3.4 5.

Article

Strengthening of Concrete Element

with Precast Textile Reinforced
Concrete Panel and Grouting
Material

Young-Jun You, Hyeong-Yeol Kim, Gum-Sung Ryu, Kyung-Taek Koh, Gi-Hong Ahn and
Se-Hoon Kang

https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13173856
 materials
Article
Strengthening of Concrete Element with Precast
Textile Reinforced Concrete Panel and
Grouting Material
Young-Jun You, Hyeong-Yeol Kim *, Gum-Sung Ryu, Kyung-Taek Koh, Gi-Hong Ahn
and Se-Hoon Kang
Structural Engineering Department, Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology (KICT),
Goyang 10223, Korea; yjyou@kict.re.kr (Y.-J.Y.); ryu0505@kict.re.kr (G.-S.R.); ktgo@kict.re.kr (K.-T.K.);
agh0530@kict.re.kr (G.-H.A.); kshun@kict.re.kr (S.-H.K.)
* Correspondence: hykim1@kict.re.kr




Received: 10 August 2020; Accepted: 28 August 2020; Published: 1 September 2020


Abstract: Textile reinforced concrete (TRC) has widely been used for strengthening work for
deteriorated reinforced concrete (RC) structures. The structural strengthening often requires
accelerated construction with the aid of precast or prefabricated elements. This study presents
an innovative method to strengthen an RC slab-type element in flexure using a precast panel made
of carbon TRC. A total of five RC slabs were fabricated to examine the flexural strengthening effect.
Two of them were strengthened with the precast panel and grouting material and another set of two
slabs was additionally strengthened by tensile steel reinforcement. The full-scale slab specimens
were tested by a three-point bending test and the test results were compared with the theoretical
solutions. The results revealed that the ultimate load of the specimens strengthened with the TRC
panel increased by at least 1.5 times compared to that of the unstrengthened specimen. The application
of the precast TRC panel and grouting material for the strengthening of a prototype RC structure
verified its outstanding constructability.

Keywords: carbon textile; flexural strengthening; load-bearing capacity; textile reinforced concrete
(TRC); TRC panel

1. Introduction
Textile reinforced concrete (TRC), additionally referred to as fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix,
is concrete strengthened with textile made by a multi-axial arrangement of high strength fibers such as
carbon fiber [1]. Research on TRC systems over the past two decades has led to significant progress
in strengthening in flexure of concrete structures with these systems [2]. Several research groups
examined the strengthening effect of TRC on the flexural performance of reinforced concrete (RC),
considering mostly the fiber type, number of textile plies, and matrix strength as parameters [3–7].
Recently, the effect of mechanochemical activation of the cementitious suspension and the use of
various superplasticizers has been studied for binders [8].
A major advanced feature of the precast TRC elements over the RC elements is light weight
due to minimum concrete cover thickness. A 9.9 m wide and 60 mm thick TRC roof structure was
fabricated and used as a roof for parking structures [9]. More recently, a 4.5 m long and 40 mm thick
precast ceiling element has been constructed in which a 70% reduction of deadload was realized when
compared to an RC application [10]. Among the precast TRC applications, a precast TRC panel was
introduced for structural strengthening of masonry walls [11].
In general, the flexural strength of the RC member is strengthened by an increase of TRC when
using high tensile strength fibers such as carbon fiber or when augmenting the number of textile plies.

Materials 2020, 13, 3856; doi:10.3390/ma13173856 www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2020, 13, 3856 2 of 17

The cementitious matrix constituting TRC exhibits relatively lower tensile properties compared to
those of the carbon fiber applied as a reinforcing material. Accordingly, the strength of the matrix is
known to have an insignificant effect on the flexural performance of the TRC-strengthened member.
For the reinforcement to fulfill its role in the structural system, sufficient bond strength should be
secured to allow monolithic behavior of the reinforcement and matrix. When carbon fiber is chosen as
a textile reinforcement for TRC [12], the smoothness of the carbon fiber surface necessitates additional
measures to secure the bond strength [13]. Some research groups conducted studies on the change
in the bond performance according to the textile surface treatment and concluded– that such surface
treatment was effective in improving the bond strength of the textile [7,13–15].
Strengthening by the TRC system is usually carried out on site by finishing or shotcreting, but
these methods need to be improved to widen their applicability. Since TRC is composed of textile as
reinforcement and a matrix, most practitioners achieve TRC by installing the textile on the structure to
be strengthened and placing the matrix over it. However, this approach should be modified for sites
requiring accelerated construction or presenting a narrow working space. For example, accelerated
construction may be realized by using precast TRC panels. Recently, a research group in the Korea
Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology (KICT) [16] fabricated precast TRC panels and
proposed a method of applying stay-in-place formwork during the erection of an open-type wharf
structure. More recently, the behavior of RC slab-type elements strengthened with a cast-in-place TRC
system was experimentally investigated in KICT [17].
The main objective of this study is to propose an innovative strengthening method with a precast
TRC panel and grout material for deteriorated or structurally deficient RC structures. This study
fabricated four RC slab-type elements strengthened for flexure using grouting material on precast
panels composed of a carbon TRC system and subjected them to a three-point bending test. Two of the
specimens were strengthened using a TRC panel and grouting material only. Two other specimens were
arranged with additional tensile steel reinforcement during the strengthening assuming a sectional loss
caused by steel corrosion. The load-deflection behavior of the strengthened specimens is compared
and the failure mode is also compared with respect to the unstrengthened specimen and the specimen
strengthened with the cast-in-place TRC system. The constructability of the method using TRC panels
and grouting material is examined through partial strengthening of a deteriorated RC box culvert.

2. Experimental Program

2.1. Materials of TRC System

TRC is composed of a matrix to maintain its shape with the textile reinforcement and to form the
structural system. The most common textile reinforcement for the flexural strengthening of concrete
structures is the two-dimensional grid shape textile [2,16,18,19]. In this study, the carbon textile grid
(Q85/85-CCE-21, Solidian GmbH, Albstadt, Germany) shown in Figure 1 is employed. The mechanical
properties of the textile grid are listed in Table 1. The surface of the textile is coated by quartz sand
with grain size of 0.3–0.8 mm to improve– the bond strength with concrete [20].

Figure 1. Carbon textile grid.

Materials 2020, 13, 3856 3 of 17

Table 1. Material properties of textile grid in warp direction (suggested by the manufacturer).

Fiber Resin Cross-Sectional Area of Yarn (mm2 ) Tensile Strength (MPa) Elastic Modulus (GPa)
3200 tex 1 Epoxy 1.81 3300 220
1 tex = Grams per kilometer of yarn.

Table 2 arranges the mix composition of mortar used in the TRC system. Apart from superplasticizer,
this mix composition is identical to that used in a previous study [16]. Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers
(KURALON K-II REC100L, Kuraray, Tokyo, Japan) are admixed at 1% fiber volume fraction in the matrix
to prevent the occurrence of cracks induced by the drying shrinkage during the curing process following
the fabrication of the TRC panel. The purpose and process of the mix design of mortar for the TRC panel
are explained in detail in a previous study [16]. The compressive strength of mortar measured at 28 days
on cubic samples is 75.7 MPa.

Table 2. Mixture composition of mortar for textile reinforced concrete (TRC) (unit: kg/m3 ).

Cement GGBS 1 Sand Water Superplasticizer

466 466 1024 278 7
1 GGBS = Granulated Blast-furnace Slag.

2.2. Fabrication of TRC Panel

Figure 2 illustrates the fabrication process of the precast TRC panel. A steel form was first
manufactured with dimensions of 20 × 1000 × 1600 mm3 (height × width × length) on the steel bedding.
Fresh mortar was then placed up to half of the TRC panel thickness and spread evenly prior to putting
one ply of textile grid in place, as shown in Figure 2a. Thereafter, the remaining thickness of mortar
was placed, finished, and finally naturally cured (Figure 2b). Figure 2c shows the precast TRC panels
after completion of curing. Spacers to protect the textile layer from sinking during the fabrication were
not used because the fresh mortar was dense. However, if the fresh mortar is not dense, spacers may
need to be used to hold the grid during the fabrication.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 2. Fabrication process of precast TRC panel: (a) 1st mortar layer and textile grid placement;
(b) 2nd mortar layer placement; (c) cured TRC panels.
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 4 of 17

2.3. Fabrication of Full-Scale Slab Specimens

The five RC specimens listed in Table 3 were fabricated for the purpose of strengthening the RC
slab with the precast TRC panel. The RC specimen is the control specimen. The SP series indicates the
RC slabs strengthened only with the TRC panel. The SSP series stands for the SP specimens in which
additional steel reinforcement was arranged assuming section loss due to steel corrosion. Note that the
RC slab was designed as an under reinforced slab with a tensile reinforcement ratio of 0.0062. This is
because the main objective of this study is to examine the TRC strengthening effect. It should be further
noted that the total thickness of the SP series and SSP series specimens is 20 mm greater than that of
the RC specimen (control) due to the TRC panel thickness. Therefore, the flexural capacities of the
SP series and SSP series specimens should be greater than that of the RC specimen regardless of the
strengthening with the TRC panel.

Table 3. Characteristic of full-scale slab specimens.

Total Thickness Cross-Sectional Area of Textile

Specimen ID No. of Additional Steel Bars Remarks
(mm) (mm2 /m)
RC 200 - - Control
SP-1 220 85.0 -
TRC panel + grout
SP-2 220 85.0 -
SSP-1 220 85.0 4 TRC panel + grout +
SSP-2 220 85.0 4 steel bars

The dimensions of the full-scale RC slabs are 1000 × 200 × 2000 mm3 (width × height × length).
As shown in Figure 3, five steel bars and three steel bars with a diameter of 15.9 mm (H16) were
arranged respectively at the bottom and top of the slabs, and stirrups with a diameter of 9.53 mm (H10)
were arranged for shear reinforcement. The mix composition of ready-mixed concrete used for the
fabrication of RC slabs is provided in Table 3. Figure 4a,b depict the completed specimens before and
after placing of concrete. The compressive strength measured on a cylinder made of concrete used in
the fabrication of the specimens was 33.5 MPa at the age of 30 days.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. RC slab: (a) cross-sectional view; (b) reinforcement details (units: mm).

Four of the completed RC slabs were strengthened with TRC panels. For the SP series specimens
(Figure 5a) it was assumed that the bottom face of the RC slab had deteriorated and they were
strengthened using only a TRC panel and grouting after having been chipped to the surface of the
tensile reinforcement. The SSP series specimens (Figure 5b) simulating the need for additional steel
reinforcement following assumed degradation of the bottom side and section loss due to steel corrosion
were reinforced by additional steel reinforcement. Additional steel reinforcement with a diameter of
9.53 mm (H10) was placed between the concrete substrate and the TRC panel (Figure 5b).
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 5 of 17

(a) (b)

Figure 4. Fabrication of full-size slab specimens: (a) steel reinforcement; (b) cured specimens.

(a) (b)

Figure 5. TRC panel strengthening plan: (a) SP series; (b) SSP series (units: mm).

Figure 6 illustrates the strengthening process using a TRC panel. Strengthening was carried out
for a 1600 mm section covering 800 mm on each side of the centerline of the slab. The RC slab was
fabricated by disposing its bottom side (tension zone) upward. Figure 6a shows the cured RC slab
in which the tensile zone is chipped to a depth of 20 to 25 mm. The anchor bolts are then installed
(Figure 6b) and the precast TRC panel is put in place (Figure 6c). In Figure 6d, grout filling is done via
putties prepared on both ends of the TRC panel for injecting the grout. The mix composition of the
grout is provided in Table 4. The compressive strengths of the mortar used for the fabrication of the
TRC panel and the grout used for the TRC panel strengthening are respectively 75.7 MPa at the age of
36 days and 63.7 MPa at the age of 30 days, as measured on cubic samples.

Figure 6. Strengthening process: (a) concrete surface chipping; (b) anchor bolts installation; (c) TRC
panel assembling; (d) putty placement and grouting.
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 6 of 17

Table 4. Mix composition of ready-mixed concrete (unit: kg/m3 ).

Cement Water Fly Ash GGBS Sand Coarse Aggregate Superplasticizer

263 167 56 56 828 934 2.63

Figure 7 depicts the fabrication process of the SP series and SSP series specimens. In Figure 7a,
chipping was done on the surface of the RC slab until exposure of the tensile reinforcement.
Assuming the TRC panel will be constructed on a concrete wall, the slab was set vertically after
the installation of the anchor bolts and the TRC panel was assembled with the chipped surface
(Figure 7b). Putties were then prepared for the grout filling of the interface between the panel and
the slab. Water was sprayed on the surfaces of the concrete slab and TRC panel and the surfaces
were maintained in a humid state for 24 h. A grout pumping pipe was connected to the base of the
specimens (Figure 7c) and grout filling proceeded from the bottom of the specimens (Figure 7d).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)
Figure 7. Fabrication of SP and SSP series specimens: (a) concrete surface chipping; (b) TRC panel
assembling; (c) grouting pumping; (d) grouting.

2.4. Test-Set up
The flexural performance of the specimen strengthened with the precast TRC panel and grout
material was evaluated by a three-point bending test, as shown in Figure 8. Two LVDTs (CASKOREA,
Seoul, Korea) were installed along the centerline at the bottom of the slab and loading was applied
using a UTM with a capacity of 2000 kN (Daekyung, Seoul, Korea) through displacement control at a
speed of 1 mm/min.
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 7 of 17

Loading head

RC

TRC panel

100 mm 900 mm LVDT

Figure 8. Test set-up for three-point loading.

3. Test Results and Discussion

3.1. Load-Displacement Behavior

Figure 9 plots the load-displacement curves measured in the bending test of the specimens.
The RC specimen (control) exhibits typical behavior of an RC flexural member. The load-displacement
curve is quasi-trilinear with a linear part until the initiation of tensile cracks in concrete as the first
stage, a load resisting part until the yield of steel reinforcement of unstrengthened cross section in
the second stage (see yielding point in Figure 9), and an increase of the displacement only after
yield of the steel reinforcement in the third stage. For both the SP and SSP series specimens,
the strain gauges were mounted on the top and bottom reinforcements (16 mm bars, Figure 5) only.
Hence, the yielding of reinforcement indicates the yielding of the bottom (tensile) reinforcement
(16 mm bar). However, it should be noted that the additional steel reinforcement (10 mm bar) might
yield first due to a higher depth relative to the neutral axis.

(a) (b)

Figure 9. Load-displacement curve of TRC panel reinforced specimens: (a) SP series; (b) SSP series.

Sets of two specimens were fabricated and tested for each SP and SSP series. Some difference
can be observed for the peak load but the behavior and response until the peak load are practically
identical. This similarity indicates that the tests were consistent with each other. In view of the
load-displacement behavior of the specimen strengthened with the TRC panel, there is some difference
in the responses, but the first and second linear behavioral stages between the initiation of concrete
cracks and the rebar yield can be distinguished, similarly to those observed in the control RC slab.
The difference occurs in the part from the third stage following the second stage after the rebar yield
to the peak load. In this part, the specimens of SP and SSP series exhibit a shorter post-yield ductile
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 8 of 17

section than the RC specimen and show a steep reduction of the load-carrying capacity due to sudden
failure (fourth stage). In particular, in Figure 9a, delamination between the TRC panel and the concrete
occurred in the SP series to lead to sudden failure. In the final fifth stage, the displacement increased
continuously without further resisting of the applied loading.
When the RC slab is to be designed for strengthening with the TRC panel, the occurrence of brittle
failure after the peak load should be considered carefully. Since the sudden failure happens after the
yield of the steel reinforcement of the slab, the structure may be assumed to maintain its load-carrying
capacity until the yield of the tensile reinforcement if conservative design is conducted.
In this study, the mortar for the TRC was reinforced with PVA short fibers to mitigate
shrinkage-induced crack formation. The PVA short fibers were very effective in preventing
shrinkage-induced cracks during the curing of the TRC panel. However, the PVA short fibers
did not have a significant influence on the cracking load of the TRC panel and concrete slab in the
full-scale flexural failure test.

3.2. Load-Carrying Capacity

Table 5 summarizes the bending test results of all sets of specimens. Compared to the RC specimen
(control), the load-carrying capacity of the SP series specimens strengthened with the TRC panel only
improved by 46% on average and that of the SSP series specimens strengthened with the TRC panel
and additional reinforcement improved by a maximum of 69%. Note that the cracking of concrete and
the TRC panel occurred simultaneously due to perfect bonding between the concrete substrate and the
TRC panel.

Table 5. Test results of failure test for TRC panel strengthened slab specimens.

Concrete Cracking Steel Yielding Failure

Specimen ID Load Gain
Displacement Displacement Displacement
Load (kN) Load (kN) Load (kN)
(mm) (mm) (mm)
RC 39.2 0.9 137.6 6.5 180.5 27.1 100%
SP-1 80.8 1.1 201.1 6.4 268.6 15.6 149%
SP-2 82.3 1.1 199.0 6.1 258.7 31.1 143%
SSP-1 92.6 1.2 252.8 7.1 276.1 9.0 153%
SSP-2 85.5 1.2 249.6 7.0 305.0 15.8 169%

Table 6 provides the peak load ratio with respect to the tensile reinforcement ratio for the
specimens. The total nominal area of the tensile reinforcement used in the fabrication of the RC slab
was 992.8 mm2 , which gives a tensile reinforcement ratio of 0.0062. The reinforcement ratio of the grid
is 0.0004 (=0.085/210), corresponding to a 6.5% tensile reinforcement ratio of the RC slab. Considering
that the elastic modulus of the steel reinforcement is 200 GPa, the effective reinforcement ratio is around
7.1% when considering the elastic modulus ratio (1.1 = 220 GPa/200 GPa). In other words, the flexural
performance developed up to 146% on average when the tensile reinforcement ratio was increased to
7%. This result can be credited to the high tensile strength of the carbon grid compared to the yield
strength of the steel reinforcement.

Table 6. Average load gain relative to control specimen.

Effective Reinforcement Ratio (%)

Specimen ID Average Load Gain (B) B/A
Steel Textile Total Ratio (A *)
RC 0.0062 - 0.0062 1.00 1.00 1.00
SP series 0.0062 0.0004 0.0066 1.06 1.46 1.38
SSP series 0.0076 0.0004 0.008 1.29 1.61 1.25
* ratio to steel reinforcement of RC specimen.

Four strips of rebar with a diameter of 9.53 mm were additionally arranged in the SSP series.
This represents an additional amount (0.0014 = 285.3 mm2 /1000 × 200 mm2 ) corresponding to a 22.5%
tensile reinforcement ratio of the RC slab to be strengthened and means that the reinforcement ratio of
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 9 of 17

the SSP specimens increased by 30% on the whole. In Table 6, the improved resistance of the SSP series
reaches 161% on average compared to the control RC slab. If the tensile performance of the grout in
the tensile zone is ignored, the best performance was achieved by the installation of the textile grid
and steel reinforcement. However, in terms of efficiency, it appears that only strengthening with the
textile grid can be recommended. Moreover, the relation between the tensile reinforcement ratio and
the load-carrying capacity is not linear.
In view of the behavior after the initiation of cracks and until the yield of tensile reinforcement,
the slope (=load/deflection) of the slab strengthened with the TRC panel and that of the slab strengthened
with both the TRC panel and additional reinforcement arrangement increased on average by respectively
32% and 58% compared to the unstrengthened RC slab. This indicates that greater load-carrying
capacity can be developed by the slab strengthened with the TRC panel under deflection identical
to that of the RC slab before strengthening. On the contrary, the RC slab strengthened with the TRC
panel experiences smaller deflection than the RC slab before strengthening under application of the
same load.

3.3. Failure Mode

Figure 10 presents the crack patterns of the specimens after completion of the test. The tested
specimens were placed in an inverted position to inspect the crack patterns and failure mechanism on
the bottom side of the specimens. The RC specimen shows a typical flexural failure mode (Figure 10a).
The SP series strengthened with the TRC panel through grout filling exhibited flexural failure and bond
failure by delamination of the panel (Figure 10b,c). The SSP series with additional steel reinforcement
experienced composite failure mode with the occurrence of failure by the propagation of inclined
tensile cracks from the ends of the panel toward the loading point after the initiation of flexural cracking
(Figure 10d,e).

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)

Figure 10. Cracked patterns on the bottom side of specimens after failure (photo): (a) RC; (b) SP-1;
(c) SP-2; (d) SSP-1; (e) SSP-2.

The TRC system and the slab must have sufficient bond strength until failure of the slab to
develop a sufficient strengthening effect. Accordingly, careful attention should be paid to the bond
performance when composing two members. The specimen strengthened with the TRC panel failed
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 10 of 17

through delamination of the panel, but this delamination occurred after the peak load (Figure 9a) and
was caused by the excessive curvature experienced by the specimen at failure. Consequently, the TRC
panel appears to have achieved sufficient strengthening performance until delamination. It should be
further noted that the delamination of the TRC panel from the concrete slab did not occur for the SSP
series specimens because the curvature of the SSP series specimens was much smaller than those of the
SP series specimens due to the higher effective reinforcement ratio.
In general, the cracking of the RC flexural member changes from cracking induced by pure
bending to cracking caused by the combined action of flexure and shear, as the tensile reinforcement
ratio is increased [21]. As explained above, the effective tensile reinforcement ratio of the SP series and
SSP series was increased respectively by 7% and 30% compared to the RC slab. Therefore, the failure
induced by the inclined tensile cracks in the SSP series can be attributed to the significantly larger
reinforcement ratio provided by both TRC and additional reinforcement. When the RC flexural member
features a high reinforcement ratio, failure is likely to occur suddenly due to the inclined tensile cracks.
Accordingly, the effective reinforcement ratio and the failure mode must be checked when design is
conducted for strengthening with TRC.

3.4. Effect of Strengthening Methods

The TRC system is generally constructed by finishing or shotcreting. Recently, KICT [17] carried
out a study on the flexural performance of RC slabs strengthened with a cast-in-place TRC system
by mortar shotcreting using an RC slab with the same dimensions as that of the present study and
a TRC system with the same thickness as that of the TRC panel of this study. The same carbon
fibertex (3200 tex) was used for the textile grid but the grid spacing was 25 mm, which represents a
cross-sectional area that is approximately 17% smaller compared to the textile grid used in this study.
Polystyrene was used as resin and the tensile strength and elastic modulus were respectively 1700 MPa
and 200 GPa. The mix design of mortar used in the TRC system and the strengthening thickness of
20 mm are identical.
Figure 11 compares the load–displacement curves of the specimen strengthened with the TRC
panel and the SN specimen strengthened by a cast-in-place TRC system of KICT [17]. The SP series and
the SN specimen exhibited quasi-similar load resisting performance where the load-carrying capacity
develops until the peak load and shows a steep loss after failure to reach a level comparable to that of
the yield load of the matrix. It can be clearly seen from Figure 11 that the failure of the SN specimen
occurred with a low value of displacement relative to that of the SP series specimens because the tensile
strength of the textile used for the SN specimen was approximately 51% of that used for the SP series
specimens. However, in view of the post-failure strength, the strengthening with the cast-in-place TRC
system exhibits a slightly higher value of 200 kN than that (150 kN) developed by strengthening with
TRC panels. Considering that the yield load of the RC slab to be strengthened was around 140 kN
(Table 5), the specimen strengthened with a TRC panel faithfully fulfilled its strengthening performance
after the final failure. The specimen with the cast-in-place TRC system continued to resist the external
force to some extent by transferring it to the remaining fibers even when the specimen partially lost its
strengthening performance due to the rupture of a portion of the fibers of the carbon grid (Figure 12).
Despite that post-failure is meaningless in terms of the resistance of the structure, this transfer of the
external force can be credited to the relatively uniform bonding between the TRC and the slab in the
specimen with the cast-in-place TRC system.
If the failure of the RC slab strengthened with the TRC panel is not flexural tensile failure of
concrete nor concrete crushing on the compression zone, this failure can be attributed to the following
four causes. The first cause is the rupture of the textile when the TRC system and the slab are perfectly
composed. The second cause is the bond failure between the TRC panel and the slab. The third cause is
the shear (inclined tension) of the slab. The final cause is the failure caused by a slip between the carbon
grid and the matrix. The first and second causes generally generate brittle failure due to the adopted
materials and the combination of two different members. This situation can be verified in Figure 11
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 11 of 17

through the sudden loss of load-carrying capacity after the peak load in the load-displacement curve
of the SN specimen in which some fibers of the carbon grid experienced rupture.

Figure 11. Load-displacement curve for SN and SP series specimens.

Figure 12. Rupture of textile (SN specimen).

Figure 13 shows the crack patterns viewed from the side of the specimens. The failure induced
by the inclined tensile cracks tended to be brittle in some cases. For the SP series in Figure 13a,b,
inclined tensile cracks were not visibly observed until failure. In addition, for the SSP series in
Figure 13c,d, inclined tensile cracks were observed. For SSP-1 specimens, these cracks were not visible
until 250 kN but developed immediately when reaching the peak load of 276 kN. In the case of the
SSP-2 specimens, inclined tensile cracks were observed at around 250 kN and developed suddenly
when the peak load of 305 kN was reached. The occurrence of inclined tensile cracks in the SSP series
was caused by the change of the failure mode from flexure to flexure-shear due to the additional
arrangement of reinforcement. Even though the slope of the load-displacement curve is relatively
smaller than that of the SN specimen (Figure 9), the failure of the RC slab due to the inclined tensile
cracks approximately shows the pattern of brittle failure.
The load-displacement curve of the RC slab strengthened only with the TRC panel shows a
slightly different shape. In Figures 9 and 11, the displacement measured from the yield load to the
peak load appears to be longer than those of the SN and SSP series. This shape appears when the
load-carrying capacity continuously decreases as the applied load increases. If inclined tensile cracks
do not continuously develop according to the load increase, this situation can be attributed to the
occurrence of slip between the matrix and carbon fiber of TRC or to the successive rupture of the carbon
fibers forming the textile. In other words, the resistance degrades due to the slip or rupture of carbon
fiber and this degradation process repeats whenever the load is increased. This explains the continuous
increase of the displacement without any increase in the load-carrying capacity. Since carbon fiber
is a brittle material with high tensile performance, the load–displacement curve is likely to exhibit a
stepwise shape if the strands undergo rupture successively. Accordingly, the experimental results of this
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 12 of 17

study can be credited to the occurrence of slip between the matrix and the carbon grid constituting TRC.
Note that such results are not caused by the difference in the strengthening method; rather, they are
attributable to the material properties of the mortar and textile grid.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Figure 13. Cracked patterns on the bottom side of specimens after failure (sketch): (a) SP-1; (b) SP-2;
(c) SSP-1; (d) SSP-2.

3.5. Analytical Solutions

The theoretical analysis is based upon the following general assumptions adopted in the analysis
of RC structural sections [22] together with additional assumptions considering the TRC system: (1) the
strain distribution in the section is linear. In other words, a plane section before flexure remains plane
after flexure and is perpendicular to the neutral axis; (2) concrete and steel reinforcement as well as the
structure being strengthened and the TRC system are perfectly composed and behave monolithically;
(3) the resistance of the TRC matrix to cracking is ignored; (4) steel reinforcement behaves bi-linearly
and textile behaves linearly; and (5) the effective tensile strain level in the carbon grid is set to 0.012,
as recommended by ACI [23]. The theoretical analysis presented in this paper considered flexural
failure only. –
The ultimate compressive strain of concrete in the compression zone is 0.003 and the following
stress-strain behavior is considered for concrete [24]:
( ! )
′ 2εc εc 2
fc = fc − (1)
εc0 εc0
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 13 of 17

where fc , εc = compressive stress and strain levels in concrete; fc′ , εc0 = maximum stress in flexure of
concrete and strain corresponding to the maximum stress of concrete (1.7 fc′ /Ec ); and εcu , Ec = ultimate
compressive strain and elastic modulus of concrete.
The internal force of concrete when establishing the equilibrium equation for the internal forces in
the loaded section can be obtained by Equations (2) and (3).

Ts + T f = Cc (2)

Ts = As fs (3a)

T f = NA f bE f ε f (3b)

Cc = α1 β1 fc′ cb (3c)

where Ts = tensile force provided by steel; T f = tensile force provided by TRC; Cc = compressive
force provided by concrete; c = distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of steel
reinforcement; and b = width of the cross section. As = cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel
reinforcement; A f = area of fabric reinforcement by unit width; fs = steel tensile strength; N = number
of layers of mesh reinforcement; E f and ε f = modulus of elasticity and tensile strain of TRC, respectively.
The parameters α1 and β1 for computing the equivalent block stress can be obtained as follows [24].

3εc0 εc − ε2c
α1 = (4a)
3β1 ε2c0

4εc0 − εc
β1 ( c ) = (4b)
6εc0 − 2εc
Ultimate moment and load can be computed according to Equations (5)–(7) respectively as

Mu = Ms + M f (5)

β1 (cu )cu
!
Ms = As f y d − (6a)
2
β1 (cu )cu
!
M f = NA f bE f ε f d f − (6b)
2
2Mu
Pu = (7)
a
where Ms and M f = by member, steel reinforcement, and TRC, respectively; d and d f = distance from
extreme compression fiber to centroid of tension steel and TRC, respectively; f y = steel tensile yield
strength; cu , Mu , and Pu = distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, flexural strength,
and load at ultimate state, respectively; a = distance between load and support points.
The theoretical peak load of the specimens was computed (refer to [5] for the calculation process),
and Table 7 compares the analytical and experimental results. The corresponding deflection was
calculated from the curvature of the changing section according to the load increase. In Table 7,
it appears that the theoretical values obtained using the constitutive laws of each material predict with
very good accuracy the experimental results for the RC slab. The peak load is predicted with good
accuracy for SP series but there is some discrepancy in the displacement between the predicted and
experimental values. The theoretical calculation for the SN specimens in which the fiber experienced
rupture provided satisfactory prediction of the peak load and displacement. Therefore, it appears that
the slip of the textile inside the TRC system occurred as explained for the SP-2 specimen. For the SSP
series, the theoretically calculated values are significantly larger than the experimental values. This last
observation can be attributed to the fact that TRC could not sufficiently develop the required material
performance due to the failure of the RC slab.
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 14 of 17

Table 7. Comparison of test data with analytical solutions.

RC ID
Specimen 27.1 180.5
Experiment
27.6 180.6
Analysis
102% 100%
Analysis/Experiment
Displacement (mm) Peak Load (kN) Displacement (mm) Peak Load (kN) Displacement Load
SN 15.7 270.1 17.9 273.2 114% 101%
RC 27.1 180.5 27.6 180.6 102% 100%
SP-1SN 15.615.7 268.6270.1 17.9 17.9 273.2 273.2 115%114% 102%
101%
SP-2
SP-1 31.115.6 258.7268.6 17.9 17.9 273.2 273.2 58%115% 106%
102%
SP-2 31.1 258.7 17.9 273.2 58% 106%
SSP-1
SSP-1 9.09.0 276.1276.1 18.3 18.3 378.3 378.3 202%202% 137%
137%
SSP-2
SSP-2 15.815.8 305.0305.0 18.3 18.3 378.3 378.3 116%116% 124%
124%

4. Field Application
Trial construction was conducted on a deteriorated RC structure to evaluate the constructability
of the flexural strengthening of concrete structures using the precast TRC panel. Figure 14 illustrates
the dimensions as well as the strengthening plan for an RC box culvert. As shown in Figure 15a,
the deteriorated section at the bottom of the horizontal member of the structure was removed by
chipping. Four 100 mm-long chemical anchor bolts (diameter = 6 mm) were installed to fix the TRC
panel. A steel form was implemented to encircle the TRC panel and the form was equipped with
numerous air vents and inlets to inject the grout (Figure 15b). The grout was then injected under low
pressure through the air vents until outflowing. Figure 15c shows the final strengthened section after
curing of the grout and removal of the form.

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 14. Strengthening plan for a deteriorated RC box culvert: (a) dimensions of RC box; (b) dimensions
of precast TRC panel; (c) strengthening plan.
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 15 of 17

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure 15. Field application of TRC panel strengthening: (a) installation of TRC panel; (b) grout pumping;
(c) finished section.

This trial applied the strengthening with a TRC panel on a very small section but verified that
accelerated construction could be achieved with outstanding construction quality. In particular, the TRC
panel system offers the advantage of being applicable in sites with a very narrow working space or
with difficult accessibility.

5. Conclusions
This study examined experimentally the load-carrying capacity of RC slabs strengthened with a
precast carbon TRC panel. The difference in the performance with a strengthening method using a TRC
system was analyzed through a field application and the use of a precast TRC panel. The following
conclusions can be drawn.

•• When the
When theRCRCslab
slabisis strengthened
strengthened by by
thethe
TRCTRC system,
system, the strengthened
the strengthened RC slabRCexperienced
slab experienced
brittle
brittle failure
failure causedcaused by inclined
by inclined tensiletensile
cracking,cracking, rupture
rupture of textile,
of textile, or bondor bond failure
failure of theofpanel
the panel
after
after having
having developed
developed its yield
its yield strength.
strength. Accordingly,
Accordingly, a conservative
a conservative designdesign
maymay consider
consider thatthat
the
the load-carrying
load-carrying capacitycapacity of the structure
of the structure is maintained
is maintained untilof the
until the yield yield reinforcement.
the tensile of the tensile
• reinforcement.
When strengthening the RC slab applying TRC, the load-carrying capacity was increased on
• When strengthening
average by 46% in the the RCusing
case slab applying TRC, the
only the panel andload-carrying
by 61% in thecapacity
case usingwasthe increased
panel and on
average by reinforcement.
additional 46% in the case The using only the
stiffness panel
was alsoand by 61% in
improved. ThetheTRC
casepanel
using could
the panel and
develop
additionalbond
sufficient reinforcement.
performanceThe stiffness
to secure was alsobehavior
monolithic improved.withThe TRCslab
the RC panel
untilcould develop
the peak load.
sufficient bondthe
Consequently, performance
strengtheningto secure monolithic
performance behavior
of the with the
TRC system wasRCverified
slab until
to the peak load.
be effective in
Consequently,
terms the strengthening
of the resistance to externalperformance
force. of the TRC system was verified to be effective in
• termsregard
With of the resistance to external of
to the improvement force.
the load-carrying capacity according to the increase of the
• With regard toratio,
reinforcement the improvement of theby
only strengthening load-carrying
applying TRC capacity according
appeared to the increase
to be preferable to that of the
using
reinforcement ratio, only strengthening by applying TRC appeared to be preferable
both TRC and additional steel reinforcement. There was no linear relationship between the tensile to that using
both TRC andratio
reinforcement additional
and thesteel reinforcement.
load-carrying There was no linear relationship between the
capacity.
• tensile reinforcement
Higher load-carryingratio and the
capacity andload-carrying
stiffness can capacity.
be expected when strengthening the RC slab
• Higher load-carrying capacity and
by applying TRC. However, the reinforcement stiffness can be expected
ratio shouldwhen strengthening
be checked the RCbecause
in the design slab by
applying TRC. However, the reinforcement ratio should be checked in the design because the
increase of the tensile reinforcement ratio modified the failure mode from flexural failure to
Materials 2020, 13, 3856 16 of 17

the increase of the tensile reinforcement ratio modified the failure mode from flexural failure
to composite failure. In particular, careful attention should be paid in the case of a higher
reinforcement ratio when failure due to inclined tensile cracks is induced because of the likeliness
of brittle failure.
• No attempt has been made to evaluate the long-term performance of the TRC system in this
study. However, degradation of the TRC system in certain environments such as under fatigue
loading and high temperature could occur. Therefore, evaluating the long-term performance of
the precast TRC panel strengthening system under realistic environmental conditions should be
another major task of future study.

Author Contributions: Analytical calculations, Y.-J.Y.; conceptualization, H.-Y.K.; structural tests, G.-S.R.; material
mix design, K.-T.K.; material tests, G.-H.A.; structural tests, S.-H.K.; writing, Y.-J.Y., H.-Y.K., G.-S.R. All authors
have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the Korea Institute of Civil Engineering and Building Technology
(project no. 2020-60).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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