Short Notes

Module 1

MP1

Definition of Manufacturing
The word manufacturing is derived from Latin:

manus = hand, factus = made

Manufacturing is an industrial activity which converts the raw materials to finished products to
be used for some purpose (by altering its geometry, properties and/or appearance) by application
of physical and chemical processes.

• Manufacturing processes can be grouped as:

• Casting, foundry or moulding processes.

• Forming or metal working processes.

• Machining (metal removal) processes.

• Joining and assembly

• Surface treatments (finishing).

• Heat treating

Manufacturing system:
A collection of operations and processes used to obtain a desired product(s) or
component(s) is called a manufacturing system.
The manufacturing system is therefore the design or arrangement of the manufacturing
processes.
Production system:
A production system includes people, money, equipment, materials and supplies,
marketing, management and the manufacturing system.

Introduction to Casting
Casting:
Casting takes advantage of the fact the liquid has fluidity, i.e., a liquid can easily take
the shape of the container.
In a casting process, a solid material is first melted, heated to proper temperature, and
sometimes treated to modify its chemical composition.
The molten material, generally metal, is then poured into a cavity or mould that
contains it in the desired shape during solidification.
Thus, in a single step, simple or complex shapes can be made from any material that
can be melted.
The resulting product can have virtually any configuration that the designer desires.

Advantages of casting

• The most attracting feature of casting is that we can cast any shape in one
operation.
• It is possible to cast any material, be it ferrous or non-ferrous.
• Part of any size, shape and intricacy can be cast.
• The necessary tools required for casting are simple and inexpensive (sand
casting).
• Casting generally cools uniformly from all sides and therefore they are
expected to have no directional properties.
• Best suited for manufacturing of composite components.
• Some casting processes are capable of producing near net shape products.
• Some casting processes are suitable for mass production.

Limitations of casting

• The dimensional accuracy and surface finish achieved by normal sand-

casting process would not be adequate for final application in many cases.
• The sand-casting process is labour intensive to some extent and therefore
many improvements are aimed at it such as machine moulding and foundry
mechanization.
• With some materials it is often difficult to remove defects
• Limitations of mechanical properties.
• Safety hazards because of hot molten metals
• Environment issues

Casting Applications

• Cylinder blocks
• machine tools
• piston rings
• mill rolls
• Wheels
• water supply pipes and bells etc
The process starts with construction of a pattern, an approximate duplicate of the
final casting.
The moulding material is then packed around the pattern and the pattern is removed
to produce a mould cavity.
The flask is the box that contains the moulding aggregate.
In two-part mould, the cope is the name given to the top half of the pattern, flask,
mould, or core.
The drag refers to the bottom half of any of these features.
A core is a sand shape that is inserted into the mould to produce to produce internal
features of a casting, such as holes.
A core print is that region added to the pattern, core, or mould that is used to locate
and support the core within the mould.
The mould material and the core then combine to form the mould cavity, the shaped
hole into which the molten metal is poured and solidified to produce the desired
casting.
A riser is an extra void created in the mould that will also fill with molten metal.
It provides a reservoir of material that can flow into the mould cavity to compensate
for any shrinkage that occurs during solidification.
The gating system is the network of channels used to deliver the molten metal to the
mould cavity.
The pouring cup (pouring basin) is the portion of the gating system that initially
receives the molten metal from the pouring vessel and controls its delivery to the rest
of the mould.
From the pouring cup, the metal travels down a sprue (The vertical portion of the
gating system),
then along horizontal channels, called runners,
and finally, through controlled entrances, or gates, into mould cavity.
Additional channels, known as vents, may be included to provide an escape for the
gases that are generated within the mould.
The parting line or parting surface is the interface that separates the cope and drag
halves of a mould, flask, or pattern and also the halves of a core in some core making
processes.
Chaplets are used to support cores inside the mould cavity to take care of its own
weight and overcome the metallostatic forces.
Chills are metallic objects which are placed in the mould to increase the cooling rate
of castings to provide uniform or desired cooling rate.
The term casting is used to describe both the process and the product when the
molten metal is poured and solidified within the mould.
Sand casting is one of the older techniques and one of the most commonly uses
casting process.
It uses sand as the primary moulding material.
The sand grains are mixed with small number of other materials such as clay and
water, to improve mould ability and cohesive strength, and are then packed around a
pattern that has the shape of the desired casting.
The pattern is removed before pouring.
For removal of the pattern, the mould is made of two or more pieces.
The metal is then poured into the cavity through a gating system. Gravity flow is the
most common means of introducing the metal into the mould.
After solidification, the mould is broken and the finished casting is removed. As the
mould is destroyed a new mould must be made for each casting.
Therefore, sand casting is expendable mould casting, using multiple use pattern.

Pattern and pattern making

The first step in sand casting is design and construction of pattern.
Pattern is the principal tool during casting process.
Pattern is a model of the casting to be cast, so constructed that it may be used to
form an impression called mould cavity in the moulding sand. The mould cavity
should be capable of producing the required casting. When this mould cavity is filled
with metal and the metal is allowed to solidify, forms the required casting. The
pattern is therefore an approximate duplicate of the required casting as it has core
print and required allowances in order to produce the required casting.

Pattern materials

• Wood is the most commonly used pattern making material. Some pattern
materials are:
• Wood, cast iron, brass, aluminium, plastics, rubbers, plasters, gypsum, and
wax etc.
• The selection of pattern materials depends primarily on the following
factors:

–Service requirements, e.g., quantity, quality and intricacy of casting.

–Type of production of castings and the type of moulding process.
–Possibility of design changes.
–Number of castings to be produced.

Factors for selecting pattern materials

• The following factors assist in selecting proper pattern material:

–Quantity: No. of castings to be produced.

–Metal to be cast.
–Quality: Dimensional accuracy & surface finish.
–Shape, complexity and size of casting.
–Casting design parameters.
–Type of moulding materials.
–The chance of repeat orders.
–Nature of moulding process.
–Position of core print.
–Possibility of design changes

Requirements of good pattern material:

–Easily worked, shaped and joined.
–Light in weight.
–Strong, hard and durable.
–Dimensionally stable in all situation.
–Easily available at low cost.
–Repairable and reused.
–Able to take good surface finish.
–Resistant to wear and abrasion
–Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions

Types of Patterns

Single piece or Solid Pattern

Split Pattern

Match plate Pattern (Split pattern with all gating and riser system installed on a single plate/
Mass production)

Cope and Drag Pattern (Match plate pattern is split into cope and drag/If match plates gets
heavy, then used / Mass production)

Gatted Pattern (a number of castings are produced in a single multi cavity mould by joining a
group of patterns. Gatted pattern includes the gating system in the pattern, as such
eliminates the time required to cut the gating system by hand.)

Loose-piece Pattern
Sweep Pattern
Skeleton Pattern: It resembles from outside the shape of the casting but otherwise is
a simple wooden frame. This is a ribbed construction with large number of square or
rectangular openings between ribs which forms a skeleton outline of the pattern to
be made.
Follow Board Pattern: This type of pattern is adopted for those castings where there
are some portions which are structurally weak and if not supported properly are likely
to break under force of ramming.
Segmental Pattern: The segmental patterns are also known as part patterns.
Segmental patterns are sections of pattern arranged in such a way so as to form a
complete mould by moving the segmented pattern around the mould suitably. These
are generally applicable to circular work, like rings, wheels, rims, and gears etc.
Shell Pattern The shell pattern is a hollow construction like shell. The outside shape is
used as pattern to make mould while the inside is used as a core box for making
cores. used for drainage fittings and pipe work
Pattern making allowances
Patterns are not made to the exact size as the desired casting for several reasons.
Such a pattern would produce casting which are undersize. Allowances must
therefore be made for shrinkage draft, finish, distortion and rapping.

Shrinkage Allowances:
All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on cooling. The metal
shrinkage is of two types:

• Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume when the metal

changes from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To
account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid metal to the casting,
are provided in the mould.
• Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal
loses temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage allowance is
provided on the patterns.
Draft Allowances: In many casting processes, the pattern contains surfaces that are
perpendicular to the parting line (parallel to the direction of pattern withdrawal), the
friction between the pattern and mould, or any horizontal movement of the pattern
during extraction would tend to damage the mould. This damage would be
particularly severe at the corners where the mould cavity intersects the parting
surface. By incorporating a slight taper, or draft, on all surface parallel to the direction
of withdrawal, this difficulty can be minimized. As soon as the pattern is withdrawn a
slight amount, it is free from the sand on all surfaces, and it can be withdrawn further
without damaging the mould.
The amount of draft is determined by the size and shape of the pattern, the depth of
the cavity, the method used to withdraw the pattern, the pattern material, the mould
material, and the moulding procedure.
Distortion or camber Allowances:
Same casting shapes require an additional allowance for distortion. For example, the
arms of a U-shaped section may be restrained by the mould, while the base of the U
is free to shrink. This restraint will result in a final casting with outwardly sloping
arms. To compensate for this distortion, the arms may be designed to originally slope
inwards, so that upon cooling they will distort to a straight shape. This type of
compensation is called Distortion or camber Allowances.

Rapping Allowances
When a pattern is rapped in the mould before it is withdrawn, the cavity in the mould
is slightly increased. In every case where casting must be uniform and true to pattern,
rapping or shake allowance is provided for making the pattern slightly smaller than
the actual size to compensate for the rapping of the mould.

Master patterns:
Master patterns are used for preparing the moulds for metal castings which are later
used as patterns for further moulding work, called metal patterns. The master
patterns are accurately finished wooden patterns, which carry double shrinkage
allowance and the required machining allowance. For example, an aluminium pattern
is to be made which is to be used further for making moulds for brass castings. The
aluminium pattern should, obviously, be larger than the desired brass casting by an
amount equal to shrinkage that will take place during solidification of this casting. For
making this aluminium pattern a wooden pattern is to be used which should be larger
than the aluminium pattern by an amount equal to the aluminium shrinkage, added
with proper machining allowance for finishing the aluminium casting. Mathematically,
it can be represented thus:

Size of master pattern = Size of the final casting to be Made + shrinkage allowance for the
material of final casting + shrinkage allowance of the metal of which the pattern is to be
made + Finishing allowance for the metal pattern.

Moulding Sand Constituents:

Silica Sand Grains:
–moulding sand contains 80 to 90 % silica. Silica in the form of granular quartz, itself
a sand, it is the chief constituent of moulding sand. They impart refractoriness,
chemical resistivity and permeability to the sand. The sand grains may vary in size
from few micrometres to a few millimetres. The shape of sand grains may be round or
angular. Silica sand normally contains some oxides of aluminium, sodium, magnesium
and calcium as foreign material.
Moisture/Water:
–Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of required amount of water
(1.5 to 8 %). When water is added to clay, it penetrates in to the mixture and forms a
microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake.
Clay:
–Clay can be defined as natural earthy material that becomes plastic when mixed
with water. Clay consists of two ingredients: fine silt and true clay. Fine silt is a
foreign material or mineral deposit and has no bonding power, whereas true clay
imparts the necessary bonding to the moulding sand. Its purpose is to impart
necessary bonding strength to the mould sand so that the mould does not lose its
shape after ramming. moulding sand contains about 5 to 20 % clay.
–The most popular types of clay used are: Kaolinite or Fireclay (Al2O32SiO22H2O)
and Bentonite (Al2O34SiO2H2OnH2O).
–Fireclay has higher melting point than Bentonite. However, Bentonite can absorb
more water which increases its bonding power. Bentonite also has better
permeability.
–Bentonite is of two types: Calcium ion-based bentonite and sodium ion base
bentonite. Sodium ion-based bentonite provides better bonding properties.
Additives: Materials other than basic materials are also added to the moulding sand
for improving existing properties. These are:
–Facing Materials: Facing materials are used to get smoother and cleaner surfaces of
castings and helps easy peeling of sand from the casting surface during shake out.
These are:
– Coal dust: Coal dust or sea coal is finely grounded soft coal (pulverized coal). It
tends to obtain smoother and cleaner surface and reduces the adherence of sand
particles to the casting. It also increases hot and dry strength of the mould.
– Silica flour: It is very fine ground silica. It improves surface finish of the casting.
–Cushion Materials:
–Cushion materials burn when molten metal is poured and thus give rise to space for
accommodating the expansion of silica sand at the surface of mould cavity. E.g., wood
flour, cellulose, and cereals.
–Wood flour: It is ground wood particles or other cellulose materials.
–Cereals: Cereals are finely ground corn flour.

Classifications of moulding Sand: According to the nature of its origin

• Natural Sand: Natural sand is also called green sand, is taken from
riverbeds or is dug from pits. Natural sand contains sufficient amount of
binding materials (Clay) in it so that it can be used directly.
• Advantages:

–Natural sand maintains moisture content for a long time.

–They are cheap.
–The time for mixing the binder is saved.
–No extra equipment for mixing the sand and the binder.

• Disadvantages:

–They are less refractory than synthetic sands because of impurities present.

• Applications: Light castings, Mechanized production of casting with few

cores.

Synthetic Sand: Synthetic sands are basically clay free high silica sands. They are
mixed with desired amount of clay and water to develop required moulding
properties. It is used for steel castings.
 • Advantages:

–High permeability and refractoriness.

–mouldability with less moisture.

• Disadvantages:

–It is more costly.

–It needs extra time, equipment and men to prepare the sand.

• Applications: Heavily cored castings, Mechanized production, High

pressure moulding.

Classifications of moulding Sand: According to the nature of its origin

• Special Sands: Special sand is ideal in getting special characteristics, which are
not ordinarily obtained in other sands. Zircon, olivine, chamotte, chromite and
chrome-manganese are often used as special sands.

• Zircon sand: Zircon sand is zirconium silicate (ZrSiO4). This sand has low
thermal expansion, high heat conductivity, greater density and high
refractoriness. These sands are used for bronze casting, alloy steels-
chrome steels and manganese steels casting.
• Olivine sand: This is orthosilicate of iron and manganese (MgFe)O. SiO2. It
has high density, conductivity and refractoriness. It is used for non-ferrous,
steels and intricate casting.
• Chamotte sand: This is produced by calcining high-grade fire clay at about
11000C and crushing it to the required grain size. It is much cheaper than
zircon and olivine. It is used for heavy steel Casting.
• Chromite and Chrome-magnesite: It has refractoriness, high density and
chilling power. It is useful where chilling tendency is to be increased to
control solidification.

• Green Sands: Foundry sand containing moisture is known as green sand. It

is a mixture of silica sand with 18 –30 % clay, having total water from 6-
8%. This is suitable for moulding purposes without any further
conditioning. Green sand is generally used for casting small or medium
sized moulds.
• Dry Sands: Sands free from moisture are called dry sands. It possesses
greater strength than green sand and can be used for making larger
castings.
• Loam Sands: Loam sands are a mixture of sand and clay (50%). It is used for
making larger castings such as large cylinders, paper rolls.
• Facing Sands: Facing sand forms the face of the mould. It is used directly
next to the surface of the pattern and it comes in contact with the molten
metal when the mould is poured. Consequently, it is subjected to the
 severest conditions and must possess high strength and refractoriness.
Facing sand is composed of dry silica and facing materials.

• Backing Sands: It is the sand, which backs up the facing sand and to fill the
rest of the flask. It is the floor sand already been used.
• Parting Sands: Sand employed on the faces of the pattern before moulding
is called parting sand. The parting sand contains dried silica, and burnt
sand. Parting sand is used to avoid sticking of the green sand to the
pattern.
• Core Sands: Sands used for making cores are called core sands. This is silica
sand mixed with core oil, which is composed of linseed oil, resin, light
mineral oil and other binding materials.
• System Sands: In mechanical foundries where machine moulding is
employed a so-called system sand is used to fill the whole flask. In
mechanical sand preparation and handling units no facing sand is used.

Properties of moulding Sand

Permeability or Porosity: Molten metal always contains a certain amount of dissolved
gases, which are evolved when the metal solidifies, also when the molten metal
comes in contact with moisture sand, generates steam and water vapour. If these
gases and water vapour do not find passage to escape completely through the mould,
they will form gas holes and pores in the casting. The ability of the sand to allow the
gas to pass through it is called permeability. It depends on the size and shape of
grains, moisture content and degree of ramming.
There are four factors that control the permeability of foundry sand: (1) fineness of
the sand grains, (2) shape of the sand grains, (3) the amount and type of binder, and
(4) the moisture content. Permeability is expressed as a number that increases with
an increasing openness of the sand.
Plasticity and Flowability: This refers to the ability of the moulding sand to acquire a
predetermined shape under pressure and retain the same when the pressure is
removed. This will increase with clay and moisture content.
Adhesiveness: moulding sand particles should stick to the surface of the moulding
boxes. This enables the mould to retain in a box during handling.
Cohesiveness: Cohesiveness is the ability of the sand particles to stick to each other.
Lack of this property would result in breaking of the mould when molten metal is
poured. This depends on grain size (decreases with grain size) and clay content
(increases with clay) of sand.
Green Strength: It is the strength of the sand in green or moist state. A mould with
adequate green strength will not disturb or collapse even after removing the pattern
from the mould box in the absence of green strength, dimensional stability and
accuracy cannot be obtained.
Dry strength: It is the strength of the moulding sand in dry condition. A mould should
possess adequate dry strength to withstand erosive force and pressure of the molten
metal.
Hot Strength: It is the strength of the mould cavity above 100 ° C. If hot strength is
inadequate the mould is likely to enlarge, break or get cracked.
Refractoriness: The capability of the moulding sand to withstand the high
temperatures of the molten metal without fusing is known as refractoriness.
Collapsibility: It is the property of the moulding sand that permits it to collapse easily
during its knockout from the casting.
Coefficient Of Expansion: moulding sands should possess low coefficient of
expansion. Otherwise, mould might crack. moulding sands should possess low
coefficient of expansion. Otherwise, mould might crack.
Fineness: Finer mould sand resists metal penetration and produces smooth casting
surface. Fineness and permeability are opposite to each other. Hence these should be
balanced for optimum result.
Bench Life: It is the ability of mould sand to retain its properties during storing,
handling or while standing.
Chemical Reactivity: The moulding sand should not react chemically with molten
metal, otherwise the shape of casting will be disturbed and smooth surface will not be
obtained.

Machine Moulding Methods:

Hand ramming: is the simplest method of compacting sand. To increase the rate, pneumatic
rammers are used. The method is slow, the sand is rammed in layers, and it is difficult to gain
uniform density.

squeezing machines: More uniform results and higher production rates are obtained
by squeezing machines. The sand is rammed harder at the back of the mould and softer on
the pattern face. In other words, sand has greatest density at the surface where pressure is
applied to sand and sand density decreases progressively towards the pattern.

moulding force (Mf) = P (π. d2/4)-W

Were, P – Pressure in squeeze cylinder
d – Piston diameter
W – Weight of flask pattern and sand
In jolt moulding machines the pattern is placed on a platen attached to the top of an air
cylinder. After the table is raised, a quick-release port opens, and the piston, platen, and
mould drop free against the top of the cylinder or striking pads. The impact packs the sand.
The densities produced by this machine are greatest next to the parting line of the pattern
and softest near the top of the flask. This procedure can be used for any flask that can be
rammed on a moulding machine. As a separate unit, it is used primarily for medium and large
work. Where plain jolt machines are used on large work, it is usual to ram the top of the flask
manually with an air hammer.

The sand slinger is the most widely applicable type of ramming machine. It consists of an
impeller mounted on the end of a double-jointed arm which is fed with sand by belt
conveyors mounted on the arm. The impeller rotating at high speed gives sufficient velocity
to the sand to ram it in the mould by impact.

The black and white figure shows squeezing machine on top and jolt machine on the bottom, both
combined is known as Jolt-Squeeze machine

The coloured picture is of sand slinger machine.

Sand Testing:
Grain fineness or Grain size test:

The grain size is determined by grain fineness number.

It can be tested with the help of equipment called sieve shaker.
It consists of set of standard sieves having varying number of meshes 6, 12, 20, 30,
40, 50, 70, 100, 140, 200 and 270.
The sieve with minimum mesh number has largest aperture and so on.
The sample of sand is first washed to remove clay from it, and then it is dried. A
weighed quantity of this sand is now placed on the top sieve and the whole unit is
shaken for a definite period with the help of electric motor. The sand falls through the
apertures, and the sand of smallest size comes to the bottom pan. The sand in each
sieve is collected and weighed separately and expressed as a percentage of the
original sample weight. The percentage retained in each sieve is multiplied by its own
multiplier and all the products are added to obtain the total product. The grain
fineness number is obtained by using the following equation

Sand Testing: Hardness test

The hardness of compacted sand provides a quick indication of mould strength and
give additional insight into strength-permeability characteristics. Hardness of
moulding sand can be measured by an instrument called hardness tester. This tester
determines the resistance of the sand to penetration by a 0.2-inch (5.08 mm)
diameter spring loaded steel ball.
Permeability is measured by the quantity of air that will pass through a standard
specimen of the sand under given pressure in a prescribed time.
The permeability apparatus uses the standard rammed 5.08cm diameter by 5.08cm
height test piece.
A permeability meter, has a cylindrical water tank in which an inverted bell or air
holder, properly balanced, is floating. By properly opening the valve, air, which is
trapped under the bell, will flow through the sand specimen as shown. Mercury
around the bottom of the specimen tube provides an airtight seal. The pressure of
this air is obtained with the water manometer and straight scale. It should be close to
10 cm of water, which correspond to a pressure of 10 gm per sq. cm.
Permeability number is defined as the volume of air in cc that will pass per minute
under a pressure of 1 gm per sq. cm through a specimen, which is 1 sq. cm in cross
sectional area and 1 cm deep.

Sand Testing: Strength Test

To find out the holding power of various bonding materials in green and dry sand moulds,
strength tests are performed. It is done on universal sand testing machine. moulding sand can
be tested for compressive, tensile strength and shear strength.

Core and Core Making:

• Cores:

–Castings are often required to have holes, recesses etc. of various sizes and shapes.
–Cores are used for making holes or cavities or recesses, which cannot normally be
produced by pattern alone.
–These cores are obtained by using core sand; cores are separately made, in boxes
known as core boxes.

• Core prints:

–For supporting the cores in the mould cavity, an impression in the form of recesses
is made in the mould with the help of a projection suitably placed on the pattern.
–This projection on the pattern is known as the core prints.
Core Sands:
Core sand is composed of either dry sand or synthetic sand mixed with core oil and/
or binders.
Generally, Core oils (composed of linseed oil, resin, light mineral oil (50 to 60% linseed
oil, 25% resin and the rest is mineral oil) are used as they are economical and
produces.
The normal binders are organic in nature, because these would be burnt away by the
heat of the molten metal and thus make the core collapsible during the cooling of the
casting.
Binders are of following types:
Thermo setting plastic core binders (Rosin, pitch): Gives high strength.
Thermo setting resin core binders (Urea, phenol): Gives high strength.
Protein binders (Gelatine, glue): Where collapsibility is the main criterion.
Characteristics of Core and Core Sand:
–Green strength: Core sand should be strong enough to retain the shape till it goes
for baking.
–Dry strength: It should have adequate dry strength so that when the core is placed
in the mould, it should be able to resist the metal pressure acting on it.
–Refractoriness: Since in most cases, the core is surrounded all around it is desirable
that the core material should have higher refractoriness.
–Permeability: Some of the gases evolving from the molten metal and generated
from the mould may have to go through the core to escape out of the mould. Hence
cores are required to have higher permeability.
–Collapsibility: As the casting cools, it shrinks, and unless the core has good
collapsibility it is likely to provide resistance to against shrinkage and thus cause hot
tears.
–Smoothness: The surface of the core should be smooth so as to provide a good
surface finish to the castings
Core Boxes
A core box is a type of pattern being used for making cores. It is made of wood, brass
aluminium or any suitable material. In core boxes sand is rammed or packed to form
the cores and thus impart the desired shape to them. A core box is so constructed
that it gives the exact size and shape of the core required.

The steps
involved in core making are:
Mixing core sand:
–The dry sand is mixed with required amount of core oil and binders. The mixer must
be homogeneous so that core will be of uniform strength through out. The mixing of
sand is performed in paddle mixers or mullers.
Ramming of the core sand:
–Cores are usually made in core boxes. The core box is filled with core sand, rammed
and struck off.
Venting of the core:
–Vent holes are provided in cores in order to allow the escape of gases. These vents
are usually made with wires or rods.
Reinforcing the core:
–Some cores require internal reinforcements to prevent from breakage or shifting,
when metal is poured in the mould. Wires placed within the sand serve this purpose.
Baking of the core:
–The cores after removing from the core boxes are baked at temperature up to about
2600C to develop the strength obtainable from the binders in the core sand. The
baking is done in oven, dielectric bakers etc.
Cleaning of the core:
–The cleaning of cores consists of trimming, brushing, coating and muddling.
Trimming: It is done to remove fins arising from loose joints or loose pieces in the
core boxes.
Brushing: It is done to remove loose sand.
Coating: The core is coated with high refractory materials to increase its
refractoriness.
Muddling: It is localized coating to make the core smooth. In this step, cavities in the
core surface are filled.
Sizing of the core:
–The cores are then brought to required size by removing excess material.
Joining of the core:
–Sometimes cores are made of two or more pieces, so before they can be used, they
are joined by pasting or bolting.

Chaplets
–Chaplets are metal supports used to hold a core in place when core prints are
inadequate. It is absolutely necessary that they be clean. Rust, oil, grease, moisture, or
even finger marks, cause poor fusion or porosity. Chaplets should be the same
composition as the casting, if possible. The strength of the chaplet must be enough to
carry the weight of the core until sufficient metal has solidified to provide the
required strength, but it should be no heavier than necessary.

Green Sand Moulding

Firstly, one half of the pattern is placed with its flat surface on a mould board, and the
drag section of the flask is set over the pattern on the same board.
After powdering the pattern with lycopodium, talc, or graphite, a layer of facing sand
is then riddled over the pattern.
The drag is then filled with layers of green sand mixture. The sand is then compacted
with rammer.
After the sand is rammed, a strickle is used to scrape off the excess sand level with
the top of the flask.
The mould is then vented by sticking it with a fine stiff wire at numerous places.
A small amount of loose sand is sprinkled over the mould, and bottom board is placed
on the top.
The drag is then rolled over, the moulding board is then removed, and the upper
surface is sprinkled with parting sand.

The remaining half of the pattern and the cope section of the flask are then
assembled.
Tapered wooden pegs to serve as sprue and riser are placed in proper position on the
pattern, which is riddled over with facing sand, and then the cope is filled with green
sand.
The operations of filling, ramming, venting of the cope proceed in the same manner
as in the drag.

Now, the wooden pegs are removed from the cope and a funnel shaped opening is
scooped out at the top of the sprue to form the pouring basin.
Next the cope is lifted off and placed on a board with parting line upward.
An iron bar is now pushed down to the pattern and rapped sideways so as to loosen
the pattern in the mould.
Next the pattern is drawn out.

The runner and the gate are cut in the drag from the pattern to the sprue. Now the
core must be placed in the print left by the pattern.
Mould surfaces are then cleaned.
Finally, the mould is assembled, the cope being carefully placed on the drag so that
the flask pins fit into the bushes.
Before pouring the molten metal, the cope is sufficiently loaded to prevent it from
floating up when metal is poured.
The mould is now ready for casting.
Gating system
Important points to be considered for GATING SYSTEMS Design

• The mould should be completely filled in the smallest time possible without
having to raise metal temperatures nor use higher metal heads.
• The metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence. A
turbulent metal flow tends to form dross in the mould.
• Unwanted material such as slag, dross and other mould material should not
be allowed to enter the mould cavity.
• The metal entry into the mould cavity should be properly controlled in such
a way that aspiration of the atmospheric air is prevented.
• A proper thermal gradient be maintained so that the casting is cooled
without any shrinkage cavities or distortions.
• Metal flow should be maintained in such a way that no gating or mould
erosion takes place.
• The gating system should ensure that enough molten metal reaches the
mould cavity.
• The gating system design should be economical and easy to implement and
remove after casting solidification.
• Ultimately, the casting yield should be maximised.
Pouring Basin: It is the funnel-shaped opening, made at the top of the mould. The
main purpose of the pouring basin is to direct the flow of molten metal from ladle to
the sprue. It should be made substantially large and is kept near the edge of the
mould box. Pouring basin must be deep enough to reduce the vortex formation and is
kept full during entire pouring operation.
Sprue: It is a passage which connects the pouring basin to the runner or ingate. It is
generally made tapered downward to avoid aspiration of air. The cross section of the
sprue may be square, rectangular, or circular. The round sprue has a minimal surface
area exposed to cooling and offers the lowest resistance to the flow of metal. The
square or rectangular sprue minimizes the air aspiration and turbulence.
Sprue well: It is located at the base of the sprue. It arrests the free fall of molten metal
through the sprue and turns it by a right angle towards the runner.

Cross-gate or Runner: In case of large casting, the fluidity length of the molten metal is
less than the maximum distance required to be travelled by the molten metal along
the flow path. So, it is necessary to provide the multiple ingates to reduce the
maximum flow distance needed to be travelled by the molten metal. Moreover, in a
multi-cavity mould also each cavity must have at least one ingate, therefore it is
necessary to connect all the ingate to a common passageway which is finally linked
with the sprue to complete the flow path. This passage way is called runner. The
cross section of the runner is usually rectangular to get a streamlined flow with less
turbulence. The runner must fill completely before letting the molten metal enter the
ingates. In castings where more than one ingate is present, the cross-sectional area
must be reduced after each ingate (by an amount equal to area of that ingate), to
ensure the uniform flow through the ingates.
Ingate or Gate: It is a small passage which connects the runner to the mould cavity.
The cross section is square, rectangular and trapezoidal.

Gating Ratio
There is a definite relationship between the cross-sectional areas of the sprue,
runners, and in-gates, to produce the best filling conditions for the mould. The rate of
filling the mould should not exceed the ability of the sprue to keep the entire gating
system full of liquid metal at all times. The cross section of the runner should be
reduced in size as each gate is passed. This keeps the runner full throughout its entire
length and promotes uniform flow through all of the gates. If this procedure is not
followed in a multiple-ingate system, all of the metal will have a tendency to flow
through the ingates farthest from the sprue.

Types of Gating Systems

The gating systems are of two types:
–Pressurized gating system
–Un-pressurized gating system
Pressurized Gating System (Typical gating ratio 1:2:1)
The total cross-sectional area decreases towards the mould cavity
Back pressure is maintained by the restrictions in the metal flow

Flow of liquid (volume) is almost equal from all gates

Back pressure helps in reducing the aspiration as the sprue always runs full

Because of the restrictions the metal flows at high velocity leading to more turbulence and
chances of mould erosion

In this system pressure is maintained at the ingates by the fluid. In order to achieve this total
gate area should be less than the sprue exit area. In other words, choke is located at the
ingate. This system keeps gating channels full of metal. Due to pressurization the flow
separation is absent in the system also air aspiration is minimized. The filling rate and yield
increase. However, high metal velocity will cause turbulence.

Because of the turbulence and the associated dross formation, this type of gating system is not
used for light alloys but can be advantageous for ferrous casting.

Un-Pressurized Gating System

The total cross-sectional area increases towards the mould cavity

Restriction only at the bottom of sprue

Flow of liquid (volume) is different from all gates

aspiration in the gating system as the system never runs full

Less turbulence

In this system choke is located at the sprue exit. Hence the sprue exit area is less than the
total gate area, for example 1:2:2, 1:4:4. Due to lower velocity, filling rate will be less. The
process yield increases but it suffers from the disadvantage of flow separation.

This is particularly useful for casting drossy alloys such as aluminium and magnesium alloys.
Runner
The gating system should be designed in such a way that runner should run full.
When the amount of molten metal coming down the sprue is more than the amount
flowing through the ingates, the runner would be full and thus slag trapping would
take place.
Ingate Design:
The following points should be kept in mind while choosing the positioning of the
ingates:
–In-gate should not be located near a protruding part of the mould to avoid the
striking of vertical mould walls by the molten metal stream.
–In-gates should preferably be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould wall.
–In-gates should not be placed near a core print or a chill.
–In-gate cross sectional area should preferably be smaller than the smallest thickness
of the casting so that the in-gates solidify first and isolate the castings from the gating
system. This would reduce the possibility of air aspiration through the gating system
in cases of metal shrinkage.
TYPES OF GATES:

Top Gates. Top gating of a casting is limited by the ability of the mould to withstand
erosion, because the molten metal is usually poured through an open-top riser.
Contrary to the characteristics of bottom gating, top gating has the advantage of
producing favourable temperature gradients, but the disadvantage of excessive
mould erosion. This method of gating is usually used for castings of simple design
which are poured in gray iron. Top gating is not used with nonferrous alloys which
form large amounts of dross when agitated.

Bottom Gates. Bottom gates are most generally used because they keep mould and
core erosion to a minimum. In spite of this, they have the very decided disadvantage
of causing unfavourable temperature gradients in the casting, which make proper
feeding particularly difficult and often impossible. When using bottom gates, as the
metal rises in the mould, it heats the mould with which it comes in contact. This
produces relatively cold metal in the riser with considerably hotter metal next to the
gate. In other words, there is hot metal and hot mould near the gate and cold metal in
a cold mould near the riser. Such conditions are opposite to those desired for
directional solidification in a casting. The risers should contain the hottest metal in
the hottest part of the mould, and the coldest mould parts should be at points
farthest removed from the risers.

Parting Gates. Parting-line gates are used most frequently because they are the
easiest for the moulder to construct, particularly in jobbing work. In addition, it is
usually possible to gate directly into a riser. The main disadvantage of parting gates is
that the molten metal drops in the mould to fill the drag part of the casting. Such a
drop often causes erosion or washing of the mould. In nonferrous metals, dross
formation is aggravated, and air is often trapped to produce inferior castings.
Step Gating. The theory behind the step gate is that as the metal rises in the mould,
each gate will feed the casting in succession. This would then put the hot metal in the
riser where it is desired.

GENERAL RULES OF GATING

The following general rules are given as a guide in making good gating systems:
1. Use Round Sprues. (a) Round gates or the closest approach to round gates are
preferred. (b) A circular cross section has the minimum surface exposed for cooling
and offers the lowest resistance to flow.
2. Taper the Sprue. The sprue should be tapered with the smaller end toward the
casting. This makes is possible to keep the down-gate full of metal when pouring.
Never locate a tapered sprue so that metal is poured into the smaller end.
3. Streamline the Gating System. Gating systems having sudden changes in direction
cause slower filling of the mould cavity, are easily eroded, and cause turbulence in the
liquid metal with resulting gas pickup. Streamlining of the gating system eliminates or
minimizes these problems. Avoid right-angle turns.
4. Use Patterns for the Gates. The gating system should be formed as part of the
pattern whenever possible. The use of patterns for the gates permits the sand to be
rammed harder and reduces sand erosion or washing. Hand-cut gates expose
loosened sand which is easily eroded by the flowing metal.
5. Maintain Proper Gating Ratio.
6.Maintain Small Ingate Contact. The area of contact between the ingate and the
casting should be kept as small as possible.
7.Utilize Natural Channels. Ingates should be located so that the incoming flow of
metal takes place along natural channels in the mould and does not strike directly on
mould surfaces or cores. The continuous flow of metal against a mould or core
surface quickly burns out the binder and washes the loose sand into the casting.
8.Use Multiple Ingates. Unless a casting is small and of simple design, several ingates
should be used to distribute the metal to the mould, fill it more rapidly, and reduce
the danger of hot spots.
9.Avoid Excessive Ingate Choke. The in-gate should not be choked at the mould so
that it causes the metal to enter the mould at such a high speed that a shower effect
is produced. Besides excessive turbulence and oxidation of the metal, the mould may
not be able to withstand this eroding force. Choking of the ingate to assist in gate
removal is a proper procedure if a number of ingates are used to allow an adequate
amount of metal to enter the mould without jet action.
10.In-gate should not be located near a protruding part of the mould to avoid the
striking of vertical mould walls by the molten metal stream.
11.In-gates should preferably be placed along the longitudinal axis of the mould wall.
12.In-gates should not be placed near a core print or a chill.
13.In-gate cross sectional area should preferably be smaller than the smallest
thickness of the casting so that the in-gates solidify first and isolate the castings from
the gating system. This would reduce the possibility of air aspiration through the
gating system in cases of metal shrinkage.

Fluidity
The molten metal flow characteristics are often described by the term fluidity, a measure of
the capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mould before freezing. Fluidity is the inverse
of viscosity; as viscosity increases, fluidity decreases.

The following characteristics of molten metal influence fluidity:

1. Viscosity. Fluidity decreases as viscosity and the viscosity index (its sensitivity to
temperature) increase.
2. Surface tension. A high surface tension of the liquid metal reduces fluidity. Oxide
films developed on the surface of the molten metal have a significant adverse effect
on fluidity; an oxide film on the surface of pure molten aluminium, for example, triples
the surface tension.
3. Inclusions. As insoluble particles, inclusions can have a significant adverse effect on
fluidity. This effect can be verified by observing the viscosity of a liquid, such as oil,
with and without fine sand particles in it; it will be noted that the former will have
lower viscosity.
4. Solidification pattern of the alloy. The manner in which solidification occurs, can
influence fluidity. Moreover, fluidity is inversely proportional to the freezing range;
thus, the shorter the range (as in pure metals and eutectics), the higher the fluidity
becomes. Conversely, alloys with long freezing ranges (such as solid-solution alloys)
have lower fluidity

The following casting parameters influence fluidity and the fluid flow and thermal
characteristics of the system:
1. Mould design. The design and dimensions of such components as the sprue,
runners, and risers all influence fluidity to varying degrees.
2. Mould material and its surface characteristics. The higher the thermal conductivity
of the mould and the rougher its surfaces, the lower is fluidity. Heating the mould
improves fluidity, although it also increases the solidification time, resulting in coarser
grains and hence lower strength.
3. Degree of superheat. Defined as the increment of temperature above an alloy’s
melting point, superheat improves fluidity by delaying solidification.
4. Rate of pouring. The lower the rate of pouring into the mould, the lower the
fluidity, because the metal cools faster.
5. Heat transfer. Heat transfer directly affects the viscosity of the liquid metal, and
hence its fluidity.
 Spiral mould test shown in Figure, in which fluidity is
indicated by the length of the solidified metal in the spiral
channel. A longer cast spiral means greater fluidity of the
molten metal.
Factors affecting fluidity include pouring temperature
relative to melting point, metal composition, viscosity of the liquid metal, and heat
transfer to the surroundings.

Solidification of Casting:

Much of the art and science of making castings is concerned with control of the
things that happen to metal as it solidifies. An understanding of how metals solidify,
therefore, is necessary to the work of the foundry-man. The change from hot molten
metal to cool solid casting takes place in three main steps.
–The first step is the cooling of the metal from the pouring temperature to the
solidification temperature. The difference between the pouring temperature and the
solidification temperature is called the amount of superheat. The amount of
superheat determines the amount of time the foundryman has available to work with
the molten metal before it starts to solidify.
–The second step is the cooling of the metal through the range of temperature at
which it solidifies. During this step, the quality of the final casting is established.
Shrink holes, blow holes, hot cracks, and many other defects form in a casting while it
solidifies.
–The third step is the cooling of the solid metal to room temperature. It is during this
stage of cooling that warpage and casting stresses occur.

DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION:
In order to minimize the damaging effects of shrinkage, it is desirable for the regions of the
casting most distant from the liquid metal supply to freeze first and for solidification to
progress from these remote regions toward the riser(s). In this way, molten metal will
continually be available from the risers to prevent shrinkage voids during freezing. The term
directional solidification is used to describe this aspect of the freezing process and the
methods by which it is controlled. The desired directional solidification is achieved by
observing Chvorinov’s rule in the design of the casting itself, its orientation within the mould,
and the design of the riser system that feeds it.

Another way to encourage directional solidification is to use chills—internal or external heat

sinks that cause rapid freezing in certain regions of the casting. Internal chills are small metal
parts placed inside the cavity before pouring so that the molten metal will solidify first around
these parts. The internal chill should have a chemical composition similar to the metal being
poured, most readily achieved by making the chill out of the same metal as the casting itself.
External chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mould cavity that can remove heat from
the molten metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote solidification.
They are often used effectively in sections of the casting that are difficult to feed with liquid
metal, thus encouraging rapid freezing in these sections while the connection to liquid metal
is still open.

As important as it is to initiate freezing in the appropriate regions of the cavity, it is also

important to avoid premature solidification in sections of the mould nearest the riser. Of
particular concern is the passageway between the riser and the main cavity. This connection
must be designed in such a way that it does not freeze before the casting, which would
isolate the casting from the molten metal in the riser.

Design of Riser:

A riser, also known as a feeder, is a reservoir built into a metal casting mould to
prevent cavities due to shrinkage. Most metals are less dense as a liquid than as a
solid so castings shrink upon cooling, which can leave a void at the last point to
solidify. Risers prevent this by providing molten metal to the casting as it solidifies
(liquid shrinkage), so that the cavity forms in the riser and not the casting.
Functions of Riser in Casting
Primary functions of Riser in Casting
Store sufficient liquid metal and supply the same to the mould during liquid shrinkage
of the casting as the casting solidifies.
Secondary functions of Riser in Casting
The riser must be kept open to the atmosphere and placed in such a location that it
maintains a positive pressure of liquid metal on all portions of the casting it is
intended to feed.
The foundry man can know by looking at the riser hole, whether the mould is filled or
not.
Open riser also allows the gases to escape.
GENERAL RULES OF RISERING
The most important function of a riser is that of a reservoir of heat and molten metal.
To be effective, it must be the last portion of the casting to solidify. There are four
primary requirements which a satisfactory riser should meet:

1. The volume of the riser should be large enough to compensate for the
metal contraction within the area of the casting it is designed to feed.\
2. Enough fluid metal must be in the riser to penetrate to the last cavity
within its feeding area.
3. The contact area of the riser with the casting must fully cover the area to
be fed or be designed so that all the needed feed metal in the riser will pass
into the casting.
4. The riser should be effective in establishing a pronounced temperature
gradient within the casting, so that the casting will solidify directionally
toward the riser.

Accordingly, the shape, size, and location of the riser must be effectively controlled.

TYPES OF RISERS
Top Riser - sits on top of casting (short feeding distance)
Side Riser - sits next to casting
Blind Riser - contained within mould (must be vented)
Open Riser - top of riser open to atmosphere
Live (hot) Riser - receives last hot metal poured (metal in mould already may have
started to cool) – smaller than dead riser (part of gating system)
Dead (cold) Riser - filled before or concurrent with cavity by metal that has flown
through the mould. (Top riser – dead riser)

Riser Shape. The rate of solidification of a metal varies directly with the ratio of
surface area to volume. In other words, for a given weight of metal, the shape which
has the smallest surface area will take the longest time to solidify. The ratio of surface
area to volume is obtained by dividing the surface area by the volume.
Riser Size. Practical foundry experience has shown that the most effective height of a
riser is 1-1/2 times its diameter in order to produce maximum feeding for the
minimum amount of metal used. Any riser higher than this is wasteful of metal and
may be actually harmful to casting soundness.
Riser Location. Heavy sections of a casting have a large amount of solidification
shrinkage which must be compensated for from an outside source. Heavy sections,
therefore, are the locations for risers. An important point to remember in the rise ring
of a casting is that the hottest metal must be in the riser if it is to be effective.
RISER DESIGN Methods
1.Caine’s Method – not for designing the riser but for testing the design itself
2.Modulus Method – Most important (REMMEMBER)
3.Naval Research Board Method

If your riser values lie in the sound casting range then it will work
In this we find the shape factor, which is equal to the length + width of the casting / thickness of the
casting.

After that we use the shape factor curve to find the ratio of minimum riser volume to casting volume
and then we use that to find the volume of the riser and then we use the second curve to find the
different diameter and height of the riser we can use for that corresponding value of the riser
volume.

Modulus Method:
Casting Defects:
Several types of defects may occur during casting, considerably reducing the total
output of castings besides increasing the cost of their production.
It is therefore essential to understand the causes behind these defects so that they
may be suitably eliminated.
Casting defects may be defined as those characteristics that create an imperfection
or deficiency contrary to the quality specifications imposed by the design and service
requirements.
Defects in castings do not just happen. They are caused by faulty procedure (1) in one
or more of the operations involved in the casting process, (2) in the equipment used,
or (3) by the design of the part. A casting defect is often caused by a combination of
factors which makes rapid interpretation and correction of the defect difficult
The most common casting defects can be classified into the following categories:
–Gas defects
–Shrinkage cavities
–moulding material defects
–Pouring metal defects
–Metallurgical defects
–mould preparation defects.
Blow holes and open blows:
–These are the spherical, flattened or elongated cavities present inside the casting or
on the surface. A blow or blowhole is a smooth cavity caused by gas in the molten
metal.
–On the surface they are called open blows and inside, they are called blow holes.
–It is an excessively smooth depression on the outer surface of a casting. Blow holes
are entrapped bubbles of gases with smooth walls.
–Causes:

• High moisture content in the moulding sand.

• Low permeability of moulding sand.
• Hard ramming of the sand.
• Improper venting.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper venting and using proper
moulding sand.
Air inclusions or Gas Holes or Internal air pocket
–The atmospheric and other gases absorbed by the molten metal in the furnace, in
the ladle, and during the flow in the mould, when not allowed to escape, would be
trapped inside the casting and weaken it.
–This appears as small holes inside the casting and is caused by rapid pouring of the
molten metal.
–Causes:

• Higher pouring temperature which increases the amount of gas absorbed.

• Poor gating system
• Excessively moist sand.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper pouring temperature, and

by degasifying the molten metal.

Pin hole porosity:

–A pinhole is a type of blow that is unusual because of its small size. These are
numerous holes of small diameter, usually less than 2mm, visible on the outer surface
of the casting.
–These are caused by the absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide when the
moisture content of the sand is high.
–Causes:

• High moisture content in the moulding sand.

• Low permeability of moulding sand.
• Improper melting and fluxing practices.
• Hydrogen can get entrapped by disassociation of moisture in the moulding
sand

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by using proper moulding sand and using
proper melting and fluxing practice.

Shrinkage cavities: These are caused by the liquid shrinkage occurring during the
solidification of the casting. It is void or depression in the casting caused mainly by
uncontrolled and haphazard solidification of metal. A shrink or shrinkage cavity is
a rough cavity caused by contraction of the molten metal. It is quite often impossible
to tell whether a particular hole in a casting is a shrink or a blow. Gas will aggravate a
shrink defect, and shrinkage will aggravate a gas defect. The distinction can usually be
made that gas pressure gives a cavity with smooth sides (blow) and contraction or
lack of feeding gives a cavity with rough sides (shrink). To compensate this, proper
feeding of liquid metal is required as also proper casting design.
–Causes:

• Incorrect metal composition.

• Incorrect pouring temperature.
• Improper location and size of gates and runner and riser.

– Remedies: This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper mould design, so that
solidification rate is uniform. Achieving directional solidification
Rat tail, buckle, and scab:
–A rat tail, buckle, and scab all originate in the same way and differ mainly in degree.
They are caused by uncontrolled expansion of the sand. If the condition is not too
bad, a rat tail is formed. The surface of the sand buckles up in an irregular line that
makes the casting look as though a rat has dragged his tail over it. If sand expansion is
even greater, the defect is called a buckle. If it is still worse so that molten metal can
get behind the buckled sand, it is a scab.
–Scabs are sort of projection on the casting which occur when a portion of the mould
face or core lifts and the metal flows beneath in thin layer.
–During casting when sand face of the mould gets heated up and expands,
sometimes there occurs a crack.
–Molten metal enters the crack and flows behind the layer of sand, and causes scabs.
–Causes:

• Using moulding sand without cushion materials

• Using moulding sand having high coefficient of thermal expansion
• Using very fine sand having low permeability and moisture content.

–Remedies: This defect can be eliminated by mixing additives such as wood flour, sea
coal.
A cut or wash is erosion of the sand by the stream of molten metal. It often shows up
as a pattern around the gates and usually causes dirt in some part of the casting.
This may be caused by the moulding sand not having enough strength or the molten
metal flowing at high velocity.
Metal penetration:
–When the molten metal enters the gaps between the sand grains, the result would
be a rough casting surface.
–It occurs when molten metal being cast tends to penetrate into the sand grains and
causes a fused aggregate of metal and sand on the surface of the casting.
–Metal penetration causes rough castings. The metal seeps in between the sand
grains and gives a rough surface on the casting. Such castings are difficult to clean
because sand grains are held by little fingers of metal.
–Causes:

• Improper ramming of sand.

• Excessive pouring temperature which increases the fluidity of metal.

–Remedies: This defect can be eliminated by fine sand and hard ramming the sand.
Fusion:
–This is caused by the fusion of sand grains with the molten metal, giving a brittle,
glassy appearance on the casting surface.
–Causes:

• Using moulding sand of low strength.

• Improper ramming of sand.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by sand of proper strength and the sand
should be properly rammed in.

Runout:
–A run out is caused when the molten metal leaks out of the mould.
–Causes:

• This may be caused either due to faulty mould making or because of the
faulty moulding flask.

Drop:
–A crush or drop occurs when part of the sand mould is crushed or drops into the
mould cavity.
–The dropping of loose moulding sand or lumps normally from the cope surface into
the mould cavity is responsible for this defect.
–This is essentially, due to improper ramming of the cope flask.
–Sometimes during casting upper surface of the mould cracks and pieces of sands fall
into the molten metal, this is known as drop.
–Causes:

• Using moulding sand of low strength.

• Improper ramming of sand.
–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by sand of proper strength and the sand
should be properly rammed in.

Swell:
–Under the influence of the metallostatic forces, the mould wall may move back
causing a swell in the dimensions of the casting.
–It is a localized enlargement of the casting due localized enlargement of the mould
by molten metal pressure.
–Causes:

• Defective or improper ramming of the sand.

• Insufficient weighting of the mould during casting.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper weight over the moulding
boxes and ramming the sand properly.

Misruns and cold shuts

–A misrun is a defect which lacks completeness of the casting due to the molten
metal not filling the mould cavity completely.
–A cold shut is caused when two metal streams while meeting in the mould cavity, do
not fuse together properly, thus causing a discontinuity or weak spot in the casting.
–A cold shut is an external defect formed due to improper fusion of two streams of
molten metal poured in the cavity.

Causes:

• Improper gating systems.

• Slow and intermittent pouring.
• Poor fluidity of metal.

–Remedies:

• To eliminate these defects, the gating system should be properly designed

and the pouring should be controlled suitably.

lag inclusions or Honey Combing:

–During the melting process, flux is added to remove the undesirable oxides and
impurities present in the metal.
–It is an external defect consisting of number of small cavities in close proximity.
–Causes:

• Suspended dirt in molten metal.

• Incorrect gating and poor fluxing of metal.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be avoided by preventing the slag from entering along with
the molten metal.

Hot tears: Since metal has low strength at higher temperatures, any unwanted cooling
stress may cause the rupture of the casting. It is an external or internal cracks
occurring immediately after the metal have solidified, resulting from hindered
contraction.
–Causes:

• Abrupt changes in sections of the casting.

• Poor collapsibility of the mould and core materials, which places extra
stress on certain parts.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper casting design and using
mould and core material having proper collapsibility.

Mould Shifts: It is an external defect due to mismatching of the top and bottom half of
the casting, usually at the parting line.
–Causes:

• Misalignment of pattern parts.

• Misalignment of moulding box.

–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by ensuring proper alignment of the pattern,

moulding boxes.

Core Shifts: It is a variation of the dimensions of the casting due variation in position
or size of the core.
–Causes:

• Misalignment of cores.
• Undersized or oversized core or core prints.
–Remedies:

• This defect can be eliminated by placing the core properly in the mould and
using accurate size cores or core prints.

Cleaning of Castings:

Cleaning of casting
After the metal has solidified and cool in the mould.
These moulds go to a shakeout station where the sand and casting are dumped from
the flask.
The casting is shaken free from the moulding and some dry sand cores are knocked
out.
This process of shake out is called the cleaning of castings.
Actually, shake out is done by two methods, manually or mechanically.
Generally mechanical shake out are used for large scale work.
This unit consists of heavy mesh screen fixed to a vibrating frame.
The screen vibrates mechanically and quick separation of sand from other parts.

The complete process of cleaning of castings called fettling. The fettling operation may be
divided in to different stages.

1) Knocking out of dry sand cores. Dry sand cores may be removed by knocking with
iron bar.
2) Fettling- the removal of feeders and excess material from a casting - is the first stage
of finishing a casting

Removal of gates and risers

For sprue cutting.
Removal of fins, rough spots and un wanted projections.