When the analog input voltage is between 0 to +VR /4, the output of comparator X0 is HIGH and
all other comparator is in off state.
 When the analog input voltage is between +VR/4 to +VR/2, the output of comparator X0 and X1 is
HIGH and all other comparator is in off state.
 When the analog input voltage is between +VR/2 to +3VR/4, the output of comparator X0 ,X1 and
X2 is HIGH and other comparator is in off state.

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 When the analog input voltage is between +3VR/4 to +VR, the output of comparator X0 ,X1 X2
and X3 is HIGH
Here 4 line to 2 line priority encoder must accept four input levels and encode them into a 2-bit binary
number.
Truth table:

Advantages:
1. High speed
Disadvantages:
1. Number of comparators required is almost double for each added bit
Eg.: For 2-bit ADC; No. of Comparators = 4 (22) For 3-bit ADC; No. of Comparators = 8 (23)
SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATION TYPE ADC
***********Explain the working of successive approximation type of A to D converter
The following Figure shows successive approximation ADC.

Figure 4-9: Successive Approximation A to D circuit

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Figure shows a successive approximation register (SAR), the output of which is connected to DAC and
output latch circuit. The input signal (Vin) is compared with the analog output signal (Va) of the DAC.
Output of the comparator is feedback into SAR. The control logic inside SAR adjusts its digital output;
until it is equal to the analog input signal. The operation could be understood by the code tree given
below.

Figure 4-10: Successive Approximation A to D Conversion Steps

At the start of conversion cycle, start conversion terminal is made high. On the first clock pulse, the
output of the SAR is made 1000. The DAC produces an analog voltage (Va) proportional to 1000. This
analog voltage is compared with input analog signal (Vin). If Vin > Va, the comparator output will be high
and SAR keeps Q3 high. On the other hand, if Vin < Va, then the comparator output becomes low and
SAR resets Q3 to low. If Vin > Va, SAR follows the upward path in code tree and if Vin < Va, SAR
follows downward path.

The conversion time for n-bit successive approximation ADC is (n + 2) clock periods.
Advantages:
1. Considerably good speed
2. Good resolution.
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