UNIT-IV

MAGNETISM and SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

MAGNETISM
 Introduction:
Magnetism arises from the magnetic moment or magnetic dipole of the
magnetic materials. Any material that can be magnetized by the application of
external magnetic field is called magnetic material. Magnetic substances are
the substances having the property of attracting the magnetic materials.
 Basic Definitions:
Magnet: A piece of matter, which when suspended freely rests in a particular
direction (North-South) and which possesses a net magnetic moment and
attracts ferrous bodies towards it, is called a magnet. This property of a magnet
is called, magnetism.
Magnetic poles: The two points at the ends of a magnet at which magnetism is
maximum, are called as magnetic poles. They are of two types, i) North pole ii)
South Pole.
Magnetic dipole: It is a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic
poles separated by a finite distance (2lmetre).
Magnetic dipole Moment (μ) :It is defined as the product of the pole strength
(m) and the distance between the two poles (2l) of the magnet. i.e., μ = m x 2l
Units: Ampere - metre2
Magnetic Flux Density or Magnetic Induction (B):It is defined as the number of
magnetic lines of force passing perpendicularly through unit area.
i.e., B = magnetic flux /area = Φ/A;
Units: Weber/metre2 (or) Tesla.
Magnetic Field Intensity (H): The magnetic field intensity at any point in the
magnetic field is the force experienced by a unit North Pole placed at that
point.
Units: Ampere / meter
The magnetic induction B due to magnetic field intensity H applied in vacuum is
related by
B = μ0H ; where μ0 is permeability of free space = 4 Π x 10-7 H / m

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If the field is applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given by
B = μ H ; where μ is permeability of the material in the medium
μ=B/H
Hence magnetic Permeability μ of any material is the ratio of the magnetic
induction to the applied magnetic field intensity. The ratio of μ / μ 0 is called the
relative permeability (μr).
μr = μ / μ 0
Therefore, B = μ0μr H
Intensity of Magnetization (I or M):
It is the process of converting a non - magnetic material into a magnetic
material. The intensity of magnetization (M) of a material is the magnetic
moment per unit volume. The intensity of magnetization is directly related to the
applied field H.
i.e., M α H

M = χ H ------------(1) Units: Ampere / meter

Magnetic Susceptibility (χ):-

The magnetic susceptibility of a material is the ratio of the intensity of
magnetization produced to the magnetic field intensity which produces the
magnetization.
i.e., χ = M / H ;
It has no units.
Relation between B, H and M:
We know, B = μ H
B = μ0μr H
B = μ0μr H + μ0 H - μ0 H
= μ0 H + μ0 H( μr- 1 )
= μ0 H + μ0M ; where M is magnetization = H ( μr– 1 )
i.e., B = μ0 ( H + M ) ----------(2)
The first term on the right side of eqn (2) is due to external field. The second term
is due to the magnetization.
And μ0 = B / H + M.
Relation between μr and χ:

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Relative Permeability μr = μ / μ0
= (B/H) / (B/H + M)
= (H + M) / H = 1 + M / H
μr = 1 + χ ---------(3)
The magnetic properties of all substances are associated with the orbital and
spin motions of the electrons in their atoms. Due to this motion, the electrons
become elementary magnets of the substance. In few materials these
elementary magnets are able to strengthen the applied magnetic field, while in
few others; they orient themselves such that the applied magnetic field is
weakened.
 Origin of magnetic moment:
In the atom, the magnetic moments can arise due to the following
1. The orbital motion of the electron gives rise to orbital magnetic moment.
2. The spinning motion of the electron gives rise to the spin magnetic moment.
 Classification of magnetic materials:
All the materials can be classified based on their magnetic behavior in the
presence of the magnetic field as
1. Dia magnetic material 2. Paramagnetic material
3. Ferromagnetic material4. Anti-Ferro magnetic material and
5. Ferri magnetic material(Ferrites).
Sl.No. Type of magnetic Magnetic Magnetic behaviour Example
material susceptibility
1 Dia magnetic Negative Atoms have no magnetic Au, Cu, Bi
material moment
2 Paramagnetic Small, positive Atoms have randomly Pt, Mn, Al
material oriented magnetic
moments

3 Ferromagnetic Large, positive Atoms have parallel Fe, Co, Ni

material aligned magnetic
moments

4 Anti-Ferro Small, positive Atoms have anti parallel MnO,FeO,

magnetic aligned magnetic NiO,

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 material moments FeMn

5 Ferri magnetic Large, positive Atoms have anti parallel MnFe2O4,

material(Ferrites) aligned magnetic ZnFe2O4,
moments of different
NiFe2O4
magnitudes

1. Dia magnetic materials:

An electron in an orbit has an orbital magnetic moment and a spin magnetic
moment. When the shells are completely filled (i.e., an atom has even number
of electrons) the net magnetic moment becomes zero.
“The materials which when placed in an external magnetic field, it acquires
feeble magnetism in the direction opposite to the direction of the applied
magnetic field then the material is known as diamagnetic material.”
Examples: Au, Cu, Bi.
Properties
1. Permanent dipoles are absent
2. Magnetization is weak and when placed in a non-uniform magnetic field they
move from stronger field to weaker field.
3. When placed inside a magnetic field, magnetic lines of forces are repelled.
4. Magnetic susceptibility is negative.
5. Magnetic susceptibility is independent of temperature.
6. Relative permeability is slightly less than unity.
2. Paramagnetic materials:
When the shells of the atom are unfilled then there is net magnetic moment. In
the absence of the magnetic field, the net moments of the substance are zero,
since the moments of the atoms are arranged in random directions because of
thermal fluctuations. When the field is applied, there is a tendency for the
dipoles to align in the direction of the field. Hence there is a net magnetization
and this induced magnetization is the source of Para magnetism.
“The materials which when placed in an external magnetic field, it acquires
feeble magnetism in the direction of the applied magnetic field then the
material is known as Para magnetic material.”
Examples: Pt, Mn, Al

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Properties
1. Paramagnetic materials possess permanent magnetic dipoles.
2. In the absence of the field, the net magnetic dipole moment is zero.
3. When placed in the non-uniform magnetic field, they move from weaker
region of the field to stronger region of the field.
4. They attract the magnetic lines of force.
5. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and greatly depends on temp
The temperature dependence of susceptibility is given by
𝐶
χ= This relation is known as Curie law
𝑇

6. Spin alignment is random

7. Paramagnetic susceptibility is independent of the applied field
8. Relative permeability is greater than unity.
3. Ferromagnetic materials:
Ferromagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment due to spontaneous
magnetization. Spontaneous magnetization is due to the parallel alignment of
the dipoles which is due to the interaction between the dipoles. Hence the
substance possesses net dipole moment even in the absence of the field. When
the field is applied, the substance is magnetized strongly.
“The materials which when placed in an external magnetic field, it is strongly
magnetized in the direction of the applied magnetic field then the material is
known as Ferromagnetic material.”
Examples: Fe, Co, Ni.
Properties
1. The substance possesses net dipole moment known as spontaneous
magnetization.
2. Parallel alignment of the dipoles extends to small region known as domains.
3. When the substance is placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, they move
from weaker region to stronger region. The substance is strongly magnetized.
4. The magnetic lines of forces are strongly attracted by the substance.
5. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and very large.
The temperature dependence of susceptibility is given by the relation,
𝐶
χ= 𝑇−𝜃 This relation is known as Curie- Weiss law

Here θ: Currie temperature; When T >θ the substance will be paramagnetic

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When T <θ the substance is ferromagnetic.
6. Spin alignment is parallel.
7. Ferromagnetic magnetic materials exhibit hysteresis.
8. Dipole alignment extends to a small region known as domains.

4. Anti-ferromagnetic materials:
The substances possess permanent dipoles which are aligned anti parallel to
each other. Since the magnitude of the dipoles are equal and opposite the net
magnetization vanishes.
Anti-Ferro magnetic susceptibility is greatly temperature dependent.
𝐶
χ= 𝑇+𝜃When T > TN

χT When T < TN

C is Currie constant, θ is the paramagnetic Curie temperature, and TN is the Neel

temperature.

The susceptibility increases slightly with the temperature and is maximum at a

temperature known as Neel temperature. Beyond the Neel temperature, the
anti-ferromagnetic material behaves like paramagnetic material. Oxides of anti-

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ferromagnetic materials are used to make magnetic storage devices.
Examples: MnO, FeO, NiO, FeMn.
5. Ferri-magnetic materials:
This is a special case of anti-ferromagnetism. The magnetic moments are
unequal and antiparallel. Hence the ferri-magnetic material possesses a net
magnetic moment.
1. Ferrimagnetic materials possess net magnetic moment.
2. Above Curie temperature becomes paramagnetic while below it behaves as
ferromagnetic material.
𝐶
χ=
𝑇±𝜃
3. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and large.
Examples: MnFe2O4, ZnFe2O4, NiFe2O4.
 Applications of Ferrites:
1. Manganese magnesium ferrite, manganese copper ferrite etc. are used in
random access storage in computers.
2. Barium ferrite, strontium ferrite are used to make permanent magnets.
3. Manganese zinc ferrite, nickel zinc ferrite etc., are used in inductor cores,
transformer cores and rod materials.
4. Garnets and few types of ferrites are used in the devices like isolators,
circulators, switches etc.
5. Ferrites have importance in engineering and technology because they
possess spontaneous magnetic moment below the Curie temperature just as
iron, cobalt, nickel.
6. Due to very low eddy current losses, ferrites are used as a core of coils in
microwave frequency devices and computer memory core elements.
7. Due to relatively low permeability and flux density compared to iron, ferrites
are not suitable for the use in high field and high power applications, such as
motors, generators and power transformers, but they can be used in low field
and low power applications.
8. Ferrites are used as ferromagnetic insulators in electrical circuits.
9. Ferrites like ZnO find low frequency applications in timers. They are also used
as switches in refrigerators, air conditioners, etc.

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 Weiss molecular field theory of Ferromagnetism and Derivation of
Curie-Weiss law:
According to Weiss in a ferromagnetic material, there is internal molecular
field due to the definite magnetic moments of atoms.
This molecular field is responsible for the spontaneous magnetization in
ferromagnetic material.
This internal molecular field is proportional to magnetization (M)of the
material.
𝐻𝑖 = 𝜆𝑀-------- (1) Where ‘𝜆’ is Weiss molecular field coefficient.
When a ferromagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field the material
gets magnetized dueto not only applied field but also internal molecular
field.
Then the net effective field is equal to, 𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻 + 𝐻𝑖
𝐻𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐻 + 𝜆𝑀 ---------- (2)
μ0 μ2 N Heff
But, according to Langevin’s theory, M = 3kT
------- (3)
μ0 μ2 N (𝐻+ 𝜆𝑀)
Substitute eqn(2) in above equation and we get, M = 3kT
μ0 μ2 N 𝐻 μ0 μ2 N 𝜆𝑀
M= 3kT
+ 3kT
μ0 μ2 N 𝜆𝑀 μ0 μ2 N 𝐻
M− 3kT
= 3kT
-------- (4)
𝜇0 𝜇2 𝑁
Let C = 3𝑘
and θ = Cλ;
where, C is Curie constant
CH
Then the eqn (4) can be written as M (1 −θT) = T
T− θ CH
M ( T ) =
T
M T− θ C
( T ) = -------- (5)
H T
M
We know that susceptibility χ= ; then eqn (5) becomes,
H
χ( T –θ) = C
𝐂
χ= thisis known as Curie-Weiss law.
𝐓 –𝛉
 Domain Theory of Ferromagnetism:
1. Weiss proposed this concept of Domains in 1907 to explain the hysteresis
effects observed in ferromagnetic materials as well as to explain the properties
of Ferromagnetic materials.
2. A region in a ferromagnetic material where all the magnetic moments are

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aligned in the same direction is called a domain. A magnetic domain is
completely magnetized and has definite boundaries. So a ferromagnetic
material is divided up into these small regions, called domains, each of which is
at all times completely magnetized.
3. The direction of magnetization, however, varies from domain to domain and
thus the net macroscopic magnetization is zero in a virgin specimen in the
absence of external magnetic field.
4. But when the ferromagnetic material is in the magnetic field, in the initial
stages of magnetization in the material, the domain having moment’s parallel
magnetic fields increases in area; in the final saturation stage, the other domains
are rotated parallel to the field.
5. Similarly if we demagnetize the material the regular domain arrangement is
changed and it is different from the original state. This creates the hysteresis in
the ferromagnetic substances.
Further this theory can explain the following;
1. If a magnet is broken into pieces, each piece will be a magnet with a north
and a south pole. This is because the domains continue to remain in broken
pieces.
2. A magnet heated or roughly handled tends to lose its magnetism. This is
because the alignment of the domains in the magnet is likely to be disturbed
during heating and rough handling. Hence magnetism is reduced or lost.
3. Domains of soft iron are easily rotated with a comparatively small magnetizing
force and hence they are very easily magnetized or demagnetized. In this case
of steel a large force is required for rotating the domains which explains the high
retentivity of that material.
4. A specimen when magnetized suddenly experiences a slight change in its
length which is due to rearrangement of domains inside. This is called magneto-
striction.
5. Processes of domain magnetization:

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There are two possible ways to align a random domain structure by applying an
external magnetic field.
 By the motion of domain walls: i.e., by an increase in the volume of
domains that are favorably oriented with respect to the magnetizing field
at the cost of those that are unfavorably oriented as shown in figure (b);
figure (a) shows that arrangements of domains for zero resultant magnetic
moment in a single crystal or virgin specimen when there is no applied
magnetic field.
 By rotation of domains: i.e., by the rotation of the direction of
magnetization of domain along the direction of field as shown in figure
(c). In weak magnetizing fields, he magnetizing of the specimen is due to
the motion of domain walls and in stronger fields that is due to the rotation
of domains.
 Hysteresis Curve (study of B-H curve):
Hysteresis occurs in a system that involves a magnetic field. Hysteresis is the
common property of ferromagnetic substances. Generally, when the
magnetization of ferromagnetic materials lags behind the magnetic field this
effect can be described as the hysteresis effect.
Definition: The meaning of hysteresis is “lagging”. It is characterized as a lag of
Magnetization intensity (B) behind the magnetic field intensity (H).
All ferromagnetic materials exhibit the phenomena of hysteresis. To give you a
better understanding of the concept, we will take an instance where a
ferromagnetic substance is placed inside a current-carrying coil. Due to the
magnetic field that is present the substance gets magnetized. If we reverse the
direction of current then the substance gets demagnetized, this process is
known as hysteresis.
The hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the intensity of magnetization
and the magnetizing field. The loop is generated by measuring the magnetic
flux coming out fromthe ferromagnetic substance while changing the external
magnetizing field.
Looking at the graph, if B is measured for various values of H and if the results are
plotted in graphic forms then the graph will show a hysteresis loop.
 The intensity of the magnetism (B)when the magnetic field (H) is increased
from 0(zero).
 With increasing the magnetic field there is anincrease in the value of
magnetism and finally reaches point “a” which is called saturation point or
saturation magnetization.

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  With a decrease in the value of the magnetic field, there is a decrease in the
value of magnetism. But at “b” and H are equal to zero, substance or
material retains some amount of magnetism is called retentivity or residual
magnetism or Remanence (Br).
 When there is a decrease in the magnetic field towards the negative side,
magnetism also decreases. At point C the substance is completely
demagnetized.
 The force required to remove the retentivity of the material is known as
Coercive force (C) or Coercivity (Hc).
 In the opposite direction, the cycle is continued where the saturation point is
“d, retentivity point is “e”and coercive force is ”f”.
 Due to the forward and opposite direction process, the cycle is complete
and this cycle is called the hysteresis loop.

Hysteresis Loss:
The work done by the magnetizing force against the internal friction of the
molecules of the magnet produces heat. This energy which is wasted in the form
of heat due to hysteresis is called Hysteresis Loss.
Hysteresis loss is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic body through a
complete cycle of magnetization and this loss is represented by the area
enclosed by the hysteresis loop.
 Hard and Soft magnetic materials:
Based on the area of the hysteresis, magnetic materials can be classified into
hard and soft materials. It is seen that that the process of magnetization consists
in the movement of domainwalls so that favorably oriented domains grow fast
and the un favorable ones shrink. If the resistance to the movement of domain
walls is small, the coercive force is small and it is easy to magnetize the
specimen. Such materials are called soft magnetic materials. On the other

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hand, if the domain wall movement is hard, the coercive force is large and the
material is called hard magnetic materials.

Sl.No. Hard magnetic materials Soft magnetic materials

1 They have large hysteresis loss due to They have low hysteresis loss due
large hysteresis area. to low hysteresis area.
2 In these materials the domain wall The domain wall movement is
movement is difficult. relatively easier.
3 The coercivity and retentivity are The coercivity and retentivity are
large. small.
4 The material cannot be magnetized The material can be magnetized
and demagnetized easily. and demagnetized easily.
5 The magnetostatic energy is large The magnetostatic energy is small
6 They have small values of They have large values of
permeability andSusceptibility permeability and susceptibility
7 Examples:Iron nickel aluminium alloy Examples: Iron silicon alloys,
with cobolt(Alnico), Copper nickel Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites,
iron alloy (Cunife),Copper nickel Garnets
cobalt alloy (Cunico)
8 They are used to make permanent They used to make temporary
magnets, flux meters, voltage magnets, transformer cores,
regulators, magnetic detectors, and switching circuits, microwave
magnetic separators. isolators, matrix storage devices.

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Problem1:
The magnetic susceptibility of silicon is −0.4 × 10−5. Calculate the flux density
and magnetic moment per unit volume when magnetic field of intensity 5 × 105
A/m is applied.
sol:
Given: χ = –0.4 × 10‒5
H = 5 × 105 A /m
B = ?and M = ?
B = μ0(H + M) = μ0 H(1 + χ)
= 4π × 10‒7× 5 × 105 [1 - 0.4 × 10‒5]
B = 4π × 5 × 10‒2× 0.9996
B = 0.62 Wb/m2
M = χH = –0.4 × 10-5× 5 × 105
M = -2.0 A/m.

Problem 2:
The magnetic field strength in silicon is 1000 A/m. If the magnetic susceptibility is
−0.25 × 10−5, calculate the magnetization and flux density in silicon.
sol:
Magnetic field strength (H) = 1000 A/m
Magnetic susceptibility (χ) = –0.25 ×10−5
Magnetization (M) = χH = –0.25 ×10−5× 1000
= –0.25 × 10‒2 A/m.
Magnetic flux density (B) = μ 0(H + M)
= 4π × 10–7(1000 - 0.25 × 10‒2)

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 SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
 Introduction:
Certain metals and alloys exhibit almost zero resistivity (i.e. infinite conductivity)
when they are cooled to sufficiently low temperatures. This phenomenon is
called superconductivity.
This phenomenon was first observed
by H.K. Onnes in 1911. He observed
that the electrical resistivity of pure
mercury drops suddenly to zero at
about the boiling point of helium i.e.,
4.2K. He concluded that mercury has
passed into a new state which is
called the superconducting state.
The temperature at which the
resistance disappears is called the
transition temperature or critical
temperature.

Definition: The electrical resistance of a substance suddenly drops to zero when

it is cooled to sufficiently low temperature. This phenomenon is known as
superconductivity.
Examples: Hg, Nb, Zn, Cd, Al, etc.
Since the hundreds of superconductors have been discovered and
studied. Superconductivity is strictly a low temperature phenomenon. Few new
oxides exhibited superconductivity just below 125K itself. This interesting
phenomenon has many important applications in many emerging fields.

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 General Properties of Superconductors:
The temperature at which the transition from normal state to superconducting
state takes place on cooling in the absence of magnetic field is called the
critical temperature (Tc) or the transition temperature.
The following are the general properties of the superconductors:
i. The transition temperature is different to different substances.
ii. For a chemically pure and structurally perfect specimen, the
superconducting transition is very sharp.
iii. For chemically impure and structurally imperfect, the transition range is
broad.
iv. The superconducting property of a superconductor will not lost by adding
impurities to it, but the critical/transition temperature varies.
v. The transition temperature (Tc) is different for different isotopes of
superconductor. It is found to vary as the square root of atomic mass i.e.,
Tc∝M–1/2.This is known as isotope effect.
vi. At room temperature, superconducting materials have greater resistivity than
other elements. Materials having high normal resistivity exhibit
superconductivity.
vii. Superconductivity is found to occur in metallic elements in which the number
of valence electrons lies between 2 & 8.
viii. Transition metals having odd number of valence electrons are favorable to
exhibit superconductivity while metals having even number of valence
electrons are unfavorable.
ix. There is no change in the crystal structure as revealed by X-ray Diffraction.
This suggests that superconductivity is more concerned with the conduction
electrons than with the atoms.
x. Ferromagnetic and anti ferromagnetic materials are not superconductors.
xi. The current in a superconducting ring persists for a very long time.
xii. The photoelectric, thermal expansion and elastic properties do not change
in superconducting transition.
xiii. Specific heat of superconductor varies exponentially with temperature.
xiv. Thermal conductivity is usually lower in superconducting state.
xv. Entropy of a superconductor decrease rapidly on cooling below the
transition temperature compared to normal state. This shows that
superconducting state is more ordered than the normal state.

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xvi. Thermoelectric effects disappear in the superconducting state.
xvii. When a sufficient strong magnetic field is applied to a superconducting
material below critical temperature its superconducting property is destroyed.
 Effect of Magnetic Field:
Superconducting state of a metal depends on temperature and strength of the
applied magnetic field. Superconducting property disappears if the
temperature of the specimen is raised above Tc or a strong enough magnetic
field is applied. At temperatures below Tc, in the absence of any magnetic field,
the material is in superconducting state. When the strength of the magnetic field
applied reaches a critical value then superconductivity disappears. The
minimum value of applied magnetic field when the superconductor loses its
superconductivity is called the critical magnetic field (Hc).

At any given temperature below Tc there is a critical magnetic field Hc

such that the superconducting property is destroyed on the application of
magnetic field. The value of Hc decreases as the temperature increase.
At T=Tc c, Hc = 0. At temperatures below Tc, Hc increases. The dependence of
the critical field upon the temperature is given by
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1 - (T/Tc)2];Where Hc(0) is the critical field at 0K.
Hc(0) and Tc are constants of the characteristics of the material.

 Meissner effect:
When a weak magnetic field is applied to superconducting specimen at a
temperature below transition temperature (Tc), then the magnetic flux lines are
expelled from the specimen. Now the specimen acts as on ideal diamagnetic
material. This effect is called Meissner effect.

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Meissner effect is reversible, i.e. when the temperature is raised from below Tc, at
T = Tc the flux lines suddenly start penetrating and the specimen returns back to
the normal state.
Under this condition, the magnetic induction (B) inside the specimen is given by
B = 𝜇0 (H + M) ---------------(1)
Where H is the external applied magnetic field and M is the magnetization
produced inside the specimen.
When the specimen is superconducting, according to Meissner effect inside the
superconductor, B= 0.
Hence,𝜇0 (H + M) = 0 (or)M = - H -------------- (2)
Thus the material is perfectly diamagnetic.
Magnetic susceptibility can be expressed as,
χ=M/H = -1 [since M= -H (from equation 2)] ------------ (3)
The negative value of susceptibility indicates that the superconductor is a
perfect diamagnetic.
[Now consider a superconducting material under normal state. Let J be the
current density and ρ be the resistivity. From ohm’s law we know that the
electric field E = Jρ
On cooling the material to its transition temperature, ‘ρ’ tends to zero. If ‘J’ is
held finite, then E must be zero.
Form Maxwell’s equation, we know, ∇ X E = - ∂B/ ∂t -----------------(4)
Under superconducting condition since E = 0, ∂B/∂t = 0, or B= constant.
This means that the magnetic flux passing through the specimen should not
change on cooling to the transition temperature. The Meissner effect
contradicts this result.]

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According to Meissner effect perfect diamagnetism is an essential property of
defining the superconducting state. Therefore, the superconductors should be
judged by both the conditions independently. Thus, the superconductor,
(i) Has zero resistance below critical/transition temperature.
(ii) Shows Meissner effect below critical/transition temperature.

 Types of superconductors:
Based on diamagnetic response Superconductors are divided into two types, i.e
type-I and type-II.
Type- I superconductors:
 Superconductors exhibiting a complete Meissner effect are called type-1
superconductors.
 Type-1 superconductors also called Soft Superconductors.
 Type-I superconductor is one in which the transition from superconducting
state to normal state in the presence of magnetic field occurs sharply at
the critical value Hc.
 When the magnetic field strength is gradually increased from its initial
value H<HC, at HC the diamagnetism abruptly disappear and the transition
from superconducting state to normal state is sharp.
 Examples:-Al, Zn, Ga, Hg, and Sn etc.
Type- II superconductors:
 Type-II superconductor is one in which the transition from superconducting
state to normal state in the presence of magnetic field occurs gradually.
 Type-II superconductors are also known as hard superconductors. They
have high current densities.
 Type-II superconductor is characterized by two critical magnetic fields
Hc1(called the lower critical field) and Hc2(called the upper critical field).
 For fields below Hc1, the superconductor expels the magnetic field from
the body completely and behaves as a prefect diamagnetic.
 At HC1 the field begins to penetrate through the specimen. Penetration
increases until HC2 is reached.
 Type-II superconductors show complete Meissner effect below Hc1 and
allow the flux to penetrate the superconductor betweenHc1 and Hc2.
 Between HC1 and HC2 the state of the material is called the mixed or
vortex state.

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  At HC2, the external field has completely penetrated into the body and
destroyed the superconductivity. Now the material becomes normal
state.
 Examples:-Zr , Nb, Lead-indium alloy, etc.

 Difference between Type-I and Type-II Superconductor:

Type-I Superconductor Type-II Superconductor
1. In this superconductor when the 1. In this super conductor, when
applied magnetic field is equal to applied field reaches lower critical
critical magnetic field then field, conversion starts and it is
immediately it converts in to normal completed slowly at upper critical
conductor. field.
2. It has a single critical field value 2. It has two critical field values i.e.,
(Hc). Hc1, Hc2.
3. Type-I superconductors exhibit 3. Type-II superconductors show
complete Meissner effect complete Meissner effect below Hc1
and allow the flux to penetrate the
superconductor betweenHc1 and
Hc2.
4. There is no mixed state. 4. There is a mixed state.
5. These are also known as soft 5. These are also known as hard super
superconductors. conductors.
6. The critical field Hc is relatively low 6. The value of Hc2 is very large.
7. Materials with pure form are type I 7. Materials with impurities or alloys
super conductors. are of type II superconductors.
8. Examples:- Zn, Hg, Sn, Al, Pb, Ga, 8. Examples:- Zr , Nb, V, Nb3Ge, Lead-
etc. indium alloys, etc.

 Isotope Effect:

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

The critical temperature of the superconductor varies with isotopic mass. This is
effect called isotope effect. The graph shows the effect of isotopic mass of Hg
on the Tc.

The experimental results within each series of isotopes maybea relation of the
form:
MαTc = constant where α = 0.5(as per BCS theory)

For Zn, the α= ~ 0.45;

for Cd, the α= ~ 0.32;

forPb, the α= ~ 0.49.

 BCS THEORY (EXPLANATION OF SUPERCONDUCTIVITY):

 In 1957, Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer gave a theory to explain the
phenomenon of superconductivity, which is known as BCS theory. The theory
is based on the formation of Cooper Pairs.
 In metals, the electrical resistance arises due to the collision of conduction
(free electrons) with the vibrating ions of the lattice. In normal state, the force
between the electrons is repulsive. In superconducting state, the force
between two electrons becomes attractive due to formation of cooper pair.
The explanation is as follows:
 When a current flows through a superconductor, and an electron (negative
charge) comes near the positive ion core of the lattice, then the electron
experiences an attractive force. Due to interaction between electron and
ion core, the ion core is slightly displaced. This is known as lattice distortion.
The distortion in the lattice then travels away as a mechanical wave

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

 (Phonons).
 Now, suppose that another electron comes near the distorted lattice. The
lattice vibration (phonon) interacts with the second electron and hence
there is a force of attraction between second electron and phonon. In this
way, two electrons interact with each other through the lattice vibration. This
process is called as electron – lattice-electron interaction via a phonon field
(Mechanical waves).

 When an electron with vector k distorts the lattice, the lattice gains
momentum. As a result, the momentum of the electron decreases. So a
phonon of wave vector q is emitted. When another electron with wave
vector k’ absorbs the energy from phonon it gains momentum. Therefore,
due to interaction, we have two electrons with wave vector k - q and k’ + q.
The pair of electron is called a Cooper pair.
 Therefore, Cooper pair is a bound pair of electron formed by the interaction
between the electrons in a phonon field. The two electrons which pair up
have opposite momentum and spin.

 The cooper pair of electrons moves on without suffering any deviation either
by impurities or thermal vibrations. Hence, there is no exchange of energy
between pair of electrons and lattice ions. If an electric field is established
inside the substance, the electrons gain additional kinetic energy and give
rise to a current. The main important point is that the pair of electrons does
not transfer any energy to the lattice. Therefore, they do not get slowed

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

 down. As a consequence of this, the substance does not possess any
electrical resistivity and the conduction is large.
 When the pair of electrons flow in the form of Copper pair, they do not
encounter any scattering and the resistance factor vanishes, i.e.,
conductivity becomes infinity which is named as superconductivity.

 HIGH TEMPERATURE SUPERCONDUCTORS:

In the year 1986, Bednorz and Alex Muller in Zurich (Switzerland) discovered
the high temperature superconductivity in ceramics. They made a particular
type of ceramic material which remained a superconductor at a
temperature as high as 30 K. The importance of the discovery was
recognized immediately and they were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in1987.
The high temperature superconductors are also called as high Tc materials.
By 1988, the longstanding 30 K ceiling of Tc in inter metallic compound has
been elevated to 125 K in bulk superconducting oxides. All high temperature
superconductors are different types of oxides of copper. By 1994 high
temperature superconductor showed promise in pre-commercial
applications, as in thin film devices, and wires being fabricated.
Important Observations:
1) All high temperature superconductors bear a particular type of crystal
structure called the Perovskite structure.
2) The addition of extra copper oxygen layers into the structure unit of
superconducting copper oxide complexes pushes the critical temperature to
higher values.
3) The addition of any atom into copper oxide layer either brings down or
destroys the effect of superconductivity.
4) The important observation is that the formation super currents in high Tc
superconductors are direction dependent. The super currents are strong in
copper- oxygen planes and weak in direction perpendicular to the planes.
5) In bulk materials, since they are ceramics, the flow of super currents has a
restriction due to grain boundary effects. As a result, the critical current value
is pushed down.
Few High Temperature Superconductors are given below:
a. La1.85Sr0.15CuO4 with Tc of 40K
b. YBa2Cu3O7 with Tc of 92K

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

 c. Bi-Ca-Sr-Cu-O with Tc of 110K
d. Tl-Ba-Ca-Cu-O with a Tc of 120K
e. Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O with a Tc of 133 K
f. Hg-Ba-Ca-Cu-O with a Tc of 164 K (under pressure)
g. C60–Fullerences (2001) with a Tc of 110 K
h. InSnBa4Tm4Cu6O18 (2005) with a Tc of 150 K

 Applications Of Superconductors:
1. Electric generators:
Superconducting generators are very smaller in size and weight when
compared with conventional generators. The low loss superconducting coil is
rotated in an extremely strong magnetic field. Motors with very high powers
could be constructed at very low voltage as low as 450V. This is the basis of
new generation of energy saving power systems.
2. Low loss transmission lines and transformers:
Since the resistance is almost zero at superconducting phase, the power loss
during transmission is negligible. Hence electric cables are designed with
superconducting wires. If superconductors are used for winding of a
transformer, the power losses will be very small.
3. Magnetic Levitation:
Diamagnetic property of a superconductor i.e., rejection of magnetic flux
lines is the basis of magnetic levitation. A superconducting material can be
suspended in air against the repulsive force from a permanent magnet. This
magnetic levitation effect can be used for high speed transportation.
4. Generation of high Magnetic fields:
Superconducting materials are used for producing very high magnetic fields
of the order of50Tesla. To generate such a high field, power consumed is only
10kW whereas in conventional method for such a high field power generator
consumption is about 3MW. Moreover in conventional method, cooling of
copper solenoid by water circulation is required to avoid burning of coil due
to Joule heating.
5. Fast electrical switching:
A superconductor possesses two states, the superconducting and normal.
The application of a magnetic field greater than Hc can initiate a change
from superconducting to normal and removal of field reverses the process.

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

 This principle is applied in development of switching element cryotron. Using
such superconducting elements, one can develop extremely fast large scale
computers.
6. Logic and storage function in computers:
They are used to perform logic and storage functions in computers. The
current–voltage characteristics associated with Josephson junction are
suitable for memory elements.
7. SQUIDS (superconducting Quantum Interference Devices):
It is a double junction quantum interferometer. Two Josephson junctions
mounted on a superconducting ring forms this interferometer. The SQUIDS are
based on the flux quantization in a superconducting ring. Very minute
magnetic signals are detected by these SQUID sensors. These are used to
study tiny magnetic signals from the brain and heart. SQUID magnetometers
are used to detect the paramagnetic response in the liver. This gives the
information of iron held in the liver of the body accurately.
Problem1:
Calculate the critical current for a wire of a lead having a diameter of 1 mm
at 4.2 K. The critical temperature for lead is 7.18 K and H = 6.5 × 104A m–1.

Sol: Given data Tc= 7.18KHc(0) = 6.5 ×104 A m–1.

Temperature T = 4.2K radius of the wire r = 0.5 x 10–3 m
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1 – (T/Tc)2]
Hc(T) =6.5 × 104 [1-(4.2/7.18)2]

Hc(T) = 4.276 ×104 A m–1

Critical Current I c = 2πrHc

= 2x3.14x0.5 x 10–3 x 4.276 × 104

= 134.39 A
Problem2:
A superconducting tin has a critical temperature of 3.7 K at zero magnetic
field and a critical field of 0.0306 Tesla at 0 K. Find the critical field at 2 K.
Sol: Given data Tc= 3.7K Hc(0)= 0.0306 Tesla Temperature T = 2K
Hc(T) = Hc(0) [1 – (T/Tc)2]
Hc(T) = 0.0306[1-(2/3.7)2]

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.

Hc(T) = 0.0216 Tesla.

– Department of Physics, Keshav Memorial Engineering College, Hyderabad.