U20AE405 – AIR BREATHING PROPULSION

UNIT -1

GAS TURBINE ENGINES

Gas turbine engines, also known as gas turbines, are a type of internal combustion engine
that convert the energy from fuel into mechanical energy through the combustion of the fuel-air
mixture. These engines are widely used in various applications such as power generation, aviation,
marine propulsion, and industrial processes.
 Air Intake: Ambient air is drawn into the engine through an inlet. This air passes through
filters to remove dust and other contaminants.
 Compression: The incoming air is compressed by a series of axial or centrifugal
compressors. Compression increases the pressure and temperature of the air.
 Combustion: The compressed air is mixed with fuel in a combustion chamber. The fuel-
air mixture is ignited, leading to combustion. This process generates a high-temperature,
high-pressure gas.
 Expansion: The hot gases produced by combustion expand through a series of turbine
stages. These turbines are connected to a shaft, which drives the compressor and any
attached equipment, such as generators or propellers.
 Exhaust: After passing through the turbines, the exhaust gases exit the engine through an
exhaust nozzle. The expelled gases create thrust in aircraft engines or drive a power turbine
in stationary applications.

Classifications of Gas Turbine Engines:

There are several types of gas turbine engines, each optimized for a specific purpose:
1. Turbojet Engine: The classic jet engine. All the energy from the hot gas is used to create
thrust by accelerating it through the exhaust nozzle. This design is simple but less fuel-
efficient than other types.
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 2. Turbofan Engine: The most common engine for commercial airplanes. Here, a large fan
is driven by the turbine shaft along with the compressor. This bypasses some of the air
around the core engine, generating additional thrust from the cooler fan air and improving
fuel efficiency.
3. Turboprop Engine: Used in propeller-driven aircraft. The turbine shaft primarily drives
a propeller, while the remaining hot exhaust gas provides additional thrust. Offers good
fuel efficiency for slower-flying aircraft.
4. Turboshaft Engine: Used in helicopters, drones, and industrial applications where a
rotating shaft is needed for power. The entire engine output goes towards driving the shaft,
with minimal exhaust thrust.
5. Industrial Gas Turbine: Similar to the turboshaft engine but used for power generation.
The turbine shaft drives an electric generator to produce electricity.

Each type of gas turbine engine has its advantages and disadvantages, making them suitable
for different applications. They all share the core principle of using a gas turbine cycle to convert
chemical energy from fuel into mechanical or propulsive force.

TURBOJET
1. The most common type of air-breathing engine is the turbojet engine. This engine consists
of a diffuser, a mechanical compressor, a combustion chamber, a mechanical turbine, and
an exhaust nozzle.
2. Again, the function of the diffuser is to transform the kinetic energy of the entering air into
a static pressure rise.
3. The diffuser delivers its air to the mechanical compressor which further compresses the air
and delivers it to the combustion chamber.
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 4. There, fuel nozzles feed fuel continuously, and continuous combustion takes place at
approximately constant pressure. Here also, the air temperature can be raised by heat
transfer from a nuclear reactor.
5. The high temperature and high-pressure gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to
provide driving power for the turbine.
6. The turbine is directly connected to the compressor, and all the power developed by the
turbine is absorbed by the compressor and the auxiliary apparatus. The main function of
the turbine is to provide power for the mechanical compressor.
7. After the gases leave the turbine, they expand further in the exhaust nozzle and are ejected
with a velocity greater than the flight velocity to produce a thrust for propulsion.
8. Turbojet engines can be further classified by the type of compressor they employ.
9. Either a single compressor, a dual compressor or a triple-spool may be used.

Advantages:
 High Speed: Turbojet engines are optimized for high speeds, making them ideal for
supersonic and high-speed subsonic aircraft.
 Simple Design: They have a relatively simple design with fewer components compared to
other engines, which can lead to lower manufacturing and maintenance costs.
 High Altitude Performance: Turbojets perform well at high altitudes due to their ability to
maintain high thrust levels even in thin air.
 Thermal Efficiency: At high speeds and altitudes, turbojets can achieve good thermal
efficiency due to their design and operating parameters.
Disadvantages:
 Poor Subsonic Efficiency: Turbojets are less efficient at subsonic speeds compared to
other engine types like turbofans. They tend to have higher fuel consumption rates at
lower speeds.
 Limited Range: Due to their higher fuel consumption rates, turbojets typically have
shorter range capabilities compared to turbofans.
 High Noise Levels: Turbojets can produce high levels of noise, especially during takeoff
and at high power settings, which can be a concern for noise pollution.
 Limited Low-Speed Performance: Turbojets may have limited low-speed performance,
which can affect their suitability for certain flight regimes, such as takeoff and landing.

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TURBOPROP
1. The engine consists of a diffuser, a mechanical compressor, a combustion chamber, a
turbine, an exhaust nozzle, reduction gearing, and a propeller.
2. The diffuser, mechanical compressor, and combustion chamber function in the same
manner as in the turbojet engine. However, in the turboprop engine, the turbine extracts
much more power than it does in the turbojet engine because the turbine provides power
for both the compressor and the propeller.
3. When all of this energy is extracted from the high temperature gases, there is little energy
left for producing jet thrust.
4. Thus, the turboprop engine derives most of its propulsive thrust from the propeller and
derives only a small portion (10 to 25% depending on the flight velocity) from the exhaust
nozzle.
5. The shaft rotation speed of gas turbine engines is very high (approximately 12,000 RPM),
reduction gearing must be placed between the turbine shaft and the propeller to enable the
propeller to operate efficiently.
6. The propulsive thrust is provided by a dual momentum change of the air. First, the propeller
increases the air momentum, and second, the overall engine, from diffuser to nozzle,
provides an internal momentum increase. The sum of these two thrusts is the total thrust
developed by the engine.

Advantages:
 Fuel Efficiency: Turboprop engines are highly fuel-efficient at lower speeds and altitudes,
making them ideal for regional airliners, commuter aircraft, and military transport aircraft.
 Short Takeoff and Landing (STOL) Performance: Turboprops can operate from shorter
runways compared to jets, allowing access to airports with limited infrastructure.
 Lower Operating Costs: Turboprops typically have lower operating costs compared to jets,
especially for shorter routes and operations where high speed is not critical.
 Versatility: Turboprops are versatile engines used in various aircraft types, including
regional airliners, cargo aircraft, utility aircraft, and military platforms.
Disadvantages:
 Lower Speeds: Turboprops are generally slower than jet engines, limiting their use in
applications where high speed is essential, such as long-haul commercial flights.

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  Noise and Vibration: Turboprop engines can produce significant noise and vibration,
especially during takeoff and climb, which can affect passenger comfort.
 Limited Altitude Performance: Turboprops are less effective at higher altitudes compared
to jets, where the air is thinner, which can affect their performance and efficiency.
 Propeller Maintenance: Turboprop engines require regular maintenance of their propeller
systems, including blade inspection, repair, and balancing, which adds to operating costs
and downtime.

TURBOFAN
1. The turbofan engine combines features of both the turbojet and turboprop engines. As a
result, it has performance characteristics somewhere between the other two engines.
2. The engine consists of a diffuser, D, a front fan, F, a mechanical compressor, C, a
combustion chamber, H, a turbine, T, a bypass duct, B, and an exhaust nozzle or nozzles,
N. As before, the function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air
into a static pressure rise.
3. The diffuser delivers its air to a fan, which further compresses it a small amount (a pressure
ratio of approximately 1.5 to 2.0).

4. The airflow is then split, and a portion enters the bypass duct, while the remainder
continues into the mechanical compressor, combustion chamber, and turbine. The ratio of
the airflow through the bypass duct to the airflow through the gas generator is defined as
the bypass ratio.
5. The turbine provides the power for both the fan and the compressor. Unlike the turboprop
engine, however, there is still considerable energy available in the gases downstream of the
turbine.
6. The exhaust gases are, therefore, further expanded in the exhaust nozzle to a velocity
greater than the flight velocity, producing thrust for propulsion.
7. The bypass air is also expanded, either through a common nozzle with the exhaust gases
or through a separate nozzle, to a velocity higher than the flight velocity, producing
additional thrust for propulsion.
8. The turbofan engine thus derives its propulsive thrust from the high velocity exhausts of
both the bypass air and the gas generator gases.

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Advantages:
 High Subsonic Efficiency: Turbofans are more efficient at subsonic speeds compared to
turbojets, making them ideal for most commercial airliners and other subsonic aircraft.
 Quiet Operation: Turbofans are quieter than turbojets due to the bypass airflow around
the engine core, reducing noise levels both inside and outside the aircraft.
 Improved Fuel Efficiency: The bypass airflow in turbofans contributes to improved fuel
efficiency, resulting in lower operating costs and longer range capabilities.
 Versatility: Turbofans are versatile engines suitable for a wide range of aircraft sizes and
mission profiles, from small regional jets to large wide-body airliners.
Disadvantages:
 Complex Design: Turbofan engines have a more complex design compared to turbojets,
with additional components such as fan blades and bypass ducts, which can increase
manufacturing and maintenance costs.
 Lower Speeds: While turbofans are efficient at subsonic speeds, they may not perform
as well at supersonic speeds compared to turbojets.
 Reduced Thrust-to-Weight Ratio: Turbofans typically have a lower thrust-to-weight ratio
compared to turbojets, which can affect their performance, especially during takeoff and
climb.
 Slightly Reduced Thermal Efficiency: Although turbofans are more fuel-efficient at
subsonic speeds, their thermal efficiency may be slightly lower compared to turbojets in
certain operating conditions.

Factors Affecting Thrust

Gas turbine engine operates under varying condition that affect the amount of thrust the engine
produces. These conditions affect either the momentum of air fuel flows through the jet nozzle.

1) Jet nozzle velocity

During most normal high-speed operations, the exhaust nozzle operates in a chocked
condition. This means that the gases flowing out of the engine have been accelerated to the speed
of sound and they cannot be accelerated any further. The value of C j in the thrust formula remains
relatively constant, changing only the temp of the exhaust gas changes the speed of sound.
Wherever the nozzle is not chocked, varied atmospheric condition will cause some changes in jet
nozzle velocity.

2) Airspeed
When a turbojet or turbo fan engine operating at high power and the aircraft in which it is
mounted is not moving the value of Ci in thrust energy is zero and thrust is maximum.
When the aircraft is moving forward the velocity C i of the air entering the engine increases,
but at higher power, the exhaust nozzle is chocked and the value C j , do not increase
proportionally. Therefore, as airspeed increases the net thrust decreases.

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3) Mass Airflow
The most significant variable in the thrust equation is mass air flow. Many factors affect the mass
airflow, the most important being air temperature, pressure, because these factors determine the
density of the air entering the engine & ram effect.
Air Density & the effect of Temperature & Pressure
Air density has a profound effect on the thrust produced. The volume of the air flowing through
the engine is relatively fixed for any particular rpm by the size and geometry of the inlet duct
system. But since the thrust is determined by mass, not the volume of air, any increases in its
density increases the mass and thus the thrust. As the temperature of the air increases its density
decreases. Therefore, the thrust produced by the engine decreases.

As the air pressure increases, its density increases, causing thrust produced by the engine to
increase

4) Altitude effect
Altitude has a double effect on thrust. As the altitude increases, the air becomes colder and
denser, up to the beginning of stratosphere. This causes the thrust to increase. But at the same time,
the increase in altitude causes decrease in pressure, thus a decrease in density and corresponding
decrease in thrust. Since the loss of thrust caused by decreasing pressure is greater than the increase
caused by decreasing temperature. Thus, the thrust decreases as the aircraft ascends.
At the beginning of stratosphere at approximately 36,000 feet temperature stabilizes at -
56.50C and remains at this temperature up to around 85000 feet. The pressure continues to fall
above the 36,000 feet and the thrust therefore drops off at a faster rate than it does at the lower
altitudes. This increased drop off in thrust makes 36,000 feet a chosen altitude for a long-range
cruise in jet powered aircraft.

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5) Ram effect
The compression of air in an inlet duct arising from forward motion is called ram pressure
or ram effect. Because of ram effect, increasing air speed also increases the pressure of the air &
airflow into engine (Wa). As turbine powered aircraft begins to move forward for tale off, air is
rammed into the inlet duct and mass flow through the engine increases. The faster the aircraft
moves the greater the increase in thrust. This is shown in the figure Curve A. But, an increase in
forward speed decreases the amount of air is accelerated and the thrust decreases. This is shown
in the figure, Curve B. The thrust increase caused by the ram effect is greater than decrease in
thrust caused by increase in air speed and the net increase is shown in curve C. The thrust increase
becomes greater an air speed increase.

THRUST AUGMENTATION

Thrust augmentation is a technique by which the basic thrust of a jet engine can be
increased without increasing the size of the engine. Basically, there are two methods by which the
thrust of a jet engine can be augmented. Thrust Augmentation methods
1. Afterburning Technique
2. Water or Water-Alcohol Injection Technique
Afterburner Technique
Afterburner may be defined as an auxiliary burner attached to the tailpipe of the jet engine.
By using the afterburner, an additional fuel can be burned downstream of the turbine which
increases the temperature of the exhaust gases and consequently the thrust of the exhaust gases.
By using an afterburner, an additional thrust of up to 50% can be increased. Basically, an
afterburner is nothing but a combination of a simple gas turbine engine and a Re-heater, where the
expansion of the exhaust gases is accomplished in two stages and reheating the gases to the
maximum permissible temperature between the stages.
Afterburner is one of the widely used thrust augmentation technique by which the basic
thrust of the jet engine can be periodically augmented to improve the thrust during take-off, climb
and combat maneuver. Afterburner is the common method of thrust augmentation and is
characteristics feature of all supersonic aircraft. The use of afterburner is made possible due to the
fact that the main combustion chamber consumes only 25 % of the total oxygen passing through

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the engine. As a result, the remaining 75% of the air can be burnt with additional fuel in a secondary
combustion chamber located downstream of the turbine i.e., in an afterburner.
Components of Afterburner
1. Diffuser
2. Spray Bars
3. Torch Igniter
4. Flame Holders
5. Screech Liners
6. Fuel Valves and Pumps
7. Variable Area Nozzle

Working of Afterburner
During the working of an afterburner, the hot exhaust gases from the turbine will be made
to pass through the diffuser, where the gases are first swirled and diffused and then made to enter
the combustion chamber of the afterburner. Simultaneously, the fuel will be injected into the
afterburner through multiple fuel spray bars. Further, the combustion process is initiated with the
help of torch igniters or pilot burners which are placed in the wake of the number of flame holders.
The process of combustion results in the generation of hot exhaust gases.
During combustion, the temperature of the exhaust gases increases rapidly and can reach
up to 2200 C. Since, the temperature of the exhaust gases is very high, the flame is made to
concentrate around the jet pipe axis, thereby maintaining a safe wall temperature. Most of the
afterburner will be provided with a specialized liner which acts as both a cooling liner and screech
liner. The liner is generally corrugated and perforated with thousands of small holes. This liner
prevents the high frequency and amplitude pressure fluctuations resulting from excessive noise,
vibrations and other combustion instabilities from causing physical destruction of the afterburner
components. All engines incorporating an afterburner must be equipped with a variable nozzle in
order to accommodate the large changes in the temperature produced by the afterburner.
During the non-afterburning operation, the nozzle will be in minimum position, but when
it is switched ON, the nozzle will automatically open to provide an exit area suitable for the
increased volume of the gas stream. The opening of the nozzle prevents any increase in the back

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pressure from occurring which tends to slow down the turbine as well as the compressor and will
ultimately lead to the stalling of the compressor.

Water or water-alcohol injection technique

Water injection technique is one of the simplest methods of augmenting the thrust of a jet
engine. This technique is mainly used during take-off and when there is a drop in the thrust due to
the changes in the atmospheric pressure or temperature. Using this technique, power or thrust up
to 30 % can be boosted for take-off. The thrust developed by the water injection technique is
termed as Wet Thrust and the thrust developed without the use of water injection is termed as Dry
Thrust.
During the working, the water-alcohol mixture or just water is added into the engine
through a series of spray nozzles. The principle by which this method produces extra thrust is by
creating a cooling effect. When water is injected into the compressor inlet, the temperature of the
compressed air decreases which increases the density and eventually the mass of the air. This
further increases the discharge pressure ratio at the exit of the compressor. When this cooled
compressed air is passed into the combustion chamber, the turbine inlet temperature will be
reduced. In order to increase the combustion temperature in the combustion chamber, the mass
flow rate of the fuel has to be increased.
The water provides additional thrust in one of two ways, depending on where the water is
added. Some engines have the coolant sprayed directly into the compressor inlet, whereas others
have fluid added at the diffuser. When water is added at the front of the compressor, power
augmentation is obtained principally by the vaporizing liquid cooling the air, thus increasing
density and mass airflow. Furthermore, if water only is used, the cooler, increased airflow to the
combustion chamber permits more fuel to be burned before the turbine temperature limits are

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reached, thus increasing the turbine inlet temperatures. Higher turbine temperatures will result in
increased thrust.
Water added to the diffuser increases the mass flow through the turbine relative to that
through the compressor. This relative increase results in a decreased temperature and pressure drop
across the turbine that leads to an increased pressure at the exhaust nozzle. Again, the reduction in
turbine temperature when water alone is used allows the fuel system to schedule an increased fuel
flow, providing additional thrust.
Water alone would provide more thrust per kg than a water-alcohol mixture due to the high
latent heat of vaporization and the overall decrease in temperature. The addition of alcohol adds
to the power by providing an additional source of fuel, but because the alcohol has a low
combustion efficiency, being only about half that of gas turbine fuel, and because the alcohol does
not pass through the central part of the combustion chamber where temperatures are high enough
to efficiently burn the weak alcohol-air mixture, the power added is small.
The increased thrust results because of the cooling effect of the water or the increased flow
through the fixed area turbine that effectively increases the operating pressure ratio of the engine.
All of the preceding depends on where in the engine the water is injected. The water injection
system is not without penalty. Water and the injection system are very heavy; there is a thermal
shock to the engine, and compressor blade erosion can occur when the system is activated. An
important limiting factor, compressor stall can also be a problem with water injection.

Performance parameters of jet engines

Propulsive efficiency vs Airspeed

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