Basics of Metal

Casting

1
Movement of Material in Foundry
 Classification of Metal Molding Processes

PMC’s: Polymer-Metal Composites

 Casting Process

Casting
Pouring molten metal into a mold shaped after the part to be produced,
allowing it to harden, and removing it from the mold

Casting is a process in which the molten

metal flows by gravity or other force into a
mold and solidifies in the shape of the mold
cavity.

 Physics: 1. Fluid flow and interaction with

solid , 2. Thermal dynamics

Any material can be cast, as any material

undergoes the liquid state and solid state.
Casting Processes
Challenge in Metal Casting

Metal Volumetric
Solidification
Contraction
Al 6.6
Grey Cast Iron Expansion 2.5
Carbon Steel 2.5-3
Copper 4.9
Magnesium 4.2
Zinc 6.5
Casting Process
Steps in Sand Casting
Steps in Sand Casting
Steps in Sand Casting
Mould Layout
Mold Layout
 Sand Casting
Process Advantages Limitations
Sand Almost any metal cast; no limit to size, shape Some finishing required,
Casting or weight; low tooling cost somewhat coarser finish;
wide tolerances
 Shell Casting
Process Advantages Limitations
Shell Good dimensional accuracy and surface Part size limited; expensive
Molding finish; high production rate patterns and equipment required
 Expandable Mold

Process Advantages Limitations

Expendable Good dimensional accuracy and surface Part size limited, expensive
Patten finish, high production rate patterns and equipments required

Expendable mold casting is a generic classification that includes sand,

plastic, shell, plaster, and investment (lost-wax technique) moldings. This
method of mold casting involves the use of temporary, non-reusable
molds.
 Plaster Mold
Process Advantages Limitations
Plaster Mold Intricate shapes; good dimensional Limited to non-ferrous metals;
accuracy and finish, low porosity limited size and volume of
production; mold making time
relatively long
Casting Tooling
Mold Parting and Draw Direction
Pattern/Mold Design
 Function of Pattern

 Moulding the Gating system

 Establishing a parting Line
 Making Cores
 Minimizing casting Defects
 Providing Economy in moulding
 Others, as needed
Machining Allowance
Distortion Allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
Draft Allowance
Fillet Allowance
 Pattern V/S Casting

• Pattern is a tool which is almost a replica of the casting

with certain differences. They are:
 Difference in size e.g. shrinkage, machining allowance,
draft allowance
 Difference of material
 It may be made out of several parts
 It does not contain the hollow portions of the casting
 It contains core prints.
• After ramming the moulding material around the pattern,
the pattern is taken out of the mould, leaving behind the
cavity.
Component and a Corresponding Pattern

Component Pattern
Pattern and Core Marking
 Pattern Materials

Pattern Materials

Wood
White pine, mohogany, teak, Plastic
deodar, shisham, kail, maple, birch,
cherry
Plaster
Metals
Aluminium, steel, cast iron, brass, white metal Polystyrene Patterns
 Factors affecting selection of Pattern Materials:
 Desired number of castings
 Desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish
 Shape complexity
 Casting process and Moulding Materials
 Casting design parameters
 Probability of change in casting design in near future
 Chances of repeat orders
 Pattern Materials

Characteristics Rating
Wood Aluminium Steel Plastic Cast Iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear Resistance P G E F E
Strength E G E G G
Weight E G P G P
Reparability E P G F G
Resistance to E E P E P
Corrosion
Resistance to P E E E E
Swelling
E: Excellent, G: Good, F-Fair, P-Poor
 Types of Pattern

1. Single piece pattern 6. Sweep pattern

2. Split pattern 7. Gated pattern
3. Loose piece pattern 8. Skeleton pattern
4. Match plate pattern 9. Segmental pattern
5. Cope and Drag pattern 10. Follow board pattern
 Types of Pattern

1. SINGLE PIECE PATTERN

 The simplest of all the patterns and is made in one piece and carries no
joint, partition or loose pieces
 Depending upon the shape, it can be moulded in one or two boxes
 Cheapest but has limited use since its moulding involves a large number
of manual operations like gate cutting, providing runners and risers
 Types of Pattern

2. SPLIT PATTERN (TWO PIECE )

 Many times the design of casting offers difficulty in mould making and
withdrawal of pattern, if a solid pattern is used.
 For such castings, split or two piece pattern are employed.
 They are made in two parts which are joined at the parting line by
means of dowels.
 While moulding one part of the pattern is contained by the drag and the
other by the cope.
 Types of Pattern

2. a, THREE PIECE SPLIT PATTERN

 Types of Pattern

3. LOOSE PIECE PATTERN

 Types of Pattern

4. Cope and Drag Pattern

• Cope and drag parts of the pattern mounted on
separate plates
• Cope half and drag half made by working on
different moulding machines
• This reduces the separate cope and drag plate
preparation
• Generally for high speed mechanized moulding
 Types of Pattern

5. Match Plate Pattern

• Used where rapid production of small and accurate castings
is desired on a large scale.
• Construction cost is quite high, but the same is easily
compensated by a high rate production.
• Greater dimensional accuracy and minimum requirement for
matching in the casting
• Made in two pieces, one piece is mounted on one side and
the other on the other side of the plate called match plate.
• The plate may carry only one pattern, or a group of patterns
mounted in the same way on its two sides.
• The plate may be of wood, steel, magnesium or aluminium.
• Gates and runners are also attached to the plate along with
the pattern.
 Types of Pattern

Match Plate Pattern

Pattern is generally made of metal and plate making
parting line is made of metal/wood.
 Types of Pattern

6. Follow Board Pattern

For thin sections.
 Types of Pattern

7. Gated Pattern
Gating system is a part of the pattern.
 Types of Pattern

8. Sweep Pattern
For large size castings in small numbers. Template of
wood attached to a sweep used.
 Types of Pattern

9. Segmental Pattern
For rings, wheel rims, large size gears
 Typesof
Types ofPatterns
Pattern

10. Skeleton Pattern

Stickle board used to scrape the excess sand.
Eg. Oil pipes, water pipes, pipe bends, boxes, valve bodies etc.
 Types of Pattern

11. Shell Pattern

 Types of Patterns

12. Left and Right Pattern

For parts to be made in pairs.
Eg: legs of sewing machine, wood working lathe, garden
benches, J hangers for shafts, brackets for luggage racks
etc.
 Introduction

Three categories of molds

 Single-use molds with multiple-use patterns
 Single-use molds with single-use patterns
 Multiple-use molds
 Sand Casting

 Sand casting is the most common and versatile

form of casting
 Granular material is mixed with clay and
water
 Packed around a pattern
 Gravity flow is the most common method of
inserting the liquid metal into the mold
 Metal is allowed to solidify and then the mold is
removed
Cross Section of Mould
 Casting Terminology

 Pattern- approximate duplicate of the part to be cast

 Molding material- material that is packed around the
pattern to provide the mold cavity
 Flask- rigid frame that holds the molding aggregate
 Cope- top half of the pattern
 Drag- bottom half of the pattern
 Core- sand or metal shape that is inserted into the
mold to create internal features
 Casting Terminology

 Mold cavity- combination of the mold material and

cores
 Riser-additional void in the mold that provides
additional metal to compensate for shrinkage
 Gating system- network of channels that delivers the
molten metal to the mold
 Pouring cup- portion of the gating system that controls
the delivery of the metal
 Sprue- vertical portion of the gating system
 Runners- horizontal channels
 Gates- controlled entrances
 Sand and Sand Conditioning

 Four requirements of sand used in casting

 Refractoriness - ability withstand high
temperatures
 Cohesiveness - ability to retain shape
 Permeability - ability of a gases to escape
through the sand
 Collapsibility - ability to accommodate
shrinkage and part removal
 Size of sand particles, amount of bonding agent,
moisture content, and additives are selected to
obtain sufficient requirements
 Processing of Sand

 Green-sand mixture is 88% silica, 9% clay, and 3% water

 Each grain of sand needs to be coated uniformly with
additive agents
 Muller kneads, rolls, and stirs the sand to coat it

Schematic diagram of a continuous (left) and batch-type (right) sand muller. Plow
blades move and loosen the sand and the muller wheels compress and mix the
components.
 Sand Testing

 Blended molding sand is characterized by the following

attributes
 Moisture content, clay content, compactibility
 Properties of compacted sand
 Mold hardness, permeability, strength
 Standard testing
 Grain size (AFS standard)
 Moisture content
 Clay content
 Permeability
 Compressive strength
 Ability to withstand erosion
 Hardness
 Compactibility
 Sand Properties and Sand-Related Defects
 Silica sand
 Cheap and lightweight but undergoes a phase
transformation and volumetric expansion when it is
heated to 585°C
 This problem can be solved by adding clay and
volatile such as cellulose.
 The silica sand is replaced by olivine and zircon sand.
 Castings with large, flat surfaces are prone to sand
expansion defects
 Trapped or dissolved gases can cause gas-related voids
or blows.
 Because of the low permeability, excessive moisture
and the large amount of the volatiles of the sand.
 These problems can be solved by adding the vent
 Sand Properties

 Sand embedding occurs when the sand grains

become entrapped in the surface of the casting.
 Hot tears or crack occur in metals with large
amounts of solidification shrinkage
 Tensile stresses develop while the metal is
still partially liquid and if these stresses do not
go away, cracking can occur.
Desirable Properties in Sand-Based Molding
Materials
 Making of Sand Mold

 Hand ramming is the method of packing sand to

produce a sand mold
 Used when few castings are to be made
 Slow, labor intensive
 Nonuniform compaction
 Molding machines
 Reduce the labor and required skill
 Castings with good dimensional accuracy
and consistency
 Making of Sand Mold

 Molds begin with a pattern and a flask

 Mixed sand is packed in the flask
Sand slinger uses rotation to fling sand against
the pattern
Jolting is a process in which sand is placed over
the flask and pattern and they are all lifted and
dropped to compact the sand
Squeezing machines use air and a diaphragm
 For match plate molding, a combination of jolting
and squeezing is used
 Methods of Compacting Sand

Jolting a mold section. (Note: The pattern is on Squeezing a sand-filled mold

the bottom, where the greatest packing is section. While the pattern is on
expected.) the bottom, the highest packing
will be directly under the
squeeze head.

Schematic diagram showing relative sand densities obtained by flat-plate squeezing where all
areas get vertically compressed by the same amount of movement (left) and by flexible-
diaphragm squeezing where all areas flow to the same resisting ressure (right).
 Alternative Molding Methods

 Stack molding
 Molds containing a cope impression on the
bottom and a drag impression on the top are
stacked on top of one another vertically
 Common vertical sprue
 Large molds
 Large flasks can be placed directly on the
foundry floor
 Sand slingers may be used to pack the sand
 Pneumatic rammers may be used
 Green-Sand, Dry-Sand and Skin-Dried Molds

 Green-sand casting
 Process for both ferrous and nonferrous metals
 Sand is blended with clay, water, and additives
 Molds are filled by a gravity feed
 Low tooling costs
 Least expensive
 Design limitations
 Rough surface finish
 Poor dimensional accuracy
 Low strength
 Dry-Sand

 Dry-sand molds are durable

 Long storage life
 Long time required for drying
 Skin-dried molds
 Dries only the sand next to the mold cavity
 Torches may be used to dry the sand
 Used for large steel parts
 Binders may be added to enhance the strength
of the skin-dried layer
 Sodium Silicate-CO2 Molding

 Molds and cores can receive strength from the

addition of 3-6% sodium silicate
 Remains soft and moldable until it is exposed to
CO2
 Hardened sands have poor collapsibility: Shakeout
and core removal is difficult
 Heating makes the mold stronger
No-Bake, Air Set or Chemically Bonded Sands

 Organic and inorganic resin binders can be mixed

with the sand before the molding operation : Curing
reactions begin immediately
 Cost of no-bake molding is about 20-30% more
than green-sand molding
 High dimensional precision and good surface finish
 No-Bake Sand
 No-bake sand can be compacted by light vibrations
 Wood, plastic, fiberglass, or Styrofoam can be
used as patterns
 System selections are based on the metal being
poured, cure time desired, complexity and thickness
of the casting, and the possibility of sand
reclamation
 Good hot strength
 High resistance to mold-related casting defects
 Mold decomposes after the metal has been poured
providing good shakeout
 Shell Molding

 Basic steps
Individual grains of sand are precoated with a thin layer of
thermosetting resin
Heat from the pattern partially cures a layer of material
Pattern and sand mixture are inverted and only the layer
of partially cured material remains
The pattern with the shell is placed in an oven and the
curing process is completed
Hardened shell is stripped from the pattern
Shells are clamped or glued together with a thermoset
adhesive
Shell molds may be surrounded by sand, gravel, etc. for
extra support
Dump-Box Shell Molding
 Core and Core Making
 Complex internal cavities can be produced with cores
 Cores can be used to improve casting design
 Cores may have relatively low strength
 If long cores are used, machining may need to be done
afterwards
 Green sand cores are not an option for more complex shapes

Core-oil process: Sand is

Core Making Processes

blended with oil to develop

strength Cold-box process: Binder
coated sand is packed and
then sealed. Gas or
Hot-box method: Sand vaporized catalyst
is blended with a polymerizes the resin
thermosetting binder
Core

V-8 engine block (bottom center)

and the five dry-sand cores that
are used in the construction of its
mold.
 Techniques to Enhance Core Properties

 Addition of internal wires or rods

 Vent holes
 Cores can be connected to the outer surfaces of the
mold cavity
 Core prints
 Chaplets- small metal supports that are placed
between the cores and the mold cavity surfaces
and become integral to the final casting
 Chaplets

(Left) Typical chaplets. (Right) Method of supporting a

core by use of chaplets (relative size of the chaplets is
exaggerated).
 Mold Modifications
 Cheeks are second parting lines that allow parts to be cast in
a mold with withdrawable patterns
 Inset cores can be used to improve productivity

Fig. Molding an inset section using a dry-sand core.

Fig. Method of making a reentrant angle or

inset section by using a three-piece flask.
Investment Casting
 Solidification Process

 Molten material is allowed to solidify into the final

shape
 Casting defects occur during solidification
 Gas porosity (solved by adding the vent)
 Shrinkage (solved by using the riser to add the
molten metal)
 Two stages of solidification
 Nucleation
 Growth
 Nucleation

 Stable particles form from the liquid metal

 Occurs when there is a net release of energy from
the liquid
 Undercooling is the difference between the melting
point and the temperature at which nucleation occurs
 Each nucleation event produces a grain
 Nucleation is promoted (more grains) for enhanced
material properties
 Inoculation or grain refinement is the process of
introducing solid particles to promote nucleation
 Grain Growth

 Occurs as the heat of fusion is extracted from the

liquid
 Direction, rate, and type of growth can be controlled
by the way in which heat is removed
 Rates of nucleation and growth control the size and
shape of the crystals
 Faster cooling rates generally produce finer grain
sizes
 Cooling Curves

 Useful for studying the solidification process

 Cooling rate is the slop of the cooling curve
 Solidification occur over a range of temperatures in alloys
 Beginning and end of solidification are indicated by changes
in slope
Progressive and Directional Solidification
Prediction of Solidification Time: Chvorinov’s Rule

 Ability to remove heat from a casting is related to the

surface area through which the heat is removed and
the environment that it is rejecting heat to
 Chvorinov’s Rule:
ts=B(V/A)n where n=1.5 to 2.0
 ts is the time from pouring to solidification
 B is the mold constant
 V is the volume of the casting
 A is the surface area through which heat is
rejected
Prediction of Solidification Time: Chvorinov’s Rule

Core sand density=1600 kg/m3 Ko = Overall efficiency =1

Metal density=7090 kg/m3 Ks = Size coefficient =1.1
Comp.strength of green sand=50,000 Pa Kf = Fluidity coefficient =1.0
Ccast =Specific heat of cast metal=795 Kt= Thickness coefficient = 1.1
J/kg.K
Tpour =Pouring temperature of metal=1650 t =Average wall thickness of casting
0C

Tsol = Solidus Temperature = 1540 oC ρcast =density of liquid metal=7020

kg/m3
Kmould =Thermal conductivity of mould L=Latent heat of metal=272 kJ/kg
material =0.61 J/mKs
Cmould = Specific heat of mould Tamb =Ambient temperature =40 0C
material=1130 J/kg.K
Tint =Interface temperature =1345 0C
 Case Structure
Three distinct regions or zones :
 Chill zone
 Rapid nucleation that occurs when the molten metal
comes into contact with the cold walls of the mold
 Forms a narrow band of randomly oriented crystals on
the surface of a casting
 Columnar zone
 Rapid growth perpendicular to the casting surface
 Long and thin
 Highly directional
 Equiaxed zone
 Crystals in the interior of the casting
 Spherical, randomly oriented crystals

Fig. Internal structure of a cast metal bar showing the

chill zone at the periphery, columnar grains growing
toward the center, and a central shrinkage cavity
 Molten Metal Problems

 Chemical reactions can occur between molten metal and

its surroundings
 Reactions can lead to defects in the final castings
 Metal oxides may form when molten metal reacts
with oxygen
 Dross or slag is the material that can be carried
with the molten metal during pouring and filling of
the mold:
 Affects the surface finish, machinability, and
mechanical properties
 Molten Metal Problems
 Gas porosity
 Gas that is not rejected from the liquid metal may be
trapped upon solidification
 Several techniques to prevent gas porosity
 Prevent the gas from initially dissolving in the liquid
 Melting can be done in a vacuum
 Melting can be done in environments with low-solubility
gases
 Minimize turbulence
 Vacuum degassing removes the gas from the liquid before it is
poured into the castings
 Gas flushing- passing inert gases or reactive gases through
the liquid metal
 Fluidity and Pouring Temperature

 Metal should flow into all regions of the mold cavity

and then solidify
 Fluidity is the ability of a metal to flow and fill a mold
 Affects the minimum section thickness,
maximum length of a thin section, fineness of
detail, ability to fill mold extremities
 Dependent on the composition, freezing
temperature, freezing range, and surface
tension
 Most important controlling factor is pouring
temperature
 Role of Gating System

 Gating system delivers the molten metal to the

mold cavity
 Controls the speed of liquid metal flow and the
cooling that occurs during flow
 Rapid rates of filling can produce erosion of the
mold cavity
 Can result in the entrapment of mold material
in the final casting
 Cross sectional areas of the channels
regulate flows
 Gating System

 Proper design minimizes turbulence

 Turbulence promotes absorption of gases,
oxidation, and mold erosion
 Choke- smallest cross-sectional area in the gating
system
 Runner extensions and wells- used to catch and
trap the first metal to enter the mold and prevent it
from entering the mold cavity
 Filters- used to trap foreign material
 Casting Applications

Fig. Typical gating system for a horizontal parting plane mold, showing key
components involved in controlling the flow of metal into the mold cavity.
Filters
 Solidification Shrinkage
 Most metals undergo
noticeable volumetric
contraction when cooled
 Three principle stages of
shrinkage:
 Shrinkage of liquid as it cools
from the solidification
temperature
 Solidification shrinkage as the
liquid turns into solid
 Solid metal contraction as the
solidified metal cools to room
temperature
 Solidification Shrinkage

 Amount of liquid metal contraction depends on

 The coefficient of thermal contraction
 The amount of superheat
 As the liquid metal solidifies, the atomic structure
normally becomes more efficient and significant
amounts of shrinkage can occur
 Cavities and voids can be prevented by designing
the casting to have directional solidification
 Hot tears can occur when there is significant tensile
stress on the surface of the casting material
Gating System
Horizontal Gating System
Gating System
 Risers and Riser Design

 Risers are reservoirs of liquid metal that feed extra

metal to the mold to compensate for shrinkage
 Risers are designed to conserve metal
 Located so that directional solidification occurs from
the extremities of the mold toward the riser
 Should feed directly to the thickest regions of the
casting
 Blind riser- contained entirely within the mold cavity
 Live riser- receive the last hot metal that enters the
mold
Component with Riser and Without Riser
 Open and a Blind Riser

 Riser must be separated from the casting upon

completion so the connection area must be as
small as possible
 Riser Aids

 Riser’s performance may be enhanced by speeding the

solidification of the casting (chills) or slowing down the
solidification (sleeves or toppings)
 External chills
 Masses of high-heat capacity material placed in the
mold
 Absorb heat and accelerate cooling in specific
regions
 Internal chills
 Pieces of metal that are placed in the mold cavity
and promote rapid solidification
 Ultimately become part of the cast part
Feeder (Riser) Design Principles
Rule 1 : Solidification Time
Feeder/Casting Modulus Ratio
Rule 2: Feeder Connection, Feed Path
Solidification Defects
 Section Thickness

Fig. (a) The ‘‘hot spot’’ at section r2 is caused by intersecting sections. (b) An interior fillet and
exterior radius leads to more uniform thickness and more uniform cooling.
 Design Modifications

 Parts that have ribs may experience cracking due to

contraction
 Ribs may be staggered to prevent cracking
 An excess of material may appear around the parting
line
 The parting line may be moved to improve
appearance
 Thin-walled castings should be designed with extra
caution to prevent cracking
 Casting Designs

 May be aided by computer simulation

 Mold filling may be modeled with fluid flow software
 Heat transfer models can predict solidification
Component and a Corresponding Pattern
Component and a Corresponding Pattern

C
E

B D
 Component and a Corresponding Pattern

Section Area Volume Modulus

A (20*80)+(20*80)+(40*80) + (40*80) = 9600 (20*80*40) = 64000 6.66
B (20*80)+(20*80)+(40*80)+(40*80) = 9600 (20*80*40) = 64000 6.66
C (40*80*2)+(80*80*2)+(40*80*2)=25600 (40*80*80) = 256000 10
D (20*60*2)+(20*80*2)+((2*60*80)+(2*3.14*20*20)) = (60*80*20 ) -(3.14 * 20 4.0
17712 *20*20) = 70880
E ((0.5*60*60*2)+(10*84))*2= 8880 (0.5*60*60*10)*2=3600 4.0
0
Total
71392 490880
Component and a Corresponding Pattern

Volume of Bracket 490880 mm3

Volume of Hole 25133 mm3

Weight of Component 490880 x 7870 x 10^-9 =3.86 Kg
Parting Line Selection

Parting Parting Max Undercut

Line Position Draw Vol
Distance (mm3)
(mm)
YZ X=80 80 25133 volume of hole

ZX Y=40 40 133133
XY Z=20 60 128000
40*40*80
Pattern and Core Marking
 Core Design

 Let us consider simply supported core:

db = diameter of body of core
lb = length of body of core
dp = diameter of core print
lp = length of core print
Self weight of core body Wb=(3.14*db2*lb*ρcore/4)g
Self weight of core print Wp=(3.14*dp2*lp*ρcore/4)g
Total weight of core W=Wb+Wp
Rule 1: Weight of core print must be higher than weight
of body of core (Wb Wp)
 Core Design

 The buoyancy force on the core

B=(3.14*db2*lb*ρmetal/4)g
 The net upward force on core = B-W
 The compressive stress in the mould under two
core prints
σprint = 0.5(B-W)/(lp*dp)
 Rule 2 : σprint σcomp
 Rule 2 ensures that there will not be a crushing of
mould sand by core prints
Parting Line Selection

Parting Parting Max Undercut

Line Position Draw Vol
Distance (mm3)
(mm)
YZ X=80 80 25133
ZX Y=40 40 133133
XY Z=20 60 128000
 Core Design

 Design a combined core for

the hole and undercut. Calculate
the weight of core body and the
prints. What is the resultant force
on the core

Sol: X

Core Body Vol. = Hole Volume + Undercut Volume = 133133 mm3

Mass of core body = 133133 x 1600 x 10-9 = 0.213 kg
Taking core print size = core body size on both sides
Mass of core print = 0.213 kg
Weight of total core = (0.213 + 0.213)x9.81 = 4.18 N
Upward buoyancy force = density of metal x g x volume displaced
= 7200 x 9.81 x 133133 x 10-9 = 9.16 N
Net upward force = Buoyancy force – weight of entire core
= 9.16-4.18 = 5 N
 Core

 Check if the core will cause

failure:

Sol: X

Net Upward Force = 5 N

Compressive stress on the mold at each core print = Net upward
force/Projected area of core print
= 5/ (2x40x20x10-4)
= 3125 N/m2 or Pa (allowed stress is 50,000 Pa)
Therefore, sand will not crush under the force of core print
 Metal to Sand Ratio
 Given a mould size of 400 mm x 300 mm
x (75+75), and a 4 cavity mould, calculate
the metal-to-sand weight ratio. Assume
casting yield =60%
Sol: Vol. of 4 Castings 4 x 490867 = 1963468 mm3
Vol. of metal poured per mould = 1963468 / 0.6
= 3272000 mm3
Weight of casting = 3272000 x 7870 x 10-9 = 25.75 kg
X

Mould sand Volume = Mould Vol. – Casting Vol.= (400x300x150)-3272000 = 14728000 mm3
Taking sand density = 1600 kg/mm3
Mould sand Weight = 1600x14728000 x 10-9 x 10-9= 23.56 kg
Metal to sand Ratio = 25.75/23.56 = 1.09 = 1:0.9
Above ratio is more than recommended 1:1 ratio.
There is need to increase mould box sizes. Let us increase cope and drag size to 100 mm
each. Modified Metal to Sand Weight ratio increases to 1:1.13 which is acceptable.
 Solidification Time
 Estimate the solidification time for the last
freezing regision by Chvorinov’s Equation

Ko = Overall efficiency =1
Ks = Size coefficient =1.1
Kf = Fluidity coefficient =1.0
Kt= Thickness coefficient = 1.1
X
t =Average wall thickness of casting
Core sand density=1600 kg/m3 ρcast =density of liquid metal=7020 kg/m3
Metal density=7090 kg/m3 L=Latent heat of metal=272 kJ/kg
Comp.strength of green sand=50,000 Pa Tamb =Ambient temperature =40 0C
Ccast =Specific heat of cast metal=795 J/kg.K Tint =Interface temperature =1345 0C

Tpour =Pouring temperature of metal=1650 0C (

Coeff.= = 1578
. . ( )
Tsol = Solidus Temperature = 1540 oC
Kmould =Thermal conductivity of mould material =0.61
J/mKs
Solidification Time = 4.2 min = 252 sec
Cmould = Specific heat of mould material=1130 J/kg.K
 Riser Design
 Design a top feeder. Assume feeder height to
diameter ratio is 1.5 and neck length is 10 mm.
Assume no heat transfer from the entire bottom
face of a feeder. Recalculate the modulus of
last freezing region and correct the feeder
dimensions through a second iteration.
Diameter and Height of Feeder: Df, Hf
Hf = 1.5 Df
Vol. of feeder (Vf)= πDf2 Hf /4 = πDf2 (1.5 Df) /4 = 0.375 πDf3
Surface area of feeder (Af) = πDf x 1.5 Df + πDf2 /4 = 1.75
πDf2
X Modulus of feeder = 0.214 Df
Taking modulus of feeder = 1.2 x modulus of hot spot section
= 1.2 x 10 =12 mm
0.214 Df = 12 (Therefore, Df= 56 mm)
Hf = 1.5 Df = 84 mm
Vol. of hot spot = 256000 mm3
Modified area of hot section = 256000 – (area feeder bottom) = 256000 – (3.14x 56 x 56 / 4) = 23137 mm2
Modified Modulus of last freezig section = 11.1 mm
Modified Modulus of feeder = 1.2 x 11.1 = 13.3 mm = 0.214 Df
Modified diameter of feeder = 62 mm
Modified height of feeder = 93 mm
Modulus of neck = 1.1 x modulus of last freezing section = 1.1 x 11.1 = 12.2 mm
HN = Height of neck = 10 mm (given) . Therefore, neck diameter = 48.8 mm
 Riser Design
 Calculate feeder yield and feeder efficieny.
Can the same feeder used to feed two adjacent
casting?
Feeder yield is given by Yf= Vc/(Vc+Vf)
Vc= Casting vol. = 490867 mm3
Volume of feeder including neck= (3.14 x (62)2 x 93 / 4) +
(3.14 x (49)2 x 10 / 4) = 299479 mm3
Yf = 490867 / (490867 + 299479)
= 0.6210 (i.e. 62%)
Feeder efficiency = ƞf= α (Vc + Vf) / Vf
= 0.0316 x (490867 + 299479) / 299479
= 0.0833 i.e. 8.33 %
X This is slightly more than half of the theoretical efficiency
limit of 14% Hence, with a small increase in dimensions,
the same feeder can be used for two adjacent feeder.

 Recalculate the feeder dimensions, assuming it is surrounded by an insulating

sleeve with modulus extension factor of 1.4.
Modulus of feeder = Mf = 0.214 Df
Modified modulus of insulated feeder = 1.2 x 11.1 / 1.4 = 9.5 mm
Therefore, Df = 44.5 mm and Hf = 66.7 mm
 Gating System Design
 Determine the optimal mold filling time
assuming a single cavity mould with one feeder.
The fluidity length is 400 mm. Check if the
average pouring rate is less than 2 kg/s.
Mould filling time τs = Ko (Kf Lf / 1000) ( Ks+Kt t /
20) (Kw W)P
Casting weight (without feeder and gating) = 3.863
kg
Feeder weight = 2.4 kg
Assuming gating weight = 10% of the entire casting
(with feeder and gating)
Total casting weight W = (3.863 + 2.4) / 0.9 = 6.97
kg i.e. 7 kg
Mold filling time = 1.0 (1.0 x 400 / 1000) (1.1 + 1.4 x
20 / 20 ) (1.0 x 7)0.4 = 2.2 sec
Ko = Overall efficiency =1 Average pouring rate = 7 / 2.2 = 3.2 kg/sec
Ks = Size coefficient =1.1 The average pouring rate is higher than 2 kg/s.
Kf = Fluidity coefficient =1.0
Kt= Thickness coefficient = 1.1
Hence we can correct the ideal filling time to 3.5
t =Average wall thickness of casting = 20 mm sec.
Gating System Design
 Gating System Design
 Assume a gating ratio of 1.1:2.0:1.5, friction
factor of 0.8 and pouring height of 50 mm,
calculate the metal velocity at a) sprue exit and
b) ingate

H= metallostatic pressure = mould height +

pouring height = 100 + 50 = 150 mm
Sprue velocity Vsprue2 = Cf √2gH = 0.8
√(2*9.81 x 150) = 1.37 m/sec
Chock area is Sprue exit.
X Using continuity equation As. Vs = Ag. Vg.
Velocity at ingate = (As/Ag). Vs =
(1/1.5)x1.37= 0.911 m/sec
Ingate velocity is below the recommended
maximum value of 1 m/sec.
 Gating System Design
 Calculate the chock area (sprue exit).
Calculate the correct area of sprue top and
determine sprue diameter at the top and exit.

W= Total weight of casting = 7 kg

ρc = density of metal = 7870 gm/cm3
Mold filling time = 3.5 sec
Choke velocity = 1.37 m/sec
Chock area = W/(ρc x vc x τs )
X = 7/(7870 x 1.37x 106 x 3.5)= 185.5 mm2
Sprue area at the top A1V1 = A2. V2
A1 = A2 V2 /V1
= A2. √(2. g. H2) / (√(2. g. H1)
= 185 √(2. g. 150) / √(2. g. 50)
= 320 mm2
Diameter of sprue at top = 20.19 mm
Diameter of sprue at bottom = 15.4 mm
 Gating System Design
 Calculate a) runner dimensions, assuming
height/width ratio = 1.5, b) ingate dimensions
assuming height/ width ratio = 0.5. Assume both
have rectangular cross section.

For gating ratio of 1:2:1.5

a) Area of runner = 185.5 x 2 = 371 mm2
Therefore, w=15.7 and h=31.4 mm
b) Area of Ingate = 185.5 x 1.5 = 278 mm2
Therefore, Wgate=23.6 mm and . Hgate=11.8
X mm
Multiple Use Mold Casting Processes
 Mold Life
The actual mold life will depend on the following:
 Alloy being cast: The higher the melting point, the shorter the
mold life.
 Mold material: Gray cast iron has about the best resistance to
thermal fatigue and machines easily. Thus, it is used most
frequently for permanent molds.
 Pouring temperature: Higher pouring temperatures reduce mold
life, increase shrinkage problems, and induce longer cycle times.
 Mold temperature: If the temperature is too low, one can expect
misruns and large temperature differences in the mold. If the
temperature is too high, excessive cycle times result and mold
erosion is aggravated
 Mold configuration: Differences in section sizes of either the
mold or the casting can produce temperature differences within the
mold and reduce its life.
Multiple Use Mold Casting Processes
Permanent Mold Casting
Advantages of Permanent Mold Casting
Disadvantages of Permanent Mold Casting
Permanent Mold Casting
Low Pressure Permanent Mold Casting
 Tilt-Pour Permanent Mold Casting

Schematic of the tilt–pour permanent-mold process, showing the

mold assembly in its tilted or vertical position
 Low-Pressure and Vacuum Permanente Mold
Casting

Schematic of the low-pressure Schematic illustration of vacuum

permanent-mold process. permanent-mold casting
Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
Die-Casting
Advantages of Die Casting
Die Modifications and Die Life
Multiple Use Mold Casting Processes
Basic Types of Die-Casting
Basic Types of Die-Casting
Summary of Die Casting
Die Casting
Die Casting
Die Casting Materials
Centrifugal Casting
 Centrifugal Casting

Schematic of a semicentrifugal
casting process

Schematic of a centrifuging process

Furnaces:
Cupola

• Spark
arrester
• Charging
door
• Air box
• Tuyeres
• Tap hole
• Slag hole
Direct Fuel Fired Furnace
Direct Arc Furnace
Coreless Induction Furnace
Channel Type Induction Furnace
Comparison of Casting Processes