Data Presentation

Statistics for Economists 2A

SFE611S

By
J. Amunyela

Ch
ap
Unit 1, part 2 2-1
Learning outcomes
At the end of this unit student should be
able to:
 Display data in tables and charts.
 Identify the distribution pattern of the
data.

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-2
Displaying Data in Tables
and Charts

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-3
Graphical Presentation of Data

Techniques reviewed in this chapter:

Qualitative Quantitative
Variables Variables

• Frequency distribution • Frequency distribution

(summary table) • Histogram
• Bar chart •Frequency polygon
• Pie chart • Ogive
• Stem-and-leaf display

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-4
Displaying Qualitative Data

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-5
Frequency Distributions for
Qualitative Data
A sample of 800 clients from a leading bank were
interviewed in a banking survey

One question asked in this survey was

‘‘What mode of banking do you prefer?’’

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-6
 Frequency Distributions for
Qualitative Data Frequency
column

Variable Preferred Mode of Banking Number of clients

ATM 128
Category Tele–banking 16
Drive-in service at branch 136
In person visit at branch 328
Internet banking 192
Sum = 800

Frequency

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-7
Calculating Relative Frequency
and Percentage Distributions

Frequency of that category

Relative frequency =
Sum of all frequencies

Percentage = Relative frequency  100%

Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-8
 Relative Frequency and
Percentage Distributions
Preferred Mode of Frequency Relative Percent
Banking Frequency

ATM 128 128/800=0.16 0.16(100)=16

Tele–banking 16 16/800=0.02 0.02(100)=2
Drive-in service at 136 136/800=0.17 0.17(100)=17
branch

In person visit at 328 328/800=0.41 0.41(100)=41

branch

Internet banking 192 192/800=0.24 0.24(100)=24

Sum = 1.000 Sum = 100
Ch
ap
sem 1 2021 2-9
Bar and Pie Charts
 Bar charts and Pie charts are often used
for displaying qualitative/categorical data

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 10
Bar Chart showing
Preferred Mode of Banking
350

300

250
Frequency

200

150

100

50

ATM Tele_banking Drive_in In_person Internet

Mode of Banking Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 11
Pie Chart showing
Preferred Mode of Banking

ATM
16%
Internet Tele_banking
24% 2%

Drive_in
17%

In_person
41%

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 12
 Class Exercise
A sample of 30 employees from large companies
was selected, and these employees were asked
how stressful their jobs were. The responses of
these employees are recorded below.

Very means very stressful

Somewhat means somewhat stressful
None means not stressful at all

Suggest an appropriate name for the variable

Ch
How stressful is an employee’s job? ap
2-
sem 1 2021 13
somewhat none somewhat very very none

very somewhat somewhat very somewhat somewhat

very somewhat none very none somewhat

somewhat very somewhat somewhat very none

somewhat very very somewhat none somewhat

a. Prepare a frequency distribution table

b. Calculate the relative frequencies and percentages
for all categories
c. Draw bar graph for the frequency distribution Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 14
Displaying Quantitative Data

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 15
 Tables and Charts for displaying
Quantitative Data

Quantitative
Data

Frequency Distributions and

Ordered Array
Cumulative Frequency Distributions

Stem-and-Leaf
Histogram Frequency Ogive
Display
Polygon Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 16
Frequency Distribution

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 17
Frequency Distributions for
Numerical Data
What is a Frequency Distribution?

A frequency distribution is a summary table.

Data is grouped into class intervals

(a.k.a classes)
Each class interval has a corresponding
frequency. Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 18
 Each segment represents a class interval
range

min max
Class interval
width

Lower class limit Upper class limit

Generally, the segments have an equal class
width Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 19
Example 1

A statistics student randomly selects 20 winter

days and records the daily maximum
temperature

24, 35, 17, 21, 24, 37, 26, 46, 58, 30,
32, 13, 12, 38, 41, 43, 44, 27, 53,
27
Arrange the data into a frequency distribution
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 20
1. Find range of the data

 Range = max - min

 Range = 58 - 12 = 46

2. Select number of class intervals, (k)

(this is a subjective decision)
 We can use Sturges Rule, but ONLY as a guide.

k = 5.322 rounded off gives 5 Ch

ap
2-
sem 1 2021 21
3. Compute class interval width, (c)

then round up for convenience

c = 10

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 22
4. Determine class limits

Class 1: 10 to less than 20

Class 2: 20 to less than 30
Class 3: 30 to less than 40
Class 4: 40 to less than 50
Class 5: 50 to less than 60

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 23
5. Count observations
and assign to classes

 You can use tallying method

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 24
 Organizing Quantitative Data:
Frequency Distribution Example

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20
20 but less than 30
30 but less than 40
40 but less than 50
50 but less than 60
Total

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 25
 Organizing Quantitative Data:
Frequency Distribution Example

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3
20 but less than 30 6
30 but less than 40 5
40 but less than 50 4
50 but less than 60 2
Total 20

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 26
 Organizing Quantitative Data:
Frequency Distribution Example

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3 .15
20 but less than 30 6 .30
30 but less than 40 5 .25
40 but less than 50 4 .20
50 but less than 60 2 .10
Total 20 1.00

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 27
 Organizing Quantitative Data:
Frequency Distribution Example

Relative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency
10 but less than 20 3 .15 15
20 but less than 30 6 .30 30
30 but less than 40 5 .25 25
40 but less than 50 4 .20 20
50 but less than 60 2 .10 10
Total 20 1.00 100

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 28
 Histogram
Distribution of Daily Maximum Temperatures
7

5
Frequency

15 25 35 45 55
Class Midpoints
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 29
How Many Class Intervals?
 Many (Narrow class intervals)
3.5
3
2.5

Frequency
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

12
16
20
24
28
32
36
40
44
48
52
56
60
More
4
8

Temperature

 Few (Wide class intervals)

12

10
8
Frequency

2
0
0 30 60 More Ch
Temperature ap
2-
sem 1 2021 30
 Example 2 (Single-valued classes)
The City of Windhoek wanted to know the number of
vehicles owned by households in Dorado Park. A
sample of 40 randomly selected households from
Dorado Park produced the following data on the
number of vehicles owned. Construct the frequency
distribution.

5 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 1 1
1 3 3 0 2 5 1 2 3 4
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1
4 2 1 1 2 1 1 4 1 3
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 31
Frequency Distribution of Vehicles
Owned by households in Dorado Park.
No. of vehicles f

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 32
No. of vehicles f
0
1
2
3
4
5

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 33
No. of vehicles f
0 2
1 18
2 11
3 4
4 3
5 2
Sf = 40

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 34
Frequency Polygon
(Using temperature data of Ex. 1)

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 35
Class Midpoint

Class
Class Frequency Percentage
Midpoint

10 but less than 20 3 15 15

20 but less than 30 6 30 25
30 but less than 40 5 25 35
40 but less than 50 4 20 45
50 but less than 60 2 10 55
Total 20 100
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 36
 Graphing Numerical Data:
The Frequency Polygon
Class
Class Midpoint Frequency
10 - < 20 15 3
20 - < 30 25 6
30 - < 40 35 5
40 - < 50 45 4
50 - < 60 55 2
Frequency Polygon
10

Frequency
5
(In a percentage
polygon the vertical axis
would be defined to 0
show the percentage of 5 15 25 35 45 55 65
observations per class)
Ch
Class Midpoints ap
2-
sem 1 2021 37
Frequency Polygon

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 38
Cumulative Frequency Curve
(THE LESS THAN OGIVE)

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 39
 Tabulating Numerical Data:
Cumulative Frequency

<Cumulative <Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20 3

20 but less than 30 6
30 but less than 40 5
40 but less than 50 4
50 but less than 60 2
Total 20 Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 40
 Tabulating Quantitative Data:
Cumulative Frequency

<Cumulative <Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20 3 15 3

20 but less than 30 6 30 9
30 but less than 40 5 25 14
40 but less than 50 4 20 18
50 but less than 60 2 10 20
Total 20 100 Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 41
 Tabulating Quantitative Data:
Cumulative Frequency
Less than Ogive

<Cumulative <Cumulative
Class Frequency Percentage
Frequency Percentage

10 but less than 20 3 15 3 15

20 but less than 30 6 30 9 45
30 but less than 40 5 25 14 70
40 but less than 50 4 20 18 90
50 but less than 60 2 10 20 100
Total 20 100 Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 42
 Upper %
class Cumulative
Class boundary Frequency
10 0 Less than Ogive
10 - < 20 20 15 120
20 - < 30 30 45

% Cumulative Frequency
100
30 - < 40 40 70
40 - < 50 50 90 80
50 - < 60 60 100
60

40

20

Upper Class Boundary Ch

ap
2-
sem 1 2021 43
Shapes of Histograms

A Histogram can assume any of a large number of

shapes.

 The most common of these shapes are

1. Symmetric
2. Skewed
3. Uniform or regular

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 44
Symmetric Histogram
A symmetric histogram is identical
on both sides of its central point.
Frequency

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 45
Symmetric Histogram

Frequency

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 46
Skewed Histogram
A skewed histogram is non-symmetric.
The tail on one side is longer than the
tail on the other side.
Frequency

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 47
Skewed Histogram

Frequency

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 48
Uniform or Rectangular Histogram

A uniform or rectangular histogram

has the same frequency for each class.
Frequency

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 49
Corresponding Curves

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 50
Class Exercises

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 51
STEM AND LEAF DISLPLAY
• A stem and leaf display is a graphical method of
displaying quantitative data.

The Stem-and-Leaf display shows the shape of a set of

data (known as the distribution)

 In a stem-and-leaf plot each data value is split into a

"stem" and a "leaf".
 The "leaf" is usually the last digit of the number and the
other digits to the left of the "leaf" form the "stem“.

E.g. 12
Stem : 1 Ch
ap

Leaf : 2 sem 1 2021

2-
52
Examples

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 53
More Exercises

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 54
Exercise 1
The frequency distribution table below gives the
number of smartphones sold by a shop on each of
30 days. Determine the class mid-points, relative
frequency and percentages
smartphones sold f
5-9 3
10 - 14 6
15 - 19 8
20 -24 8
25 -29 5
30
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 55
Solution

Class Class Relative

f Percent
Limits Midpoint Frequency

5-9 3
10 - 14 6
15 - 19 8
20 -24 8
25 -29 5
30
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 56
Solution

Class Class Relative

f Percent
Limits Midpoint Frequency

5-9 3 7 0.100 10.0

10 - 14 6 12 0.200 20.0
15 - 19 8 17 0.267 26.7
20 -24 8 22 0.267 26.7
25 -29 5 27 0.167 16.7
30 1.001 100.1 Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 57
 Exercise 2
Sambiri Silicon manufactures computer monitors.
The following data represents the number of
computer monitors produced at the company for a
sample of 30 days.

a. Calculate the frequency distribution, class

boundaries and class midpoints.

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 58
 30 27 33 26 24
21 31 27 27 28
31 34 26 23 31
34 23 33 25 28
26 22 33 23 21
35 22 25 35 27

b. Calculate the relative frequencies and percentages

for all classes.
c. Construct a histogram and a polygon for the
percentage distribution.
d. For what percentage of the days is the number of
computer monitors produced in the interval 27-29?Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 59
Class Limits Frequency
21 - 23 7
24 - 26 6
27 - 29 6
30 - 32 4
33 - 35 7
30

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 60
 Why Use a Frequency Distribution?

 It condenses the raw data into a more useful

form
 It allows for a quick visual interpretation of the
data
 It enables the determination of the major
characteristics of the data set including where
the data are concentrated / clustered

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 61
 Principles of Excellent Graphs
 The graph should not distort the data.
 The graph should not contain unnecessary
adornments (sometimes referred to as chart
junk).
 The scale on the vertical axis should begin at zero.
 All axes should be properly labeled.
 The graph should contain a title.

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 62
Exercise 3
A company that sells farming equipment
deployed 50 salespersons countrywide. The
following table summarises the number of
hours each salesperson worked for a
period of one month.

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 63
 Data

128 203 40 149 84 164 187 124 144 130

62 93 128 87 155 94 157 195 110 133

141 104 69 121 113 79 162 149 204 103

143 30 42 164 71 105 151 161 165 175

148 114 116 122 146 197 167 184 156 140

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 64
Questions
 Use the quantitative data set provided, to
construct frequency ,percent and
cumulative percent distributions.
 Use the frequency distribution table
constructed above to construct a
histogram and a frequency polygon.
 Use the data from the frequency
distribution to construct a cumulative
“less-than” ogive.
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 65
 Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent

30-<55 3 6.0 6.0

55-<80 4 8.0 14.0
80-<105 6 12.0 26.0
105-<130 10 20.0 46.0
130-<155 11 22.0 68.0
155-<180 10 20.0 88.0
180-<205 6 12.0 100.0
Total 50 100.0
Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 66
Histogram

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 67
 Frequency Polygon for the 50
Salespersons
12
Frequency

10
8
6
4
2
0
17.5 42.5 67.5 92.5 117.5 142.5 167.5 192.5 217.5

Class Midpoints of Hours used in a Month Ch

ap
2-
sem 1 2021 68
 Less than Ogive for the 50
Salespersons
% Cum ulative Frequency 120
100
80
60
40
20
0
30 55 80 105 130 155 180 205

Upper Class Limits of Hours used in a Month Ch

ap
2-
sem 1 2021 69
End of Chapter

Ch
ap
2-
sem 1 2021 70