A Teacher’s Guide to

the Upper Primary

Literacy Block
Connected reading and writing
for robust learning in Years 3-6

www.jocelynseamereducation.com
 The Literacy Block in Years 3-6

Summary of changes to instruction

For many years, the upper primary literacy block has been divided into two sections;
reading and writing. Lessons in these time blocks were often based on a workshop model
involving a short mini-lesson incorporating modelling and shared tasks followed by an
extensive period of group or individual work. The preference for this structure was driven
by a belief that by immersing students in authentic, engaging tasks, they would internalise
the skills and knowledge necessary for strong literacy development. Unfortunately, this
reasoning was not based on research evidence. While many students did learn from
pedagogy built on a workshop model or similar structure, many others were left
floundering. Despite teachers’ best efforts, far too many students have reached the
secondary years of school without the necessary skills to read and write effectively.

In recent years, there has been a growing awareness of the need for explicit teaching and
instruction that provides full guidance via a gradual release of responsibility model. Deeper
understanding of key frameworks for learning such as the information processing model
and cognitive load theory have further informed and influenced instructional decisions
across the years of school. One of the major changes that has occurred in pedagogy is
the move from small group to whole class instruction. This change brings both benefits and
challenges for most teachers as they seek to balance maximising instructional time with
responding to the range of learners in their classes.

While pedagogy is changing, the content of the upper primary literacy block has remained
consistent with previous decades. Students still learn about genre and text types, parts of
speech, sentence structure and vocabulary. However, rather than a majority of a teachers’
focus resting on whole text level, proponents of structured literacy advocate for significant
focus on foundational skills such as spelling and sentence structure alongside traditional
elements. Further, rather than providing instruction in disconnected sections, integrated
reading and writing is now one of the goals of schools adopting a structured approach to
literacy.

This guide will provide teachers will simple, accessible information about the what, how
and why of the Upper Primary literacy block including structures, timing and considerations
for enabling and enriching students’ experiences in learning.

1
 The Upper Primary Literacy Block
(120 minutes)

Review of previously-learned content (10-15 minutes)

Explicit instruction in word level reading and spelling (20 minutes)

Teacher-led handwriting (5-10) minutes

Partner reading, both repeated and wide reading (10-15 minutes)

Syntax instruction and low-variance practice (10-15 minutes)

Text based unit for reading and writing (40-50 minutes)

Parts of speech
Text structure
Language features
Comprehension
Text level writing

2
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block
Review of Previously Learned Content

Information processing theory and research about human memory help us

understand the importance of practising previously learned content.
Exposure to new content results in almost instant forgetting. Interacting and
thinking about it moves new content to short-term memory. Retrieval and
recall that includes application moves new learning to long-term memory.
This is critical for new learning to ‘stick’.

think retrieve
and and apply
see it do over time

Information
processing
model
short term long term
Forget
memory memory

Research has consistently found that reviewing content through retrieval

is particularly effective (1). This is due to the ‘testing effect’ that involves
quizzing students on previously learned material. Research indicates that an
incorrect attempt at retrieval followed by being provided with the correct
answer leads to the same impact as a successful attempt (2). Further,
retrieval that is spaced (spread out) over time results in even better
outcomes than just retrieving in one instance (mass practice). Spacing
practice out over time results in stronger learning and, importantly, an
increased ability to generalise learning to new contexts (3).

3
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

A further enhancement of learning is seen when content is ‘interleaved’ or

mixed up during practice. Interleaved practice involves mixing up content in an
area during practice as opposed to blocked practice which concentrates on just
one idea.

Blocked Practice Interleaved Practice

AAAAA ABCBCA
BBBBB BCCAAB
CCCCC

Spaced, Interleaved Practice

CBAABC BCACBA ACB ABC CABBCA CABBCA

Points to consider:
To make retrieval effective, target it precisely on what you have taught
students. ‘Random’ retrieval that covers general content from the grade will
not result in the strong results you are looking for.
It is not necessary to create PowerPoint presentations for daily review. Low-
tech, low-prep daily review is very effective and can be quickly implemented
(4).

Students need to
continually practice
in order to embed
new learning into
long-term memory
for easy retrieval

4
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block
Explicit Instruction in Word Level Reading and Spelling
There are three components of word-level knowledge to build: phonics
(letters and sounds), orthography (spelling rules), and morphology (the
meaningful parts of words). Instruction in these three areas must be tailored to
student needs and comprise a gradual release of responsibility model. The key to
the successful use of this model is FULL engagement in lessons. From the
information processing model we know that students must pay attention to learn.
We can direct student attention by requiring them to respond during lessons
verbally and in writing (5). When it comes to what to teach students, it is necessary
to ensure that they build knowledge across phonics, orthography and morphology.
The focus of instruction will depend on what students need. Teachers can
determine the needs of students with a spelling test delivered to the whole class. A
simple morphology diagnostic assessment can be downloaded here. Even though
students need to learn about phonics, orthography and morphology, that doesn’t
mean that all three are taught at once. Teachers must be mindful of cognitive load
and ensure that students’ capacity isn’t overwhelmed.

Phonics
Refers to the connections between phonemes (sounds) and graphemes (letters). We
cannot assume that Year 3-6 students have strong knowledge of the alphabetic code.
Listening to student reading is often an inefficient way to determine whether students
‘have’ code knowledge as they can often read words but not spell them.

Orthographic Generalisations
Orthography knowledge is based on knowledge of what is allowable in a language. We
often call these ‘rules’. While there are variations in how words are constructed,
English has many predictable, reliable generalisations. Examples are: English words
don’t end in the letter <v> and we use <ck> after a single, short vowel. Knowing these
generalisations makes spelling more logical and predictable for students.

Morphology and Etymology

Morphology relates to the meaningful parts of word: prefixes, bases and suffixes.
Etymology is about a word’s origins and history. Etymology is usually examined in the
context of morphology study. Teaching students about and to use morphemes has a
strong evidence base and is particularly beneficial for struggling learners. Morphology
instruction positively impacts many areas of literacy. 5
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

Learning in this area is maximised when we explicitly introduce a concept

(show and explain to students) and engage students in both reading and writing
words within the lesson (6). Analytic and inquiry approaches to instruction have
been shown through research to be less effective than full-guidance instruction,
particularly for students with learning difficulties and those from disadvantaged
backgrounds (7).

You do it You do it
Tune In Show and Tell I do it, you help
with help on your own

Points to consider:
Ensure that instruction in word-level learning is low-variance in nature. This
means that teaching routines are consistent from day to day.
Avoid asking students to ‘discover’ or ‘inquire’ when introducing a spelling
concept. Teach students directly and then support them to engage in word study
after you have determined that they are firm in their understandings.
Struggling readers require targeted phonics instruction that meets their specific
needs. Whole class, light-touch phonics ‘catch up’ is unlikely to be suitable for
these students. Morphology and orthography instruction can usually be delivered
whole class with support provided as required. Lessons might not be appropriate
for students who do not yet know the basic code (alphabet sounds and ch, th, sh,
ng). Alternative arrangements should be made for these students during
instruction.
Build knowledge in
phonics, orthographic
conventions and
morphology using
explicit teaching
practices.

6
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

Handwriting
Handwriting is often thought of as a task for the early years, however,
automatic, unconscious letter formation is necessary at all grade levels. If
letter formation is not automatic, the act of transcribing words (getting them
onto the page) involves considerable mental effort. Switching focus between
transcription and idea generation can significantly impede a student’s ability to
write text (8). Many teachers report that a significant proportion of their class
struggles with automatic handwriting. As such, Year 3-6 teachers should
monitor student handwriting progress and include a short period of instruction
each day. The goal of instruction is not to insist that students all adhere to a
specific script but that they develop a functional, fluent, and legible style. As
students progress through the primary school grades, they adopt a personal
handwriting style. If cursive scripts have been taught, students often write
using a combination of cursive and print. There is some evidence that
teaching cursive scripts to upper primary students can be effective (9) but
research does not indicate that one script/font is better than another for
handwriting, however there are recommendations not to teach both print and
cursive at the same time.

7
 Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

Suggestions for handwriting instruction

1) Provide books with ‘dotted thirds’ for students to practise handwriting. The width of
lines can match the student’s existing letter size in their handwriting. The thirds
provide a reference point for spacing and sizing.
2) Adopt common language across the school to inform placement of letters below,
on and above the line.
3) Teach join types together. Teachers can find a suggested scope and sequence
here.

short letters to short

letters ai an am au aw ce ci in im
short letters to tall
letters
ad at al ah id it nd nt mt ud

short letters to low

letters
ay ap ag ip ig iq up ug rp np mp

Points to consider:
If students’ handwriting is fluent and functional, specific lessons may not be
required.
Ensure that students understand that automatic handwriting makes everything
else easier.
Include letters, words and sentences in letters.
Use graphemes and morphemes that are focus of instruction for handwriting
practice.

Automatic handwriting
is critical for strong
text-level writing. The
goal is functional
handwriting, not
perfection

8
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

Partner Reading
Partner reading involves pairs of students reading a text together for 10-15
minutes. Students take turns to read the text, with their partner providing
support and feedback. Partner reading can take several forms:

Repeated reading (rereading the same text, improving each time)

Wide reading (focusing on reading a wide range of texts of differing
types)
Dyad reading (both partners read at the same time with a stronger
reader acting as a weaker reader’s coach)

There are several benefits of partner reading.

1) Partner reading is an evidence-based technique for building reading fluency.

Repeated reading within the classroom has been shown to improve rate,
accuracy, and prosody (phrasing and expression) (10)

2) Reading with a partner ensures that feedback is available if the student

encounters difficulty or makes errors.

3) Partner reading, as opposed to independent reading is an interactive

undertaking fostering engagement and motivation as students read with
peers.

4) Texts can be differentiated to suit the needs of the students.

9
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

Fluency development lesson (Rasinski and Young) (11)

1) read previous text

2) teacher reads text while students follow along
3) discuss the text
4) class reads the text chorally several times
5) students read in pairs
6) students read to an audience
7) review spelling of ‘tricky’ words
8) students take text home to read

Points to consider:
Have one partner point for the other partner as they read. This ensures that
students maintain focus. Students can swap partners after each full stop in the
passage.
If you choose to have students coach other students, it is necessary to spend
time teaching them to be coaches.
It isn’t necessary to have special partner reading material. Every school has a
range of texts that are suitable for this work.
Bringing cross-curricula content into partner reading creates efficiencies in
learning for students.

Regular reading with a

partner can help
improve fluency and
therefore
comprehension.

10
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block
Syntax Instruction and Low Variance Practice

The ability to fluently construct a range of sentences is central to text-level

writing. Teachers should include instruction in both technical aspects of syntax
and meaningful connections (12) in instruction. There should also be a focus on
helping students write more sophisticated sentences (13). The impact of
sentence-level practice can further be enhanced by focusing subject matter on
content learned across the curriculum. This enables students to write for
meaning while they focus on technical proficiency. While initial instruction in
structures and teaching of metalanguage is important, teachers should ensure
that students have regular opportunities to write sentences. Fluent sentence
writing is developed through ongoing practice for a range of purposes. One
evidence-based practice is sentence combining (14). Teachers can find a
practice guide to sentence combining here. A second evidence-based
technique to help students write better sentences is sentence expansion. This
involves beginning with a simple sentence and adding extra details such as
who, when, where and how.

Sentence Combining Sentence Expansion

Level 1 The dog is big.
The cat is little. (and) 1. Begin with a simple
sentence.
Level 2 The dog is big.
2. Have students add
The dog is brown.
additional details such
The _____ dog is big.
as when, where, how
Level 3 The dog is big. and why.
The dog is brown.

Level 4 The dog is big.

The dog is brown.
The dog likes biscuits.
He is my dog.

11
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

Sentence Progression of Learning

Simple sentences Expand with details of who, what,
(subject and verb) where, when, and how

Compound Sentences Expand with details of who, what,

(coordinating Conjunctions) where, when, and how
FANBOYS
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

Complex Sentences Expand with details of who, what,

(subordinating conjunctions) where, when, and how
Dependent and
independent clauses
appositives
embedded clauses

Points to consider:
When we teach students to write great sentences, we also teach them to
comprehend.
As students progress through school, their ability to write well is impacted by many
factors including vocabulary. Include learned vocabulary in sentence writing
lessons to increase the effectiveness of both.
Ensure that students of all transcription capabilities can participate by presenting
sentences that are controlled for phonics.
Teaching about the
mechanics and
meaning of different
sentences supports
both reading
comprehension and
writing.

12
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block
Text-Based Unit
Aside from syntax, spelling and reading fluency, students need to develop
proficiency in parts of speech, using vocabulary, reading and writing paragraphs,
engaging with rich texts, understanding and using text structures, understanding
characters and character development and communicating for a range of
purposes. An evidence-informed way to provide instruction is through robust text-
based units. An effective text-based unit uses rich text to engage students in both
comprehension development and writing. Decades of research have indicated
that reading and writing share a common knowledge base related to:

pragmatics (functions and purpose of reading and writing)

domain knowledge (also known as background knowledge)
features such as phonics, syntax, and text features and structure
procedural knowledge about how to access knowledge and skill and use
them. (15)
Text-based units involving authentic texts provide the perfect vehicle for this
learning.

Quality text-based units should consider cognitive load and the information
processing model to ensure that students have the opportunity to acquire and
consolidate new learning. Units that are overly busy and complex tax cognitive
load and can result in ‘surface’ level learning. Texts used as the focus of study
can come from a range of sources. These texts are often called ‘mentor’ texts, but
it might be more productive to think of them as ‘stimulus’ texts. Mentor texts are
replicated. Stimulus texts provide the jumping off point for strong student learning.
As such, the genre of writing produced does NOT have to match the genre of the
stimulus text. Students should have access to both fiction and non-fiction texts
throughout a text based unit.

13
Components of the Upper Primary Literacy Block

The Rule of
To make text-based units cognitive load friendly, include no more than three new
points of instruction. Ideally, each unit will contain 1 text level goal, 1 sentence
level goal and one word level goal. The unit will then extend over 4-6 weeks
building students’ proficiency in these three areas over that time.

Points to consider:
Text-based units are taught whole class with adjustments provided for students
who need support in reading and writing.
The rule of three does not mean that students will only encounter three
concepts throughout the unit, but rather they will focus on three new elements.
They should be familiar and fluent with other elements of the unit.
Stimulus texts can be a range of shorter texts including picture books, poems,
speeches and short stories. This study does not have to focus exclusively on
novels.
Students need to be
supported to engage
with rich text in a way
that both stretches
them and supports
cognitive load.

14
 Students need to
continually practice in
order to embed new
Automatic handwriting
learning into long-term
is critical for strong
memory for easy
text-level writing. The
retrieval.
goal is functional
handwriting, not
perfection

Build knowledge in
phonics, orthographic
conventions and
morphology using explicit
Regular reading with a
teaching practices.
partner can help
improve fluency and
therefore
comprehension.

Teaching about the

mechanics and
meaning of different
sentences supports Students need to be
both reading supported to engage
comprehension and with rich text in a way
writing. that both stretches
them and supports
cognitive load.

15
Further Reading/Listening (click the images below to access)

16
References:
(1) Roediger, Henry & Karpicke, Jeffrey. (2006). Test-Enhanced Learning Taking Memory Tests Improves Long-
Term Retention. Psychological science. 17. 249-55.

(2) Kornell, N. and Vaughn, K.E. (2016) Chapter Five - How Retrieval Attempts Affect Learning: A Review and
Synthesis, Editor(s): Brian H. Ross, Psychology of Learning and Motivation, Academic Press, Volume 65, 2016,
Pages 183-215.

(3) Vlach, H. A., & Sandhofer, C. M. (2012). Distributing Learning Over Time: The Spacing Effect in Children’s
Acquisition and Generalization of Science Concepts. Child Development, 83(4), 1137–1144.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/23255684

(4) Seamer. J (2024) Research to the Classroom: Daily Review - Part One - The Research. The Structured
Literacy Podcast. https://www.jocelynseamereducation.com/blog/95397-research-to-the-classroom-review-part-1

(5) Archer, A. and Hughes, C. (2011) Explicit Instruction: Effective and Efficient Teaching. The Guildford Press.

(6) Wasowicz, J. (2021) A Speech-to-Print Approach to Teaching Reading. LDA Bulletin Volume 53, No 2, August
2021

(7) Kirschner, Paul & Sweller, John & Clark, Richard. (2006). Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not
Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based
Teaching. Educational Psychologist. 41. 10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1.

(8) MacArthur, C. and Graham, S. (2017) Writing Research from a Cognitive Perspective. in Handbook of Writing
Research. 2nd Edition. Ed. MacArthur, C., Graham, S. and Fitzgerald, J. The Guildford Press.

(9) Alves, R.A., Limpo, T., Salas, N. and Joshi, R.M. (2019) Handwriting and Spelling. in Best Practices in Writing
Instruction. 3rd edition. Edited by Graham, S., MacArthur, C. and Hebert, M. The Guilford Press

(10) W.D., Strickland, R.T., Boon, and V.G., Spencer, (2013) The Effects of Repeated Reading on the Fluency
and Comprehension Skills of Elementary-Age Students with Learning Disabilities (LD), 2001-2011: A Review of
Research and Practice. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, v11 n1 p1-33 Mar 2013

(11) Rasinski, Timothy & Young, Chase. (2015). Fluency matters. Connecticut Reading Association Journal.

(12) Graham S, Bollinger A, Booth Olson C, D’Aoust C, MacArthur C, McCutchen D and Olinghouse N (2012a)
Teaching elementary school students to be effective writers: a practice guide, NCEE 2012- 4058, What Works
Clearinghouse, Washington DC

(13) Harris, Karen & Graham, Steve. (2009). Self-regulated strategy development in writing: Premises, evolution,
and the future. BJEP Monograph Series II: No. 6. BJEP Monograph Series II, Number 6 - Teaching and Learning
Writing. 1. 113-135. 10.1348/978185409X422542.

(14) Saddler, Bruce & Behforooz, Bita & Asaro, Kristie. (2008). The Effects of Sentence-Combining Instruction on
the Writing of Fourth-Grade Students With Writing Difficulties. Journal of Special Education - J SPEC EDUC. 42.
79-90. 10.1177/0022466907310371.

(15) Fitzgerald, Jill & Shanahan, Timothy. (2000). Reading and Writing Relationships and their Development.
Educational Psychologist. 35. 39-50. 10.1207/S15326985EP3501_5.

17