Brief summary of Newton's Laws of Motion:

1.First Law (Inertia): An object stays at rest or moves in a straight line at

constant speed unless acted on by an external force.
2.Second Law (F = ma): Force equals mass times acceleration; heavier objects
need more force to accelerate.
3.Third Law (Action-Reaction): Every action has an equal and opposite
reaction.
Turbojet Parts

• Diffuser
• Compressor
• Pump
• Fuel Injector
• Combustion chamber
• Shafts
• Turbine
• Nozzle
 Components of a Turbojet Engine
1.Inlet/Diffuser
•Guides air into the engine and slows it down to increase pressure.
2.Compressor
•Compresses the incoming air for better combustion.
3.Combustion Chamber
•Burns fuel with compressed air to produce high-energy gases.
4.Turbine
•Extracts energy from the hot gases to drive the compressor.
5.Exhaust Nozzle
•Accelerates the hot gases to produce thrust.
6.Shaft
•Connects the turbine to the compressor.
This simplified structure is perfect for a presentation .
Diffuser
• Diffusers in turbojet engines are components designed to slow down and
increase the pressure of the incoming air before it enters the combustion
chamber.
• It is an air intake where kinetic energy reduces and pressure energy
increases.
• In the process, the air molecules get compressed in an isentropic process,
mainly responsible for diffusing the air. Diffusers help increase the overall
efficiency of the engine by minimising turbulence and pressure losses.
Pump
• The pump receives the compressed air and mixes it with a lean amount of fuel.
Fuel Injector
• It ignites the mixture of air and fuel, which initiates the combustion reactions.
Combustion Chamber
• The combustion chamber in a turbojet engine is where the air-fuel mixture is
ignited and burned to produce high-velocity exhaust gases.
• It is designed to efficiently mix and burn the fuel with the compressed air,
generating a high-temperature, high-pressure gas flow.
Shafts
• The shaft in a turbojet engine connects the various rotating components, such as the
compressor and turbine, allowing them to transmit mechanical energy.
• It plays a pivotal role in transferring power from the high-speed turbine to the
compressor, compressing incoming air and driving the engine's overall operation.
Turbine
• The turbine in a turbojet engine is a crucial component that extracts energy from the high-
velocity exhaust gases generated during combustion.
• It is connected to the compressor by a shaft and uses the energy from the exhaust gases to
drive the compressor and other accessories.
Nozzle
• The primary function of the nozzle in a turbojet is to direct the exhaust gases into the
atmosphere.
• It reduces the pressure energy and increases kinetic energy, resulting in enhanced thrust
and forward motion of the jet.
compressor

•The compressor takes in low-pressure, low-density air from the engine

inlet and compresses it to a higher pressure.
•This increases the air's density, allowing more oxygen to enter the
combustion chamber for efficient fuel burning.
 Turbojet Engine Working
• Air is supplied into the diffuser, where it gets diffused, bringing air molecules closer
together.
• The compressed air from the diffuser enters the compressor, increasing its pressure
energy.
• In the combustion chamber, a pump facilitates the injection of a lean mixture of air
and fuel through a small hole (fuel injector).
• The mixture in the combustion chamber undergoes complete combustion, generating
high-pressure energy.
• This high-pressure energy is directed to the turbine, causing its blades to rotate.
Shafts are connected between the turbine and compressor.
• The turbine reduces pressure energy and increases kinetic energy. It also acts as a
rotating compressor, drawing in more air from outside.
• The gas then proceeds to the nozzle, where a thrust is created.
• The generated thrust propels the engine forward. Finally, exhaust gases are released
through the nozzle.
 Application of Turbojet Engine
Turbojet Engine is used in the following:
• Military Aircraft
• Supersonic Aircraft
• Experimental Aircraft
• Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs)
• Target Drones
• Missile Propulsion
• Small Business Jets
• Jet Trainers
 Advantages of Turbojet Engines
• High Speed Capability: Ideal for supersonic and high-speed aircraft.
• Simple Design: Fewer moving parts compared to other engine types.
• Efficient at High Altitudes: Better performance in reduced air
resistance.
• Compact and Lightweight: Smaller and lighter compared to similar
thrust engines.
 Disadvantages of Turbojet Engines
• Low Fuel Efficiency: Less fuel-efficient at subsonic speeds.
• High Noise Levels: Significant noise due to high-speed exhaust gases.
• Poor Performance at Low Speeds: Not suitable for takeoffs or slow-
speed operations.
• High Maintenance Cost: Requires specialized materials and designs for
durability.
TURBOPROP
• Turboprop engines combine the reliability of jets, with the efficiency of propeller
driven aircraft at low to mid altitudes. In this engine 80 to 90% of the total
propulsive thrust is generated by the gas turbine and the remainder is developed
by the expansion of the gases in nozzles. The total thrust developed is the sum of
thrust developed by the propeller and the nozzle .The turboprop engine consists
of five major engine components:
• a) a propeller,
• b) a reduction gear,
• c) a diffuser,
• d) a compressor (low and high pressure),
• e) a combustor (or combustion chamber),
• f) a turbine (low pressure), and
• g) an exhaust nozzle
Propeller:
Due to this the power generated in the gas turbine is used for driving the
compressor and the propeller. The gas turbine drives the propeller through the
reduction gear unit and it draws a large amount of air. A large part of this air
drawn by the propeller is passed through the ducts around the engine
Reduction Gear box:
The function of the reduction gear assembly is to reduce the high rpm from the
engine to a propeller rpm that can be maintained without exceeding the
maximum propeller tip speed.
Diffuser:
The function of the diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air
into a static pressure rise
• Compressor:
Compressor is to increase the pressure of the incoming air before it enters the
combustion chamber.
• Combustion Chamber:
The incoming air from compressor is mixed with the fuel, feed by the fuel nozzles
continuously and combustion takes place at a constant pressure.
• Turbine:
The high pressure, high temperature gases then enter the turbine, where they expand to
provide enough power output from the turbine. The turbine is directly connected to the
compressor and propeller, so the power developed by the turbine is used to drive the
compressor and the propeller. The main function of the turbine is to provide power, to
driver the compressor and the propeller.
• Exhaust:
After the gases leaves the turbine they expand further in the exhaust nozzle, and are
ejected, into the atmosphere there by producing a small portion of thrust for propulsion.
WORKING PROCESS
1.Air is drawn into the engine through the front intake.
2.The intake directs the airflow smoothly into the compressor section.
3.The air passes through multi-stage axial or centrifugal compressors, which increase its
pressure significantly.
4.Compressed air moves into the combustion chamber, where fuel is injected through nozzles.
5.The fuel-air mixture is ignited by spark plugs, creating a high-energy combustion process.
6.The combustion generates high-temperature, high-pressure gases that rapidly expand.
7.These expanding gases enter the turbine section, causing the turbine blades to spin.
8.The turbine extracts energy from the hot gases to drive the compressor and propeller shaft.
9.A reduction gearbox is used to decrease the high rotational speed of the turbine to a suitable
level for the propeller.
10.The propeller is driven by the reduced-speed shaft, converting rotational energy into thrust.
11.The propeller generates thrust by accelerating a large volume of air backward, pushing the
aircraft forward.
12.The remaining exhaust gases are expelled through the exhaust nozzle, providing a small
amount of additional thrust.
Advantages of a Turboprop Engine

Fuel Efficiency – More efficient than turbojets at lower speeds (up to ~600 km/h) and shorter distances.
Lower Operating Costs – Uses less fuel than turbojets, reducing overall operating expenses.
Good for Regional & Military Use – Suitable for short-haul flights, reconnaissance, and transport applications.

Disadvantages of a Turboprop Engine:

Lower Speed – Not efficient at high speeds (>600 km/h) compared to turbojets and
turbofans.
More Noise & Vibration – Propellers generate more noise and vibration than jet engines.
Limited Altitude – Typically operates below 25,000–30,000 feet, unlike turbojets that can fly
at higher altitudes.
Complex Maintenance – More moving parts (propeller, gearbox) require regular
maintenance.
.
TURBOFAN

• Components of turbofan engine.

• i- Fan,
• ii- Compressors,
• iii-Combustion chamber,
• iv-Turbines
• v-Nozzle

I. Air Intake/Ingestion:
The fan is responsible for producing the majority of the thrust generated by a turbofan
engine and is easily visible when looking at the front of the engine. The fan is directly
connected to the low pressure compressor (LPC) and the low pressure turbine (LPT)
by way of a shaft known as the low pressure shaft. The fan is shown in figure.
COMPRESSOR
The purpose of compression is to prepare the air for combustion by adding energy in the
form of pressure and heat. The compressor is divided into two portions: the low pressure
compressor, mentioned above, and the high pressure compressor. Both compressors function
in a similar manner; however, they interact with different parts of the turbofan engine

COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Combustion occurs within the combustor, a stationary chamber within the core of the
engine. The combustor is directly downstream of the HPC and directly upstream of the high
pressure turbine. The purpose of the combustor is to add even more energy to the air flow by
way of heat addition. Within the combustor, fuel is injected and mixed with the air. This
fuel-air mixture is then ignited, creating a dramatic increase in temperature and energizing
the flow, propelling it rearward towards the high pressure turbine.
EXPANSION
Expansion occurs within the high pressure and low pressure turbines. Similar in
appearance to the compressors, the turbines have rows of blades which spin .The
purpose of the turbines is to extract energy from the flow which is then used to spin the
compressors and the fan. The spinning fan draws more air through the core of the engine
which continues the entire process, and it pulls more bypass air around the engine,
generating continuous thrust
NOZZLE
The purpose of the exhaust nozzle is to propel the core flow out of the engine, providing
additional thrust. This is accomplished by way of its geometry or shape. The nozzle also
helps regulate pressures within the engine to keep the other components functioning
properly and efficiently.
• Working:
• Air from the atmosphere enters into turbofan engine. Some of the incoming air passes
through the fan.
• The other continues on into the core compressor and then the burner, There it is mixed
with fuel and combustion occurs.
• The hot exhaust passes through the core and fan turbines and then out the nozzle, as in a
basic turbojet and the thrust is produced.
• The rest of the incoming air passes through the fan and bypasses, or goes around the
engine.
• The air that goes through the fan has a velocity that is slightly increased from free stream
and expands in the fan nozzle. Hence thrust is produced
• So a turbofan gets some of its thrust from the core and some of its thrust from the fan.
The total thrust propels the air craft.
• The ratio of the air that goes around the engine to the air that goes through the core is
called the bypass ratio.
Advantages and Disadvantages of a Turbofan Engine

Advantages
1.Fuel Efficiency – Turbofan engines have better fuel efficiency compared to turbojets,
especially at subsonic speeds.
2.Lower Noise Levels – The bypass air reduces noise levels, making turbofans quieter than
turbojets.
3.Higher Thrust at Subsonic Speeds – The bypass air contributes to additional thrust, making
it suitable for commercial airliners and military transport aircraft.
4.Better Performance at High Altitudes – They perform well at high altitudes where
commercial airliners typically cruise.
5.Improved Range – Due to better fuel efficiency, aircraft equipped with turbofans can travel
longer distances.
6.Environmental Benefits – Lower fuel consumption results in reduced carbon emissions
compared to turbojets.
Disadvantages
1.Larger and Heavier – Turbofan engines are bulkier and heavier than turbojets,
making them unsuitable for high-speed or supersonic aircraft.
2.Lower Thrust-to-Weight Ratio – Compared to turbojets, turbofans generate
less thrust per unit weight, which can be a limitation for military fighter jets.
3.Complex Design and Maintenance – The additional components, such as the
bypass fan, increase complexity and maintenance costs.
4.Reduced Performance at Supersonic Speeds – Turbofan engines are not
efficient at supersonic speeds, making them less suitable for fighter jets and
supersonic transport aircraft.
5.Higher Manufacturing Cost – Due to the complexity and size, turbofans are
more expensive to manufacture compared to simpler engines like turbojets.
UNIT 2
INTAKE/INLETS
All air-breathing engines should provided with an intake manufactured by aircraft
manufacturer in co-ordination with engine manufacturer while installing engine in an
aircraft. It is also known as Inlets (or) Diffuser. An aircraft may have one (or) more intake
depends upon the installation of an engine in the air flame
• The purpose of an inlet is to
• Deliver required amount of air to the compressor at different flight conditions.
• Provide good starting characteristics.
• Diffuses air with maximum static pressure rise and minimum total pressure loss.
• Provide good uniformity of flow at large angle at attack recovering flow distortion (or)
separation.
• Minimum weight and cost.
• Low external drag.
• Inlets may be classified as
Inlets may be classified as
• 1. Subsonic or supersonic
• 2. Fixed geometry or variable geometry
• 3. Two-dimensional or axisymmetric.
Subsonic Inlet type
Flow pattern
Flow pattern Important Point:
•If the speed is high, the air enters slowly.
•If the speed is low, the air enters quickly.
•This helps the engine function properly
Modes of operation
SUBCRITICAL MODE
In subcritical mode of inlet operation, the normal shock stands at the cowl lip of
the inlet and spillage occurs. Low and high subcritical modes depends on the
amount of spillage occurs at the cowl lip of the inlet.
CRITICAL MODE:
In critical mode of inlet operation, the normal shock moves downstream and
stands just inside the cowl lip. The inlet accepts the mass flow far upstream of
the inlet.
SUPERCRITICAL MODE
In supercritical mode of inlet operation, the inlet cannot able to capture the mass
flow rate of air required by the engine. Thus the normal shock is sucked into the
inlet and stays at the downstream position near the exit.
Supersonic inlet
• Fixed geometry inlets can be classified into three types namely two-
dimensional, axisymmetric and chin. The shape of inlet does not change based
on flow conditions
• Two dimensional fixed geometry inlets have rectangular cross section
• Axisymmetric inlets uses axisymmetric central cone to create shock waves to
slow down the flow to subsonic speeds. eg. SR-71.
• Variable geometry inlets are classified into three basic types namely, translating
center body, variable geometry center body and variable geometry cowl.
• In translating center body, the central cone moves forward and backward to
adjust the inlet area. eg. general dynamics F-111.
• For flight at high mach numbers (M > 1.6), variable geometry inlets achieve
high pressure recovery with lower external drag.
Based on Shock Wave Pattern
• Based on shock waves produced at the inlet, the supersonic inlets are classified
into three types, namely, internal, external or mixed compression inlets
• Internal compression inlet creates all the shocks within the inlet. The terminal
normal shock is located at the throat. Here the reflection of shocks from both the
wall of the inlet to decelerate the flow. The terminal normal shock decelerate the
flow to subsonic speed.
• Mixed compression inlet uses a combination of external and internal
compression system. Nowadays, all the supersonic inlets are of mixed
compression type.
• External compression intakes complete the deceleration process outside the inlet
using combination of two or more oblique shocks. These oblique shock
followed by normal shock to decelerate the flow from supersonic speed to
subsonic speed
STARTING PROBLEM ON SUPERSONIC INLETS
• Supersonic deceleration process inside the inlet geometry are difficult to establish. Jet
Engine Intakes and Exhaust Nozzles
• Deceleration (or) design conditions can be achieved only with over speeding the air at
the inlet or changing the diffuser geometry.
• The difficulty to start the inlet is due to a shock that arises during deceleration process.
• The shocks present at the inlet are moved downstream using two techniques.
1. Over speeding
2. Area variation
 1)starting procedure for supersonic inlet by over speeding:
Condition (a): Low Subsonic Speed Operation (M < 1)The inlet is not choked, the flow
through the inlet is in low subsonic speed (M1). The airflow through the inlet and upstream
capture area. A, is determined by downstream conditions of the inlet.
Condition (b): Flight Velocity is Still Subsonic (M < 1) The flow is assumed to be accelerated
to sonic velocity (M = 1) at throat A, (minimum area) and the inlet mass flow rate is limited by
choking condition at throat.
Condition (c): Low Supersonic Mach Number (M = 1)At low supersonic mach numbers, the
capture area A, is limited by choking at throat At, which is less than Aa, (At, <Aa,). The
accumulation of mass occurs in inlet results in pressure rise. This pressure rise builds up
rapidly until a shock of sufficient strength moved upstream against the supersonic flow and
placed at a position to allow required spillage. Thus the flow is decelerated at the inlet due to
the presence of bow shock wave.
Condition (d): (M > 1)When the inlet reaches the design mach number of the aircraft (M > 1)
the mass flow cannot pass through the throat area (At{1}) This shows the choked condition at
the throat, thus the inlet air suffers a stagnation pressure loss in moving the shock. It becomes a
normal shock
i) a
 EXHAUST NOZZLES
The purpose of the exhaust nozzle is to increase the velocity of the hot gases to
the maximum and discharge it to the atmosphere. It is passage /duct used to
transform the pressure energy of the hot gases into kinetic energy by expansion
process. In early days, turbojet and turboprop engine uses simple fixed-geometry
convergent nozzles. Turbofan engines, used in military aircrafts uses convergent
-divergent nozzles. The types of nozzles used in jet engines.
• Convergent Nozzle
• Divergent Nozzles
• Convergent - divergent nozzle
 FUNCTIONS OF AN EXHAUST NOZZLE
• The main functions of the Nozzles are as follows.
• To efficiently expand the high pressure hot gases at engine exhaust to
atmospheric pressure, converting the pressure energy to kinetic energy.
• Provide the required thrust for maximum jet velocity in each flight phase with
minimum external drag.
• Provide the reverse thrust, when it is needed (during short runway landing).
• Provide Thrust Vector Control (TVC) for quick maneuverability of military
aircrafts.
• To minimize jet noise by expanding the jet to ambient pressure at exit.
• To mix core jet and bypass jet in Turbofan engines if needed.
 CLASSIFICATION OF EXHAUST NOZZLES
Exhaust Nozzles can be classified into
Based on Simplicity
• Fixed Area Nozzle
• Complex Variable Area Nozzle
Based on geometry
• Convergent Nozzle
• Convergent-Divergent (C-D)Nozzle
In fixed area nozzles, the nozzle area is fixed upon changing flow conditions.
In variable area nozzles, the nozzle area is varied according to the varying flow
conditions by using actuators (or) any mechanical devices.
Convergent Nozzle
• The convergent nozzle is a simple convergent duct mostly used in engines to fly aircraft
at subsonic speeds. It has a axisymmetric geometry. It produces thrust only along the axis
of the engine. The nozzle pressure ratio the convergent nozzles P e/ Pa will be less than 4
for the convergent nozzles
Convergent-Divergent Nozzle
• The convergent-Divergent nozzle is a duct consisting of converging section followed by
divergent section. The minimum area between the convergent and divergent section is
known as Throat, where the Mach number reaches unity. In the convergent 'section, the
subsonic flow is accelerated upto Mach 1 and in the divergent section, the flow
accelerates supersonically (M >1) by providing increasing mass flow in increasing are.
The Nozzle pressure ratio Pe/ Pa will be greater than 6 for the convergent-Divergent (C-
D) Nozzle. It is first used by Carl G.P. De Laval and it is also known as De Laval Nozzle.
It is only means to produce supersonic flow.
REAL FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
 Thrust Reversals
Mostly modern aircraft brakes are not sufficient to stop the aircraft when runways become icy
(or) snow covered. Some of the military aircrafts are need to land on short runways and to
reduce the flight speed to enhance combat effectiveness. Thrust Reversal reverse the direction
of thrust by changing the direction of the exhaust jet to supplement the brakes used in
aircrafts.
There are three methods of Thrust Reversals used. They are
• Clamshell type
• Cascade Blocker type
• Bucket target system

Clamshell Type
• Clamshell type consists of a door system which is pneumatically operated. The clamshell
doors are closed during normal operation which don't affect the exhaust jet. When the
reverse thrust is activated by pilot, the clamshell door rotate to uncover the ducts and closes
the normal exit of the nozzle. Then the jet is directed in a forward direction by vanes to
Cascade Blocker Type
• The cascade blocker type reverser system is used in turbofan engine to block and reverse
the cold stream jet. It is actuated pneumatically consists of a blocker doors and movable
cowl (side door) to divert the airflow through the cascade vanes. When the reverse thrust is
activated, the actuation system moves the tranelating cowl rearwards and at the same time
folds the blocker doors to blank off the cold stream nozzle, thus diverting the airflow
through the cascade vanes.

Bucket Target System

• The bucket target system is hydraulically actuated and uses bucket-type doors to reverse
the hot gas stream. The thrust reverser doors are actuated by means of a conventional
pushpull rod system. A single hydraulic powered actuator actuates the doors through a pair
of pushpull rods. In forward thrust mode, the thrust reverser doors form the nozzle for the
engines.
 Flow through the CD Nozzle

• When Pe = P0, there is no flow through the nozzle.

• When Pe, exit pressure is slightly reduced to Pe1, below Po, this small pressure difference will
cause a flow through Nozzle at low subsonic speeds. The static pressure will decrease
continuously through the convergent portion of the nozzle, reaching a minimum value at
throat and increases slightly in the divergent portion shown by curve (a). Thus the local mach
number increases upto throat reaches a maximum value at the throat.
• When P , is further reduced to Pe₂, then the pressure difference is slightly more, which
e
causes the flow to accelerate faster. the variation of static pressure and mach number through
the C-D Nozzle will be larger as shown by curve (b).
• Similarly, if the exit pressure Pe, is reduced continuously, at some value of Pe, the flow will
reach sonic velocity at the throat For this case At , = A*, M = M* = 1
• The sonic flow at throat will expand further in divergent portion of the nozzle as
supersonic flow (curve d) if exit pressure to throat pressure ratio P exit / Pthroat<1 and will
decelerate as subsonic flow (curve c) if Pexit / Pthroat > 1

• For values of exit pressure between Pee and Pe3, a normal shock wave exists inside the
divergent portion of the nozzle. The flow behind the normal shock wave is subsonic, so
that the static pressure increases to Pe4 at the exit. When exit pressure is decreased to P e5,
the normal shock will move downstream and stand at exit as shown in figure (a).

• When Pe is further reduced to Pee, which is less than back pressure Pb. the flow through
the nozzle is fully supersonic and isentropic. The oblique shock will occur at the exit of
the nozzle outside the duct as shown in figure (b).

• when the exit pressure Pe, is greater than back pressure Pb, the expansion waves will
occur at the exit of the nozzle as shown in figure (c)
 LOSSES IN NOZZLES
• The losses occur in nozzles are as follows.
• Axial thrust loss due to exhaust velocity vector angularity in diverging section of the
nozzle.
• Losses due to reduction in exhaust velocity magnitude caused by viscous effects like
boundary layer drag, boundary layer shock interactions etc..
• Losses in thrust due to leakage of mass flow through nozzle walls in case of variable
area nozzles
• Thrust loss due to flow non-uniformities
• Losses in chamber pressure (P) due to heat addition.
• Losses due to erosion of nozzle throat.
 EJECTOR AND VARIABLE AREA NOZZLES
Variable area nozzles are required to match all operating conditions. Variable area nozzles are
also known as adjustable nozzles. There are three types of variable area nozzles. They are
• Center plug
• Ejector type
• Iris nozzle

Center Plug
• Central plug is very similar to spike in a supersonic inlet. It includes a center body (or) plug
around which flow ejects. The central plug causes external expansion fans. The central plug is
adjusted depending upon the ambient pressure. the nozzle length will be reduced due to usage
of center plug.
Ejector Type
• Ejector type nozzles are used in turbofan engines to control the cold jet through the bypass
duct. At subsonic speeds, the nozzle is in convergent shape. As the speed increase, the nozzle
ejects and becomes convergent-divergent (C-D) shape to produce supersonic flow.eg. used in
SR-71, concorde aircrafts engine
Iris Nozzle
Iris Nozzle consists of overlapping, adjustable petals. It is more complicated than ejector type
nozzles. The nozzle area is adjusted by suitable actuator mechanisms for different operating
conditions. If offers significantly high performance. In modern aircrafts, iris nozzle can be
deflected to achieve thrust vector control.
UNIT: 3
• The design of combustion chambers is a complex process involving aerodynamics,
chemical reactions and mechanical design. The uses of computational fluid dynamics
make the design process easier with better understanding of complex flow inside the
combustor and reduce their experimentation. The main requirements of combustors are
identified as follows:
• The combustion pressure loss should be minimum.
• The length and frontal area of the combustor must remain within limits set by other
engine components.
• Combustion efficiency should be high at different operating conditions.
• The outlet temperature distribution must be uniform to maximize the life of the turbine
blades and nozzle guide vanes.
• It should be free from pressure fluctuations and other combustion instabilities.
• The complete combustion of fuel must be achieved in small space of combustor in
less time.
• It should meet the pollutant emissions regulations, ie, low emissions of smoke,
unburned fuel.
• Reliable and smooth ignition over wide range of atmospheric conditions,
• It should have minimum cost and easy to maintain.
• The formation of carbon deposits must be avoided because particles carried into the
turbine in the high velocity gas stream can erode the turbine blades.
• Durability and relighting capability.
• Ability to utilize wide range of fuels.
 CHEMISTRY OF COMBUSTION

• The rate of reaction (combustion) depends on the pressure and

temperature inside the combustor. It is approximated by a form of the
Arrhenius equation is given as
• Stiochiometric ratio is the amount of air required for complete combustion of a
hydrocarbon fuel to convert the fuel completely to carbondioxide (CO₂) and the hydrogen
to water vapor (H₂O).
• The atmospheric air consists of 21% by mass of oxygen participates in the combustion
process. The mass of nitrogen and other gases will be around 79% by mass.
• The Stoichiometric air-to-fuel ratio is calculated using the reaction equation as follows:
• Consider the complete combustion of a general hydrocarbon fuel of form C, H, with air.
The overall complete combustion equation is given by
 COMBUSTION PROCESS
• The combustion process occurs within the combustion chamber involves the following
steps.
• Introduction of the fine spray of fuel droplets and mixing it with compressed air flowing
through the combustor.
• Vaporization of droplets with air.
• Breaking down of heavy hydrocarbons into lighter fractions.
• The intimate mixing of these hydrocarbon niolecules with oxygen molecules and the
chemical reaction themselves
• The working of the typical combustion chamber is explained as follows,
• The compressed air from the compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity range of
100-150 m/s. The first step is to decelerate the airflow to 20-30 m/s because the air speed is too
high for combustion. The speed of the fuel droplets are too low, so it is blown away by high
airspeed. Therefore, low-velocity regions are created inside the combustor using swirlers/bluff
bodies for continuous combustion. The overall air-to-fuel ratios (AFR) vary between 45:1 to
130:1 during normal operation. However, the fuel droplets (kerosene fuel) burns completely at
AFR of 15:1, so the fuel must be burned only with part of the air entering the combustor, that
zone is called as primary combustion zone. About 20% of air enters the primary zone through
snout. Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl vanes and a perforated flare, through
which air passes into the primary zone. Through the wall of the flame tube body, adjacent to
the combustion zone, are a selected number of secondary holes, through which a further 20%
of the main flow of air passes into the primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and the air
from the secondary holes interacts with each other and creates a low velocity recirculation
zone. The temperature of the gases released by the combustion is about 1800°C-2000°C, which
is too high can't acceptable by turbine blades. About 60% of the main flow of air is introduced
progressively into the flame tube to cool the hot gases in the dilution zone. An electric spark
from an igniter plug initiates the combustion process and then the flame is self-sustained by a
velocity recirculation zones within the combustion chamber.
Classification Of Combustion Chamber:

The combustion chamber can be classified as three types and are below,

• Can Type Combustor

• Cannular Type Combustor
• Annular Type Combustor
• CAN TYPE

• Can combustors are self-contained cylindrical combustion chambers.

• Each “can” has its own fuel injector, igniter, liner, and casing.
• The primary air from the compressor is guided into each individual can, where it is
decelerated, mixed with fuel, and then ignited.
• The secondary air also comes from the compressor, where it is fed outside of the liner
(inside of which is where the combustion is taking place).
• The secondary air is then fed, usually through slits in the liner, into the combustion zone to
cool the liner via thin film cooling.
• In most applications, multiple cans are arranged around the central axis of the engine, and
their shared exhaust is fed to the turbine(s).
• Can type combustors were most widely used in early gas turbine engines, owing to their
ease of design and testing (one can test a single can, rather than have to test the whole
system).
Advantages
• Easy to maintain, because if one can is damaged it can be removed and
repaired easily.
• Mechanically robust design.
• Easy to test, because it requires only a small fraction of total engine air
mass flow.
Disadvantages
• Weight is quite larger.
• High pressure loss compared to other combustors.
• Requires large frontal area and hence high drag.
 Annular Type Combustion Chamber

• Annular combustors do away with the separate combustion zones and simply have a
continuous liner and casing in a ring (the annulus).
• There are many advantages to annular combustors, including more uniform combustion,
shorter size (therefore lighter), and less surface area.
• Additionally, annular combustors tend to have very uniform exit temperatures. They also
have the lowest pressure drop of the three designs (on the order of 5%).
• The annular design is also simpler, although testing generally requires a full size test rig.
• An engine that uses an annular combustor is the CFM International CFM56.
• Most modern engines use annular combustors; likewise, most combustor research and
development focuses on improving this type.
Advantage
• Minimum length and weight
• Low pressure loss
• Simple in design
• Minimum engine frontal area.
• Permits better mixing of fuel and air.
• Less cooling air is required
CANNULAR TYPE
• Cannular type combustor can be called as can annular type combustor.
• Like the can type combustor, can annular combustors have discrete combustion zones
contained in separate liners with their own fuel injectors.
• Unlike the can combustor, all the combustion zones share a common ring (annulus) casing.
Each combustion zone no longer has to serve as a pressure vessel.
• The combustion zones can also “communicate” with each other via liner holes or connecting
tubes that allow some air to flow circumferentially.
• The exit flow from the cannular combustor generally has a more uniform temperature
profile, which is better for the turbine section.
• It also eliminates the need for each chamber to have its own igniter. Once the fire is lit in
one or two cans, it can easily spread to and ignite the others.
• This type of combustor is also lighter than the can type, and has a lower pressure drop (on
the order of 6%).
• However, a cannular combustor can be more difficult to maintain than a can combustor..