INTRODUCTION

Magnetic materials are the materials which can be made to behave as a magnets. When these
materials are kept in an external magnetic field, they will create a permanent magnetic moment in
it. There are nearly eleven types of magnetic materials. Some of them are diamagnetic,
paramagnetic, ferromagnetic, antiferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic.

Magnetism originates from the magnetic moment of the magnetic materials due to the rotational
motion of the charged particles. When an electron revolves around the positive nucleus, orbital
magnetic moment arises and due to the spinning of electrons, spin magnetic moment arises. Let us
see some of the basic definitions in magnetism.

BASIC DEFINITIONS - MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT

1. Magnetic dipole moment (Mμ)

A system having two opposite magnetic poles separated by a distance 'd' is called as a magnetic
dipole. If 'm' is magnetic pole strength and 'Ɩ' is the length of the magnet, then its dipole moment
is given by

Mμ = mƖ

Magnetic moment can also be defined as M μ = ia, where i is the electric current that flows through
a circular wire of an area of cross section 'a'.

2. Bohr Magneton

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom can be
expressed in terms of smallest atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton.

1 Bohr Magneton = eħ/2m => μB => 9.27 x 10-24 Am2

3. Magnetic field

The space around the magnet (or) the current carrying conductor where the magnetic effect is felt
is called Magnetic field.

4. Magnetic lines of force

Magnetic field is assumed to consist of lines of magnetic forces. These lines of forces travels
externally from north pole to south pole as shown in Fig. 3.1. Hence a magnetic line of force is
defined as the continuous curve in a magnetic field. The tangent drawn at any point on the curve
gives the direction of the resultant magnetic intensity at that point.

5. Magnetic lines of induction

The magnetic lines of force which originates from north pole to south pole doesn't end there itself.
They are supposed to continue through the magnet and reach the north pole from where they started
and forms a closed loop as shown in Fig. 3.2. Such imaginary lines are called magnetic lines of
induction.
6. Forces between two poles

Let us consider two poles of pole strength m1 and m2 placed at a distance 'r' apart as shown in Fig.
3.3.

From the coulomb's law of forces, the force of attraction (or) repulsion between the isolated point
magnetic poles is proportional to the product of pole strengths and is inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

(i.e.,)

Interms of unit vector ŕ ȓ directed from m1 to m2

Here K is a constant of proportionality.

where μo→ Permeability in free space (4π × 10-7 H/m.)

μr → Relative Permeability

For air μr = 1

7. Magnetic induction (or) Magnetic flux density (B)

It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through unit area of cross
section A at that point as shown Fig. (3.4)

where
8. Magnetic field intensity (H)

It is defined as the force experienced by a unit north pole placed at the given point in a magnetic
field.

9. Magnetisation (or) Intensity of magnetisation [M (or) I]

The term magnetisation is the process of converting a non magnetic material into a magnetic
material. It measures the magnetisation of the magnetised specimen.

It is also defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume.

MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY AND SUSCEPTIBILITY

1. Magnetic Susceptibility (Xm)

It is the measure of the ease with which the specimen can be magnetised by the magnetising force.

It is defined as the ratio between intensity of magnetisation (I) and the magnetic field intensity (H)

(i.e.,)

2. Magnetic Permeability (µ)

It is defined as the ratio between the magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetic field intensity (H)

It is the measure of degree at which the lines of force can penetrate through the material.

3. Relative Permeability (µr)

It is the ratio between the permeability of the medium to the permeability of free space.

4. Relation between μr and Xm

When a magnetic material is placed in a magnetic field (H), then two types of lines of induction
passes through the material. viz.,

(i) Due to magnetising field (H)

(ii) Due to material itself being magnetised by induction (1)

Total flux density B = µo (H+I) …….(1)

We know, μ = B/H ⇒ B = μ H …….(2)

Equating equation (1) and (2) we get

μH = μo (H+I)

Since μ = μo μr we have
Here I/H = Xm

5. Retentivity (or) Remanence (Mr)

When the external magnetic field applied to a magnetic material is removed, the magnetic material
will not loss its magnetic property immediately. There exits some residual intensity of
magnetisation in the specimen even when the magnetic field is cut off. This is called residual
magnetism or retentivity.

6. Coercivity (-HC)

The residual magnetism can be completely removed from the material by applying a reverse
magnetic field. Hence Coercivity of the magnetic material is the strength of reverse magnetic field
(-Hc) which is used to completely demagnetise the material.

CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS BASED ON ATOMIC MAGNETIC

MOMENTS

Magnetic materials are classified according to the presence or absence of the permanent magnetic
dipoles. Generally, every two electrons in an energy state of an atom will form a pair with opposite
spins. Thus the resultant spin magnetic moment is zero. Hence they don't have permanent magnetic
moments and they are called as diamagnetic materials. Examples. gold, germanium, silicon, etc.

But in some magnetic materials like iron, cobalt, etc., there exists unpaired electrons. The spin
magnetic moment of these unpaired electrons interact with the adjacent atom's unpaired electron
spin magnetic moment in a parallel manner resulting in enormous permanent spin magnetic
moment. These materials are classified into paramagnetic, ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic
materials with respect to the electron spins.
In a diamagnetic material, the electron orbits are more or less random, and mostly all the
magnetic moments are cancelled.

DIAMAGNETIC MATERIAL

In a diamagnetic material, the electron orbits are more or less random, and mostly all the magnetic
moments are cancelled. Similarly all the spin moments are almost paired i.e., they have even
number of electrons and has equal number of electrons spinning in two opposite directions as
shown in Fig. 3.5. Hence the net magnetic moment in the diamagnetic material is zero. Therefore
most of these materials do not have magnetism in the absence of magnetic field.

Effect of external field

When an external magnetic field is applied, the electrons reorient in such a way that they align
perpendicular to the field direction and their magnetic moments opposes the external magnetic
field. This will reduce the magnetic induction present in the specimen.

Properties

1. They repel the magnetic lines of force (Fig. 3.6)

2. Susceptibility is negative and it is independent of temperature and applied magnetic field

strength.

3. Permeability is less than 1.

4. There is no permanent dipole moment, so they are called weak magnets.

5. When temperature is less than critical temperature diamagnetics become normal material.

Examples. Gold, Germanium, Silicon etc.

PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS

In the case of paramagnetic materials, the spins in two opposite directions will not be equal. There
exists some unpaired electrons (Fig. 3.7) which gives rise to spin magnetic moment. Hence the
resultant magnetic moment will not be equal to zero.
However in the absence of external field the magnetic moments are oriented randomly. Due to its
random orientation some magnetic moments get cancelled and the material possess very less
magnetisation in it.

Effect of external field

When an external field is applied, the magnetic moments of individual molecules reorient itself
along the direction of the magnetic field and the material is magnetised.

Properties

1. The magnetic lines of force pass through the material (Fig. 3.8)

2. Magnetic susceptibility is positive and it is given by

X = C/T-Ɵ (also called Curie-Weiss law)

where C - Curie constant

T - Absolute temperature

Ꮎ - Curie temperature

3. Permeability is greater than one.

4. They possess permanent dipole moment.

5. When the temperature is less than curie temperature, paramagnetic materials becomes
diamagnetic material.

Examples: CuSO4, MnSO4, Platinum etc.

In a ferromagnetic material the number of unpaired electrons are more. Most of these spin
magnetic moments point in one direction.

FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS

In a ferromagnetic material the number of unpaired electrons are more. Most of these spin magnetic
moments point in one direction as shown in Fig. 3.9.

Hence even in the absence of external field, the magnetic moments align themselves parallel to
each other and give rise to magnetic field.
Effect of magnetic field

To these materials even if a small external magnetic field is applied, the magnetic moments which
are already aligned parallel, reorient itself along the direction of the magnetic field and they
become very strong magnets.

Properties

1. Since some magnetisation is already existing in these materials, all the magnetic lines of force
passes through it (Fig. 3.10).

2. They have permanent dipole moment. So they act as strong magnets.

3. They exhibit magnetisation even in the absence of external field. This property is called
Spontaneous magnetisation.

4. It's susceptibility is positive and high and it is given by

X = C/T-Ɵ

5. When the temperature is greater than curie temperature, ferromagnetic material becomes
paramagnetic material.

6. Permeability is very much greater than 1.

Examples: Ni, Co, Fe etc.,

n diamagnetic material there are equal number of electron spins which are randomly oriented and
hence the net magnetic moment is zero.
COMPARISON CHART FOR DIA, PARA AND FERRO-MAGNETIC MATERIALS
FERROMAGNETIC DOMAINS

We can observe that ferromagnetic materials such as iron does not have magnetisation unless they
have been previously placed in an external magnetic field. But according to Weiss theory, The
molecular magnets in the ferromagnetic material are said to be aligned in such a way that, they
exhibit a magnetisation even in the absence of an external magnetic field. This is called
Spontaneous magnetisation. i.e., it should have some internal magnetisation due to quantum
exchange energy.

Thus according to Weiss hypothesis, a single crystal of ferromagnetic material is divided into large
number of small regions called domains. These domains have spontaneous magnetisation due to
the parallel alignment of spin magnetic moments in each domain. But the direction of spontaneous
magnetisation varies from domain to domain and are oriented in such a way that the net
magnetisation of the specimen is zero as shown in Fig. 3.13. Due to this reason the iron does not
have any magnetisation in the absence of an external field.
Now, when the magnetic field is applied, then the magnetisation occurs in the specimen by two
ways

(i) By the movement of domain walls

(ii) By rotation of domains walls.

(i) By the movement of domain walls

The movement of domain walls takes place in weak magnetic fields. Due to this weak field applied
to the specimen the magnetic moment increases and hence the boundary of domains are displaced,
so that the volume of the domains changes as shown in Fig. 3.14.

(ii) By rotation of domains walls

The rotation of domain walls takes place in strong magnetic fields. When the external field is high
(strong) then the magnetisation changes by means of rotation of the direction of magnetisation
towards the direction of the applied field as shown in Fig. 3.15.

Experimental Evidence of Domain Structure (Bitter Powder Pattern)

The direct experimental evidence of domain structure is observed from the microphotographs of
domain boundaries obtained by the technique of magnetic powder pattern which discovered by
Bitter.
In this method, a drop of colloidal suspension of finely divided ferromagnetic powder is allowed
to spread over the surface of ferromagnetic material under investigation.

Now, when the colloidal particles are observed through microscope, it is found that the colloidal
particles are collected along the domain boundaries because of the strong local magnetic field,
which exists near the domain boundaries as shown in Fig. 3.16.

Thus the particles are attracted about well defined lines which represents the domain boundaries.
Now when the external field is applied, the domain walls will start moving and that can be viewed
through the microscope.

DOMAIN THEORY OF FERROMAGNETISM

The domain in ferromagnetic solid is understandable from the thermodynamical principle, (i.e.,)
in equilibrium the total energy of the system is minimum. For this, first we consider the total energy
of the domain structure and then how it is minimised. The total energy of the domain comprises
the sum of following energies. viz.

(i) Exchange energy

(ii) Anisotropy energy

(iii) Domain wall energy

(iv) Magneto-strictive energy.

(i) Exchange energy (or) magnetic field energy (or) magneto-static energy

The interaction energy which makes the adjacent dipoles to align themselves is known as exchange
energy (or) magnetic field energy. The exchange energy has established a single domain in a
specimen of ferromagnetic and it is shown in Fig. 3.17.

Because of the development of the free poles at the ends of the domain, an external field will be
produced around it and the configuration will have a high value of magnetic field energy. In other
words it is the energy required in assembling the atomic magnets into a single domain and this
work done is stored as potential energy.

The magnetic energy can be reduced by dividing the specimen into two domains as shown in Fig.
3.18 and 3.19. The process of subdivision may be carried further, until the reduction of magnetic
energy is less than the increase in energy to form another domain and its boundary. This boundary
is called as domain wall (or) Block wall.
Note:

Closure domains: The triangular domains complete the flux path and hence will not produce any
poles. Therefore there is no magnetic field associated with the magnetisation. These domains are
called closure domains. It is shown in Fig. 3.20.

(ii) Anisotropy energy

In ferromagnetic crystals there are two directions of magnetisation. viz,

(i) Easy direction (ii) Hard direction

In easy direction of magnetisation, weak field can be applied and in hard direction of
magnetisation, strong field should be applied. For producing the same saturation magnetisation
along both the hard and easy direction, strong fields are required in the hard direction than the easy
direction.
For example in Iron easy direction is [100], medium direction is [110] and the hard direction is
[111] and it is as shown in Fig. 3.21. From the figure we can see that very strong field is required
to produce magnetic saturation in hard direction [111] compared to the easy direction [100].

Therefore the excess of energy required to magnetise the specimen along hard direction over that
required to magnetise the specimen along easy direction is called Crystalline anisotropy energy

(iii) Domain wall energy (or) Bloch wall energy

Bloch wall is a transition layer which separates the adjacent domains, magnetised in different
directions. The energy of domain wall is due to both exchange energy and anisotropic energy.

Based on the spin alignments, two types of Bloch walls may arise, namely (i) Thick wall (ii) Thin
wall

Thick Wall: When the spins at the boundary are misaligned and if the direction of the spin changes
gradually as shown in Fig. 3.22, it leads to a thick Bloch wall. Here the misalignment of spins are
associated with exchange energy.
Thin Wall: When the spins at the boundaries changes abruptly, then the anisotropic energy
becomes very less. Since the anisotropic energy is directly proportional to the thickness of the
wall, this leads to a thin Bloch wall.

Note: The Bloch wall should have thickness, balancing these two energies.

(iv) Magnetostrictive energy

When the domains are magnetised in different directions, they will either expand (or) shrink.
Therefore there exists a deformation (i.e.,) change in dimension of the material, when it is
magnetised. This phenomenon is known as magnetostriction and the energy produced in this effect
is known as magnetostriction energy.

The deformation is different along different crystal directions and the change in dimension
(increase or decrease) depends upon the nature of the material. For example, in Ni the length
decreases; and in permalloy the length increases. But both the increase (or) decrease is due to the
mechanical stress generated by domain rotation.

HYSTERESIS - M VERSUS H BEHAVIOUR

When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of magnetisation, the
variation of M (Magnetisation) with respect to H (Applied field) can be represented by a closed
hysteresis loop (or) curve.

When a ferromagnetic material is made to undergo through a cycle of magnetisation, the variation
of M (Magnetisation) with respect to H (Applied field) can be represented by a closed hysteresis
loop (or) curve. i.e., it refers to the lagging of magnetisation behind the magnetising field.
If a magnetising field H is applied to a ferromagnetic material and if H is increased to 'H max’ the
material acquires the magnetism. So the magnetisation (M) also increases, represented by 'oa' in
the Fig. 3.23.

Now if the magnetic field is decreased from Hmax to zero, the magnetisation will not fall rapidly
to zero, but falls to 'b' rather than zero. This shows that even when the applied field is zero (or)
removed, the material still acquires some magnetisation (ob) which is so socalled residual
magnetism (or) Retentivity.

Now, to remove this residual magnetism, the magnetic field strength is reversed and increased to
- 'Hmax' represented as 'oc' so called coercivity and hence we get the curve 'bcd'. Then the reverse
field (-H) is reduced to zero and the corresponding curve 'de' is obtained and by further increasing
H to Hmax the curve 'efa' is obtained.

We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to external field, there is an increase in
the value of the resultant magnetic moment due to two process, viz.,

EXPLANATION OF HYSTERESIS ON THE BASIS OF DOMAINS

We know when the ferromagnetic material is subjected to external field, there is an increase in the
value of the resultant magnetic moment due to two process, viz.,
(i) The movement of domain walls

(ii) Rotation of domain walls

When a small external field is applied, the domains walls is displaced slightly in the easy direction
of magnetisation. This gives rise to small magnetisation corresponding to the initial portion of the
hysteresis curve (OA) as shown in Fig. 3.24.

Now, if the applied field is removed, then the domains returns to its original state, and is known
as reversible domains.

When the field is increased, large number of domains contribute to the magnetisation and thus the
magnetisation (M) increases rapidly with H.

Now, even when the field is removed, because of the displacement of domain wall to a very large
distance. The domain boundaries do not come back to their original position. This process is
indicated as AB in Fig. 3.24 and this domains are called irreversible domains.

At point 'B' all the domains have got magnetised along the easy direction.
Now, when the field is further increased, the domains start rotating along the field direction and
the anisotropic energy is stored in the hard direction, represented as BC in the Fig. 3.24.

Thus the specimen is said to attain the maximum magnetisation. At this position, even after the
removal of external field the material posses maximum magnetisation, called residual magnetism
(or) retentivity, represented by OD in Fig. 3.24.

Actually after the removal of the external field, the specimen will try to attain the original
configuration by the movement of Bloch wall. But this movement is stopped due to the presence
of impurities, lattice imperfections etc. Therefore to overcome this, a large amount of reverse
magnetic field is applied to the specimen. The amount of energy spent to reduce the magnetisation
to zero is called as coercivity represented by 'OE in the Fig. 3.24.

Hysteresis Loss

It is the loss of energy in taking a ferromagnetic specimen through a complete cycle of

magnetisation and the area enclosed is called hysteresis loop.

Based on the area of the hysteresis loop, the magnetic materials are classified into soft and hard
magnetic materials.

SOFT AND HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS EXAMPLES & USES

Soft magnetic materias

The materials which can be easily magnetised and demagnetised are called Soft magnetic materials

Hard magnetic materials

The materials which are very difficult to magnetise and demagnetise are called hard magnetic
materials.

Differences between Soft and Hard magnetic materials:

Hard magnetic materials have high magnetisation, retentivity and coercivity. The shape of the
hysterisis loop in the second quadrant gives the effectiveness of permanent magnetism in the
specimen.

ANTI-FERROMAGNETISM

Antiferromagnetism is a new type of magnetism in which the spins are aligned in antiparallel
manner (Fig. 3.28) due to unfavourable exchange interaction among them, resulting in zero
magnetic moment. Even when the field is increased, it has almost zero induced magnetic moment.
Properties

1. The susceptibility is very small and is positive. It is given by

X = C / T+Ɵ for T > TN where TN is the Neel temperature.

2. Initially, the susceptibility increases slightly as the temperature increases and beyond a particular
temperature, known as Neel temperature, the susceptibility decreases with temperature.

Antiferro-magnetic materials

(i) Ferrous oxide (FeO)

(ii) Manganese Oxide (MnO4)

(iii) Manganese Sulphide (MnS)

(iv) Chromium Oxide (Cr2O3)

(v) Ferrous Chloride (FeCl2) and salts of transition elements.

These elements will be wide range of applications in magnetic storage devices.

It is a special case of magnetic material and it is composed of two sets of different transition
metal ions having different values of magnetic moment with antiparallel alignment.

FERRIMAGNETISM AND FERRITES

It is a special case of magnetic material and it is composed of two sets of different transition metal
ions having different values of magnetic moment with antiparallel alignment as shown in Fig. 3.29.

Hence these material have antiparallel magnetic moments of different magnitudes, giving rise to
fairly large magnetic moment in the presence of external magnetic field (Fig. 3.30).

Properties

1. The susceptibility is very large and is positive represented by

X = C / T±Ɵ when T> TN

2. Beyond the Neel temperature, X decreases.

3. These materials have low eddy current losses, and low hysteresis losses.

4. They have hysteresis loop in the form of a square and hence will have low coercivity.

Ferrites are the magnetic compounds consisting of two or more different kinds of atoms.

STRUCTURE OF FERRITES
Ferrites are the magnetic compounds consisting of two or more different kinds of atoms. Generally
ferrites are expressed as X2+ Fe23+ O4, where x2+ stands for suitable divalent metal ion such as
Mg2+, Zn2+, Fe2+, Mn2+, Ni2+ etc.

Examples

(i) If x2+ is replaced by Ni2+, then the ferrite (Ni2+ Fe23+O4) is formed, thus

named as nickel ferrite,

(ii) If x2+ is replaced by Fe2+ then the ferrite (Fe2+Fe23+O4) is formed, thus

named as ferrous ferrite.

Ferrites formed usually have a face centered cubic structure of oxygen ions closely packed together
with the divalent and trivalent metal ions in the interstitial sites. This structure is called spinal
structure. There are two types of ferrite structures

(i) Regular spinal (ii) Inverse spinal

Regular spinal: Eg., Mg2+Fe3+O4

In this type each metal atom (divalent) is surrounded by four O2- ions in a tetragonal fashion.
For example, if the metal atom is Mg2+, then the structure is as shown in Fig. 3.31 and it is called
'A' site. Totally in an unit cell, there will be 8 tetrahedral (8A) sites.
Each Fe3+ (trivalent) is surrounded by six O2- ions and forms an octahedral fashion as shown in
Fig. 3.32. Totally, there will be 16 such octahedral sites in the unit cell. This is indicated by 'B'
site.

Thus in a regular spinal, each divalent metal ion (Mg2+) exists in a tetrahedral form (A site) and
each trivalent metal ion (Fe3+) exists in a octahedral form (B site). Hence the sites A and B
combine together to form a regular spinal ferrite structures as shown in Fig. 3.33.

Inverse spinal: Eg., Fe3+ [Fe2+ Fe3+ ] O4

In this, the Fe3+ ions (trivalent) occupies all the A sites (tetrahedral) and half of the B sites
(Octahedral) also. Thus the left out B sites will be occupied by the divalent (Fe2+). The inverse
spinal structure is as shown in Fig. 3.34.
Types of interaction present in the ferrites

The spin arrangement between the A site and B site is in an antiparallel manner and it was
explained by Neel. According to him, in ferrites, the spin arrangement is antiparallel and there
exists some interaction between the A and B sites which is represented as AB interaction.

Apart from this, there are two more interactions (i.e.,) AA and BB interaction which is negative
and considerably weaker than AB interaction.

The tendency of AB interaction is to align all A spins parallel to each other and antiparallel to all
B spins, but the tendency of AA and BB interaction is to spoil the parallel arrangement of A and
B spins respectively.

Since AB is very strong as compared with AA and BB, the effect of AB interaction dominates and
give rise to antiparallel spin arrangement.

The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom can be
expressed in terms of smallest atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton.

MAGNETIC MOMENT OF A FERRITE MOLECULE

Bohr Magneton
The orbital magnetic moment and the spin magnetic moment of an electron in an atom can be
expressed in terms of smallest atomic unit of magnetic moment called Bohr magneton.

1 Bohr Magneton = eћ/2m ⇒ μB⇒ 9.27 × 10-24 Am2

Saturation magnetization of a ferrite molecule can be calculated from the number of unpaired spins
of Fe2+ and Fe3+

Let us consider an example of Ferrite say Ferrous ferrite having the formula

Fe2+ Fe3+ O4 for calculating the magnetic moment.

In Ferrous ferrite we have two types of ions viz. Fe2+ and Fe3+

(i) Here Fe2+ ions has six electrons in 3d shell. Out of 6 electrons two electrons are paired with
each other and hence left with 4 unpaired electrons as shown in fig. 3.35 (a).

The Fe2+ gives rise to 4 Bohr magneton.

(ii) Fe3+ ions has five electrons in 3d shell and hence all these 5 are unpaired electrons as shown
in fig. 3.35 (b)

The Fe3+ gives rise to 5 Bohr magneton.

Since we have two Fe3+, totally, the Fe2+ gives rise to 2×5 = 10 Bohr magnetons.
Total magnetization of Fe2++ Fe3+ = 4+ 10 = 14 Bohr magneton. (i.e.,) 14 μB.

Theoretically we get 14 μB but experimetally the total magnetic moment got is only 4.08 μB. The
reason for this discrepancy is as follows:

If all the spins are aligned parallel then we will get the total magnetisation as 14μB. But in ferrites
half of the magnetic spins of Fe23+ ions are parallel to one direction and the remaining half of
Fe23+ ions are parallel in opposite direction as shown in Fig. 3.35 (c) and hence they cancel each
other. Therefore, the net magnetic moment is only due to Fe2+ ions alone (i.e.,) hence we get the
total magnetisation as 4uB, which has a good agreement with the experiment value i:e., 4.08 μB.

Similarly we can calculate the total magnetic moment of any ferrite molecule with respect to the
number of unpaired electrons in the divalent metal ions.

They are used to produce ultrasonics by magneto-striction principle.Ferrites are used in audio
and video transformers [Ni-Zn ferrites]

APPLICATIONS OF FERRITES

1. They are used to produce ultrasonics by magneto-striction principle.

2. Ferrites are used in audio and video transformers [Ni-Zn ferrites]

3. Ferrite rods are used in radio receivers to increase the sensitivity.

4. Since the ferrites has low hysteresis loss and eddy current loss, they are used in two port devices
such as gyrator, circulator and isolator.

Gryator: It transmits the power freely in both directions with a phase shift of radians.

Circulator: It provides sequential transmission of power between the ports.

Isolator: It is used to display differential attenuation

5. They are also used for power limiting and harmonic generation.

6. Ferrites are used in parametric amplifiers so that the input can be amplified with low noise
figures.

7. They are used in computers and data processing circuits.

8. Ferrox cubes (ferrites with rectangular hysteresis loop) are used in switching circuits and in
matrix storage devices of computers.

9. Ferrites are not metals, but their resistivities lies in the range of insulator or semiconductor.
Thus, the power losses due to eddy currents is reduced in this type of materials and hence they are
used in microwave frequency applications.

10. Ferrites are used in storage devices such as magnetic tapes, floppy discs, hard discs, ferrite
core memories and in bubble memories.

Note: Garnet is also a ferrimagnetic material with the typical formula Me 3,Fe5O12 where Me is a
trivalent metal ion and Fe is trivalent ferric ion. Commonly yittrium ion is used as trivalent metal
ion. Magnetic losses in these materials are lower than ferrites.

Now a days, large number of informations are stored in (or) retrieved from the storage devices,
by using the magnetic phenomena.

MAGNETIC PRINCIPLE IN COMPUTER DATA STORAGE

Now a days, large number of informations are stored in (or) retrieved from the storage devices, by
using the magnetic phenomena. The main part of these magnetic storage devices is magnetic
recording heads and they function according to the principles of magnetic induction.
Generally ferro or ferrimagnetic materials are used in the storage devices, because in this type of
materials only the magnetic interaction between any two dipoles align themselves parallel to each
other. Due to this parallel alignment, even if we apply small amount of magnetic field, a large
value of magnetisation is produced. By using this property informations are stored in the storage
devices.

In the storage devices, the recording of digital data (0's and 1's) depends upon the direction of
magnetisation in the medium.

Magnetic parameters for recording

1. When current is passed through a coil, a magnetic field is induced. This principle, called
"electromagnetic induction" is used as a basic parameter in the storage device.

2. The ease with which the material can be magnetised is another parameter.

3. We know the soft magnetic materials are the materials which can easily be magnetised and
demagnetised. Hence based on this parameter, a data can be stored and erased easily. Such
magnetic materials are used in temporary storage devices.

4. Similarly we know hard magnetic materials cannot be easily magnetised and demagnetised
easily. So, such magnetic materials are used in permanent storage devices.

5. In soft magnetic materials, the electrical resistance varies with respect to the magnetisation and
this effect is called magneto-resistance. This parameter is used in specific thin film systems.

Note: If the change in electrical resistance is very high compared to the magnetisation, it is called
GIANT MAGNETO-RESISTANCE (GMR) effect.

Magnetic Medium

Magnetic medium is made of magnetic material (ferrous or ferric oxide) deposited on thin plastic
as shown in Fig. 3.36.
Read-Write Mechanism

The magnetic medium move across the read/write heads and either logic 1's or logic O's are written
on the medium. Then, the medium moves across the head again, the magnetised spots on the
medium generate small electrical signals and this different direction signals represent logic 1's and
O's on the medium.

Now, when the recorded medium moves over the read head, the change in magnetic field generates
very small signals in the head winding and they are amplified. From this the logic signals 1's and
O's are read depending on the data stored on the medium.

MAGNETIC STORAGE DEVICES

In general, memory units are the devices used to store the information (Input and output) in the
forms of bits [ 8 bit = 1 Byte ].

The memory units are mainly classified into two categories.

1. Main Memory (Primary) (or) Internal Memory

2. Auxillary Memory (Secondary) (or) External Memory

Main Memory: The memory unit of the Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called as main memory.
We can compare a black board to main memory. Here we can write so many datas on the memories
and finally can be erased, if we need to erase it.
Examples: RAM, ROM, EPROM, etc.

Auxillary memory: Since the storage capacity of the primary memories are not sufficient,
Secondary (or) auxillary memory units are developed to store the large volume of data, separately
and hence called as extra (or) additional (or) external memory.

This type of memory is also referred to as back-up storages because, it is used to store large volume
of data on a permanent basis.

The datas in auxillary memory can also be transferred to primary memory (i.e.,) to computer
partially, when required for processing. This can be compared to a book, from which we can access
(or) take copies as we need.

Examples

1. Magnetic tapes (Cassettes)

2. Magnetic disk (Floppy and Hard disc)

3. Magnetic Bubble memories

4. Magnetic Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

MAGNETIC TAPE

Magnetic tape is one of the most popular storage medium for data. The tape is a plastic ribbon with
metal oxide material coated on one side which can be magnetised. In this, information can be
written and also can be read by write/read heads.

Information recorded in the tape is in the form of tiny magnetised and non magnetised spots on
the metal oxide coating. The magnetised spot represent '1' and unmagnetised spot represent '0' in
binary code. The information can be accessed, processed, erased and can be again stored in the
same area.

Advantages
1. It's storage capacity is large

2. It is easy to handle and is portable.

3. It's cost is less than other storage devices.

4. It can be erased and reused many times.

Disadvantage

1. It consumes lot of time.

MAGNETIC HARD DISK

These disks are direct access storage devices. These disks are magnetically coated.

There are two types of disks viz.,

1. Hard disk 2. Floppy disk.

Let us discuss about a Hard disk.

Hard Disk: The hard disk is made of hard aluminium platters. The platter surface is carefully
machined until it is flat (or) plane. The platter surface is coated with magnetic material (magnetic
oxides). The platter is built into a box. Similar such disks are mounted on a vertical shaft, forming
a disk pack and it is shown in Fig. 3.37
This disk pack is placed in a drive mechanism called Hard disk drive. The drive mechanism drives
the disk pack with the spindle. The data is written (or) read by the R/W heads in the horizontal
sensing arms by moving in and out between the platters with the precaution that the R/W head
doesn't touches the surface instead, it fly over the disk surface by a fraction of a millimetre.

Giant magneto resistance (GMR) sensors are used now-a-days as sensing element is hard disk
drive.

Advantages

1. It has very large storage capacity.

2. Thousands of files can be permanently stored.

3. Very high speed in reading and writing the informations.

4. This is prevented from dust particles, since they are seated in special chamber.

Disadvantages

1. It is very costly.
2. If data is once corrupted, there is a heavy loss of data.

Note: The hard disk once installed in the system, cannot be removed easily. Latest Hard disk drive
using GMR sensor as sensing element is discussed later.

MAGNETIC BUBBLE MEMORIES

It is a new technique which can store million bits of data in a single IC package. Magnetic bubble
is a direct access storage medium. Magnetic bubbles are soft magnetic materials with magnetic
domains of a few μm in diameter.

Construction

Bubble memory consists of materials such as magnetic Garnets and store the data as microscopic
magnets. A thin film of these Garnets are deposited on a non-magnetic substrate which is made up
of Gadolinium Gallium Garnet (GGG) constitutes a bubble memory chip.

When a magnetic field is applied to such a chip (i.e.,) by placing it inbetween two permanent
magnets, the magnetic domains contracts and finally forms a small cylindrical domain area which
is called as magnetic bubble as shown in Fig. 3.38.

These bubbles constitute a magnetic region of one polarity (either North or South) surrounded by
the magnetic region of opposite polarity.
The information is represented as the presence or absence of a bubble at specified location. The
bubble position remains unchanged even in the absence of electrical power. These bubbles can be
moved electronically through the access lines at very high speeds and hence the access time and
storing time is very less in this type of memories.

Here the presence of bubble represents the logic '1' and the absence of bubble represents the logic
'0'. Thus the data may be represented in bubble storage by the presence (or) absence of bubbles.

The schematic diagram of a magnetic bubble memory is as shown in Fig. 3.39. It consists of one
major loop and 157 minor loops which are arranged from right to left. Each minor loop has 641
bubble sites. Thousands of coded characters may be stored in a single chip.

When a data has to be stored, the bubbles from the minor loops are transferred to major loop and
it goes to write station. In write station the message is entered and the bubble site again comes to
minor loop.

Reading Operation
To read the data from the storage, the bubble from minor loops are transferred to major loop and
it goes to read station, then it comes to minor loop. The data can be altered by the erase station, if
we need to erase it.

Special features

1. It is Non-volatile.

2. It has high storage capacity than magnetic hard disk.

3. It has high access speed.

4. It has storage even in the absence of electrical power.

5. Bubble sites are moved electronically.

MAGNETIC HARD DISK DRIVE [HDD] WITH GMR SENSOR

Introduction

Hard disk drives [HDD] made up of magnetic garnet materials are called magnetic hard disk drives.
It is a mass data storage device recently used for storing data to a very high level in terms of Tera
bytes.

Now-a-days GMR [Giant Magneto Resistive] sensors, which has a very high magnetic sensitivity
are used to read the data at greater speed.

Principle

In Hard disk drives, the binary data in terms of zero's (0) and one's (1) are stored by inducing
magnetic moment in a thin magnetic layer and GMR effect is used as the principle to read the data
in HDD.

Here zero (0) represents missing transition and one (1) represents transition in the medium.
Construction

The HDD consists of recording medium madeup of thin layer of magnetic garnets grown over the
substrate The GMR sensor, which is made up of ferrites and anti ferromagnetic materials is used
as reading element. The writing element is made up of inductive magnetic transducer.

The writing element and the GMR sensor shall be made to slide over the recording media in the
longitudinal direction as shown in Fig. 3.40. Hence this method is also called as longitudinal
recording.

The flow of current through the GMR sensor and writing element shall be adjusted and inturn the
magnetization is sensed (or) controlled in the recording media.

Working

Writing / Storing

1. Initially the current is passed through the writing element and a magnetic field is induced in
between the gap of the inductive magnetic transducer.

2. During writing, the amplitude of current is kept constant, and the direction of current is reversed.

3. Due to reversal of current, the magnetization orientation is reversed in the recording medium
i.e., from South → North as shown in Fig. 3.40.
4. When the induced magnetic field is greater than the coercivity of the recording media, then data
is recorded in the form of 1.

5. Thus one (1) is stored as data in the recording medium as a magnetic transition.

6. When there is no magnetic transition, then it is referred as zero (0).

7. In this way the zero's (0's) and one's (1's) are stored in the recording medium.

Reading/Retrieving

8. Giant magnetoresistive (GMR) effect is the principle used to read/retrieve the data from the
recording medium.

9. When the GMR sensor is made to move near the recorded medium, then, the resistance of the
GMR sensor varies, with respect to the orientation of the magnetic moments as follows.

10. When the layers are magnetised in parallel manner, then the resistance in the GMR sensor is
minimum and therefore maximum current flows through the sensor, which represents the data as
one (1), as shown in Fig. 3.41.
11. When the layers are magnetised in antiparallel manner, then the resistance in the GMR sensor
will be maximum and therefore minimum (or) no current will flow through the sensor, which
represents the data as zero (0), as shown in Fig. 3.41.

12. Therefore, with the help of the reading current, the zero's (0's) and one's (1's) can be retrieved
from the magnetic hard disk drive.

Note: Recently spin valve sensors, which consists of GMR trilayer (Two ferromagnetic layers,
separated by one non-metallic inter layer), adjacent to an antiferromagntic layer are used as reading
element for superior magnetic sensitivity and better performance.

Advantages

1. HDD's can store data interms of Terabytes and in future it can store data interms of Petabytes
and Exabytes.

Note: 1 Terabyte = 1024 Gigabytes

1 Petabyte = 1024 Tetrabytes

1 Exabytes = 1024 Petabytes

2. It is has very large storage capacity.

3. It is compact in size and can be easily transferred from one place to another.

4. The size of the recording medium in HDD shall be reduced upto few nano-metres using
nanotechnology.

5. GMR sensors are non diffusive and are very sensitive in reading.
Disadvantages

1. HDD is slower than SSD [solid state drives].

2. They consume more power and will damage, when dropped even at a smaller distance.

3. Sometimes the data in HDD may be corrupted, due to thermal radiation.

4. HDD has bulkier form factor.

5. The GMR noise ratio is high for the nano size recording media as it is temperature dependent.

Applications

1. HDD's are used as storage devices in cloud applications.

2. They are used in coding and signal processing units.

3. It is used in many Engineering fields such control systems, nanoelectronics, etc.

4. The GMR and spin valve sensors are used in modern HDD by IBM.