Module III

Antennas Arrays and Apertures

Point Sources – Definition, Patterns, arrays of 2 Isotropic Sources - Different
Cases, Principle of Pattern Multiplication, Uniform Linear Arrays – Broadside
Arrays, Endfire Arrays, EFA with Increased Directivity, BSAs with Non-uniform
Amplitude Distributions – General Considerations and Binomial Arrays.

Educational Purpose Only 1

Introduction to Antenna Arrays
 Introduction to Array Antennas
• The radiation pattern of a single element is
relatively wide & each element provides low values of
directivity (gain).
• In many applications, it is necessary to design antennas
with very directive characteristics (very high
gains) to meet the demands of long
distance communication.
• This can only be accomplished by increasing the
electrical size of the antenna.
• Higher directivity is the basic requirement in point-to- point
communication, radars and space applications.
• Enlarging the dimensions of single elements often
leads to more directive characteristics.
• Another way to enlarge the dimensions of the antenna,
without increasing the size of the individual elements,
is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an
electrical and geometrical configuration.
• This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is
referred to as an array.
• In most cases, the elements of an array are identical.
• Thus antenna array can be defined as the system of
similar antennas directed to get required high
directivity in the desired direction.
• The antenna array is said to be linear if the elements of
the antenna array are equally spaced along a straight
line.
• It is said to be uniform linear array if all the
elements are fed with a current of equal
magnitude with progressive uniform phase shift
along the line.
• Five controls used to shape the overall pattern of the
antenna. - Geometrical configuration of the overall
array (linear, circular, rectangular, spherical, etc.)
• Relative displacement between the elements
• Excitation amplitude of the individual elements
• Excitation phase of the individual elements
• Relative pattern of the individual elements
Types of Antenna Arrays
 Types of Antenna Arrays
• Practically various forms of the antenna array
are used as radiating systems. They are;
1. Broadside Array (BSA)
2. End-Fire Array (EFA)
3. Collinear Array
4. Parasitic Array
 Broadside Array
• A typical arrangement of a Broadside array is shown in
Figure 1.
• A broadside array consists number of identical
antennas placed parallel to each other along a straight
line and the direction of maximum radiation is
always perpendicular to the plane consisting
elements.
• This straight line is perpendicular to the
axis of individual antenna. It is known as
axis of antenna array.
• Thus each element is perpendicular to
the axis of antenna array.
• All the individual antennas are spaced equally
along the axis of antenna array.
• All the elements are fed with currents with equal
magnitude and same phase.
• As the maximum radiation is directed in broadside
direction i.e. perpendicular to the line of axis of
array, the radiation pattern for the broadside array
is bidirectional.
• Thus broadside array can be defined as the
arrangement of antennas in which maximum
radiation is in the direction perpendicular to the
axis of array and plane containing the elements of
array
Figure 1 Broadside Array
 End Fire Array
• The end fire array is very much similar to the
broadside array from the point of view of
arrangement.
• But the main difference is in the direction of
maximum radiation.
• In broadside array, the direction of the maximum
radiation is perpendicular to the axis of array;
• while in the end fire array, the direction of the
maximum radiation is along the axis of array.
• Thus in the end fire array number of identical
antennas are spaced equally along a line.
• All the antennas are fed individually with currents
of equal magnitudes but their phases vary
progressively along the line to get entire
arrangement unidirectional finally. i.e. maximum
radiation along the axis of array as shown in Figure 2.
• Thus end fire array can be defined as an array with
direction of maximum radiation coincides with the
direction of the axis of array to get unidirectional
radiation.
 Topic 1

Array of Two Point Sources

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• The array of point sources is nothing but the array of
an isotropic radiators occupying zero volume.
• For the greater number of point source in the
array, the analysis of antenna array becomes
complicated and time consuming.
• Also the simplest condition of number of point
sources in the array is two.
• Then conveniently analysis is done by considering first
two point sources, which are separated by
distance and having same polarization.
• The results obtained for only two point sources can be
further extended for ′′ number of point sources in the
array.
• Let us consider the array of two isotropic point
sources, with a distance of separation ‘d’ between
them. The polarization of two isotropic point sources is
assumed to be the same. To derive different
expressions following conditions can be applied to the
antenna array ;
• 1. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitudes
and with same phase.
• 2. Two point sources with currents of equal magnitude
but with opposite phase.
• 3. Two point sources with currents of unequal
magnitudes and with any phase.
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 Case 1 / Currents with Equal magnitude & Phase
• Consider two point-sources 1 and 2 separated by
distance – d and both the point sources are supplied
with currents equal in magnitude and phase as shown
in Figure 1.
• Let point 𝑃 far away from the array and the
distance between point 𝑃 and point sources 1 and 2
be r1 and r2 respectively.
• Assuming far-field observations - r1 = r2 = r
• The radiation from the point source 2 will reach
earlier at point 𝑃 than that from point source 1
because of the path difference.
Figure 1 – Two Element Array
• The extra distance is travelled by the radiated wave
from point source 1 than that by the wave radiated
from point source 2.
• Hence path difference -
• Above equation represents total field intensity at
point 𝑃, due to two point sources having currents of
same amplitude and phase.
• The total amplitude of the field at point 𝑃 is 2E0 while
the phase shift is (kdcos 𝜙)/2 .
• By putting 2E0 = 1 , then the pattern is said to be
normalized.
Maxima Direction
Minima Direction

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Half Power Point Direction
• The field pattern drawn with 𝑇 against 𝜙 for = 𝜆/2,
then the pattern is bidirectional as shown in Fig. 2.
• The field pattern obtained is bidirectional and it is a
figure of eight (8).
• If this patterns is rotated by 360° about axis, it will
represent three dimensional doughnut shaped space
pattern
Case 1 / Equal in Amplitude & Phase
Case 2 / Currents Equal in Magnitude & Opposite in Phase
• Consider two point sources separated by distance
and supplied with currents equal in magnitude but
opposite phase.
• Consider Figure 2, all the conditions are exactly same
except the phase of the currents is opposite i.e. 180°.
• With this condition, the total field at far point 𝑃 is
given by,
Maxima Directions
Minima Directions
Half Power Point Directions

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45
Case 2 / Equal in amplitude & Opposite in Phase
 Topic 2

N- Element Uniform Linear

Antenna Array
• An array of elements is said to be linear array if
all the individual elements are spaced equally
along a line.
• An array is said to be uniform array if the elements in
the array are fed with currents with equal
magnitudes and uniform progressive phase shift
along the line.
• Consider uniform linear array of 𝑵 isotropic point
sources with all the individual elements spaced
equally at distance from each other and all elements
are fed with currents equal in magnitude and
uniform progressive phase shift along line as shown
in Fig. 1.
N - Element Uniform Array
 Topic 3

Broadside Array (BSA)

• An array is said to be broadside array, if maximum
radiation occurs in direction perpendicular to array
axis.
• In broadside array, individual elements are equally
spaced along a line and each element is fed with
current of equal magnitude and same phase.
• The total phase difference of the fields at point 𝑃 from
adjacent sources is given by -
 Topic 4

End-fire Array (EFA)

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• An array is said to be end-fire array, if the direction of
maximum radiation coincides with the array axis.
• In end-fire array, individual elements are equally
spaced along a line and each element is fed with
current of equal magnitude and opposite phase.
• The total phase difference of the fields at point 𝑃 from
adjacent sources is given by,
• 𝜓 = kd cos 𝜙 + 𝛼
 Topic 5

Principle of Pattern Multiplication

• The field pattern of an array of non-isotropic but similar
sources is the product of the pattern of the individual
sources and the pattern of isotropic point sources
having the same locations, relative amplitudes, and
phase as the non-isotropic point sources.
• This is referred to as pattern multiplication for arrays
of identical elements.
 RADIATION PATTERN OF 4-ISOTROPIC ELEMENTS FED
IN PHASE & SPACED 𝝀/𝟐 APART
• Consider a 4-element array of antennas as shown in
Fig. 1, in which the spacing between the elements is
𝝀/𝟐 and the currents are in-phase (𝛼 = 0).
• The pattern can be obtained directly by adding the four
electric fields due to the 4 antennas.
• However the same radiation pattern can be obtained
by pattern multiplication in the following manner
Fig 1 / Linear Array of 4 Isotropic elements
• Two isotropic point sources spaced 𝜆/2 apart fed in-
phase provides a bidirectional pattern as in Fig. 2 (b).
• Now the elements 1 and 2 are considered as one
unit and this new unit is considered to be placed
between the midway of elements 1, 2 and similarly the
elements 3,4 as shown in Fig. 2 (a).
• Here the width of the principal lobe is the same as the
width of the corresponding lobe of the group pattern.
• The number of secondary lobes can be determined
from the nulls in the resultant pattern, which is sum
of the nulls in the unit and group pattern
 Topic 7

Principle of Antenna Synthesis /

Binomial Array

91
• In case of uniform linear array, to increase the
directivity, the array length has to be increased.
• But when the array length increases, the secondary
or side lobes appear in the pattern.
• In some of the special applications, it is desired to
have single main lobe with no minor lobes.
• That means the minor lobes should be eliminated
completely or reduced to minimum level as compared
to main lobe.
• To achieve such pattern, the array is arranged in such
away that the broad side array radiate more strongly at
the centre than that from edges.

92
 Binomial Series
• To reduce the side lobe level, John Stone proposed that
sources have amplitudes proportional to the
coefficients of a binomial series of the form -

• where is ‘m’ the number of radiating sources in the

array.
• Binomial array is an array whose elements are
excited according to the current levels determined
by the binomial coefficient.
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94
 Pascal’s Triangle
• The above represents Pascal’s triangle.
• If the values of ‘m’ are used to represent the number
of elements of the array, then the coefficients of the
expansion represent the relative amplitudes of the
elements.
• Since the coefficients are determined from a binomial
series expansion, the array is known as binomial array.

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Non-uniform Amplitude Arrays with Odd & Even
Elements

96
• From the above equations, the amplitude co-efficients
of the following arrays are –

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• Binomial array’s do not exhibit any minor lobes
provided the spacing between the elements equal or
less than one-half of a wavelength.
• The design using a 𝜆/2 spacing leads to a pattern
with no minor lobes, the half-power beam width
and maximum directivity for d = 𝜆/2 spacing in
terms of the numbers of elements or the length of
the array are given by ;

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 Advantages & Disadvantages of Binomial Arrays
• The advantages of binomial array is that there are no
side lobes in the resultant pattern.
• The disadvantages are -
• i. Beam width of the main lobe is large which is
undesirable
• ii. Directivity is small and high excitation levels are
required for the center elements of large arrays.

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Introduction to Aperture Antennas

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 Introduction to Aperture Antennas
• Aperture antennas are most common at microwave
frequencies.
• In general aperture means opening. Aperture in
antenna, means opening in a closed surface.
• There are different geometrical configurations of an
aperture antenna shown in Fig. 1.
• They may take the form of a waveguide or a horn
whose aperture may be square, rectangular, circular,
elliptical, or any other configuration.

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Aperture Antenna Configuration

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• Aperture antennas are very practical for space
applications, because flush mounted on the surface of
the spacecraft or aircraft.
• Their opening can be covered with a dielectric material
to protect them from environmental conditions.
• This type of mounting does not disturb the
aerodynamic profile of the craft for high-speed critical
applications .
• The radiation characteristics of wire antennas can be
determined once the current distribution on the wire
known.
• For many configurations, current distribution is not
known exactly & only physical experimental
measurements can provide a reasonable
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approximation.
• This is even more evident in aperture antennas.
• Analysis of aperture type antennas is the conversion of
original antenna geometry into an equivalent geometry
which can be looked at as radiation through an
aperture in a closed surface.
• This equivalence is obtained by the principle known as
field equivalence principle.
• Along with this principle, the duality, uniqueness
theorem and image principles are also useful in the
aperture type antenna analysis.

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