2022

October
PH10151: PHYSICS LAB MANUAL
PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL
PH10151-Physics Laboratory
FOR USE BY

B.Tech. (All Branches) Students

(From 2022-23 onwards)

OF
SHRI G. S. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE,
INDORE
PREPARED BY

Dr. J. T. Andrews & Dr. V. Kaushik

DEPARTMENT OF
APPLIED PHYSICS & OPTOELECTRONICS

AUGUST - 2022
 Preface

This Laboratory Manual provides the theory of the experiments, the circuit diagram, methodology,
observation table etc. for the experiments to be performed in the first and second semester of B.Tech.
Programme of Shri Govindram Seksaria Institute of Technology & Science, Indore.
This manual gives necessary details to perform the experiments. The experiments included are meant
to offer basic understanding of Physics. Most of the experiments are designed to go hand – to –
hand with the theoretical courses on Physics being taught during the first and second semesters.
Some additional experiments away from the theory courses are added to enhance the scope of
learning beyond the subjects covered in the theory. The necessary theory for this type of experiments
is described in the manual in self-explanatory manner. However, all efforts are made to clarify any
doubt by the teachers engaging these laboratory classes.
We thankfully acknowledge the support, contributions and suggestions received from present and
past Faculty members and Research Scholars of Department of Applied Physics. Special thanks to
Ms. N. Oswal, Dr. G. G. Soni, Dr. P. Ojha, L. Jain, A. Malviya and D. Pal, for content evaluation
of this manual.

Dr. J . T. Andrews Dr. V. Kaushik

Professor & Head, Physics Lab-in-charge,
Department of Applied Physics & Optoelectronics,
Shri G S Institute of Technology & Science, Indore.

August 2022

ii
 iii

Following symbols are used in the margin for enhanced understanding.

The symbol and meaning are:
Some interesting information may be useful to you.

Extra care needed, since these experiments work at high voltage (≈ 20V - 20kV).

Read the corresponding instruction(s) carefully.

These experiments are performed with lasers. Save your eye from direct viewing.

A Nobel Prize winning theory or experiment is associated with the experiment.

You may need to use desktop computers for these experiments. Do not work with
unnecessary work with it. USE IT ONLY FOR THE PURPOSE FOR WHICH
IT IS DEDICATED.

These are some additional questions may be asked during viva-voce as well as
in end exam. CAUTION: But these are some sample questions only. Read and
perform more for more questions and understanding.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Contents

General Instructions 1

1 To understand Error and Analysis in Physics Laboratory measurements. 5

2 To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s rings method. 8

3 To study the Variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying
current and to calculate the radius of the coil. 14

4 To measure the numerical aperture of given optical fiber 16

5 To measure Planck’s constant using light emitting diodes (LED) and to obtain VI
characteristics of junction diodes. 20

6 Understanding Laser using PhET module 24

7 To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by a plane

transmission grating using normal incidence. 27

8 To study the relationship between the length, tension and mass of a string and the
frequencies of standing waves on a string using Melde’s method. 33

9 To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and to verify the laws of refraction
using Raytrace. 37

10 To measure the charge to mass ratio of electron using Thomson method and to find
the sign charge of electron. 41

11 To understand and confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle using single slit diffrac-
tion. 45

A Color Tables 49

B Some useful data and information 50

C Brief History of Indian Nobel Laureates 52

section

1
 General Instructions
1. Objectives of Physics Labo-
Conduct Academic discussions is allowed while
ratory
loud talking and disruptive behavior are prohib-
ited.
The laboratory component of your physics course
has many objectives. Some important ones are:
Partners Generally, you will work with one or
two partners. Rotate the experimental tasks so
Experience with scientific apparatus: This that each partner becomes familiar with all as-
ranges from being able to read instrument scales, pects of the experiments, e.g., do not have one
to know safety hazards, to effectively use specific partner take all the data while the other does all
pieces of equipment, to use computer for few vir- the recording or analysis.
tual experiments.

Data Sheets Each partner must have his or

Data analysis: How do you assess whether her own data sheets. The data sheets may come
theory and experiment are in agreement? You from the writeup, a ray diagram printout, or you
will become familiar with the formal procedures may have to write up your own data sheets. All
associated with data analysis such as propaga- necessary data should be on these data sheets.
tion of errors and linear regression analysis. If All data (single item and tabulated) should be
required, you may use a spreadsheet on the lab’s clearly labeled with a description of the number
personal computers for data analysis. and its units, and when appropriate, its uncer-
tainty. If you use the ray diagram printout, put
Communication skills: To learn how to present date at the top and put data labels and units
your results in a report. Guidelines are given be- at the top of each column - you can do this by
low. hand.
The data sheets should be initialed by the
Physical concepts: The lab should reinforce instructor at the end of the period. This
the physics from your lecture courses. is not a guarantee that the performance in
the lab was adequate, though the instructor
should check that the data appears reason-
2. Ground Rules able. Graphs made in the lab during the
experiment make it much easier to detect
errors or omissions. Guard the data sheet –
Attendance You must attend each laboratory
it is the only proof that you performed the
period and do the assigned experiment. In gen-
experiment.
eral, you will not be permitted to do your exper-
iments in another day / class.

Repeating All or Part of the Experiment

Preparation Before each laboratory class you If the instructor finds a report unacceptable, you
are expected to read the experimental write-up may not get a chance for repeating the experi-
and any related sections of the text so that you ment, hence perform the experiment carefully.
are familiar with the theory and the experimental
procedure. As it is often impossible to have the
laboratory come after the relevant material has Checking Out If you finish early, begin prepar-
been discussed in lecture, you will often have to ing the laboratory report. In some cases, you may
read ahead in your textbook. If the write-up has be able to finish it in class. Clean up your area,
prelab questions, those must be understood be- leaving it as you found it, unless specified other-
fore coming to the laboratory for performing the wise. Groups coming after you should expect to
experiments. find all the equipment in working order. If some-
thing broke during your experiment, report it to
the instructor so a replacement can be made.

1
Contents 2 Contents

Laboratory Exam Two viva-voce examina- The left hand side pages (unruled pages)
tions will be held. First viva-voce will be held may contain diagram, tables, other observations
after you complete the third experiment. While and calculations.
the second viva-voce will be on your sixth ex-
Usage of rough notebook and pencil for tak-
periment. However, it will be announced in the
ing data is strictly prohibited in Physics labo-
Notice-Board of Physics Laboratory. The total
ratory. If a data taken is found to be wrong,
marks of 50 is divided as follows: Viva 1 - 5,
just make a cross mark on the data and pro-
Viva 2 - 5, Attendance - 5, Practical Copy - 5,
ceed further. If a set of data is found wrong,
End Exam - 30.
make a new table and record data again.

3. Laboratory Guidelines Calculations , including Error analysis: When-

ever possible calculations should be done in the
You should take care that the data you obtain lab. Include in your calculations the units as-
is the best possible. Make graphs of the data sociated with any variable and, where appropri-
while you are in the lab and compare them with ate, cancel units or change them to derived units
other groups’. Show them to the instructor. Do (e.g., change kg·m/s2 to N). Describe and show
all the calculations in the lab, including the error all work.
analysis. Before you leave the lab, you should
know whether the theory and experiment are in
Graphs, when appropriate, should include a
agreement.
title, and axis labels with units. These should
also be done in the lab, if possible. If straight
line fitting is performed on the data, by hand
4. The Report
remember to record the slope and intercept and
their uncertainties. The graph sheets must be
Your lab write-ups are to be turned in at the pasted firmly on the note book. Just putting the
beginning of the following lab session. It should graph sheets in between the pages is not allowed.
contain the following information:

Conclusions: This should include a brief dis-

The right hand side pages of the notebook cussion of the main findings. For example: "We
may contain the following: found that there is a linear relationship between
the measured variable . . . and . . . This can be
• Name of the experiment, seen from the graph and is predicted by the the-
ory." Also state whether your results agree with
• The date on which the experiment is per-
expectations to within the uncertainties of the
formed and the serial number of the exper-
measurements: For example: "The slope of the
iment
graph of . . . versus . . . as determined by (linear
• Aim(s) of the experiment regression, hand fitting) was . . . ±. . . (units).
This value, together with Eqn. . . . , and the
• Apparatus required, measured quantities . . . =. . . ±. . . (units), and
• brief theory of the experiment . . . =. . . ±. . . (units), allowed for a determina-
tion of . . . =. . . ±. . . (units). This is within . . .
• Procedures for performing the experiment standard deviations of the accepted value of . . .
and (units)." Discuss the main sources of error. "The
main sources of uncertainty in the determination
• Results of . . . are . . . ."

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Contents 3 Contents

Students are advised to strictly follow the safety regulations necessary for performing the
experiments.

5. List of Experiments & Laboratory Layout

Please, note that you have to perform the experiment in the following order only. Students
may not be allowed to perform the experiment if he/she is not adhering to this order.

Common to All: Error analysis in Physics Laboratory. Common to all students. To be performed
on the first day of the laboratory course.

1. To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s rings method.

2. To study the Variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and
to calculate the radius of the coil.

3. To measure the numerical aperture of given optical fiber.

4. To measure Planck’s constant using light emitting diodes (LED) of various colors and to
understand work function.

5. To understand upper level physics using software “ Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Soft-
ware” with Quantum Mechcanics and to study working of laser using PhET Module.

6. To study the relationship between the length, tension and mass of a string and the frequencies
of standing waves on a string using Melde’s method.

7. To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and to verify the laws of refraction using Raytrace.

8. To understand and confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle using single slit diffraction.

9. To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by a plane transmis-
sion grating using normal incidence.

10. To measure the charge to mass ratio of electron using Thomson method and to find the sign
charge of electron.

11. To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s rings method.

12. To study the Variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil carrying current and
to calculate the radius of the coil.

13. To measure the numerical aperture of given optical fiber.

14. To measure Planck’s constant using light emitting diodes (LED) of various colors and to
understand work function.

15. To understand upper level physics using software “ Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Soft-
ware” with Quantum Mechcanics and to study working of laser using PhET Module.

16. To study the relationship between the length, tension and mass of a string and the frequencies
of standing waves on a string using Melde’s method.

17. To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and to verify the laws of refraction using Raytrace.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Contents 4 Contents

18. To understand and confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle using single slit diffraction.

19. To determine the wavelength of prominent spectral lines of mercury light by a plane transmis-
sion grating using normal incidence.

20. To measure the charge to mass ratio of electron using Thomson method and to find the sign
charge of electron.

Entrance

10 4 6

16
Lab Technician
9
8

4
2 14
18
3 13
5
Dark Room 7
12
15
1 Teacher
9
19 17
11 2 20 Black Board

Figure 1: Layout of location of different experiments in Physics Laboratory. Check the list of
experiments given in the above list to find locations.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 1 Error Analysis in Physics Laboratory

All students will be doing this experiment simul- 1.2 Estimating the Uncertainty
taneous on the first day of your Physics Labora-
in a Single Measurement
tory class. In case, if you join late or miss this ex-
periment due to unforeseen reasons, you should
perform this experiment during extra hours. 1.2.1 Normal analog scale

(e.g. meter stick) Estimate the final digit by in-

1.1 Introduction to Uncertainty terpolating between the smallest scale divisions,
and make the uncertainty ±1 or ±2 in that last
In introductory lab work, such as in Physics labs, digit (use your judgment in deciding).
you usually know in advance what the result is
supposed to be. You can compare your actual 1.2.2 Analog scale with vernier
result with the anticipated result, and calculate
an actual error value. In real-world laboratory (e.g. vernier caliper or micrometer) Use the vernier
work, on the other hand, you usually don’t know scale to get the last digit, and make the uncer-
in advance what the result is supposed to be. tainty ±0.5 of that last digit.
If you did, you probably wouldn’t be doing the
experiment in the first place! When you state
your final result, it’s important to state also, how 1.2.3 Digital scale
much you think you can trust that result, in the
form of a numerical uncertainty (or error in (e.g. digital multimeter) If the reading is steady,
measurement). For example, you might state make the uncertainty ±0.5 of the last digit; oth-
the volume of an object as erwise take several instantaneous readings, aver-
age them, and find the standard deviation of the
mean as described below.
V = 43.25 ± 0.13cm3 (1.1)

When we state the uncertainty in this form, with- 1.3 Estimating the Uncertainty
out further elaboration, it generally means that
we think that the true value has about a 68% in an Averaged Measure-
chance of being within that range. A more pre- ment
cise statement would include the confidence level
of the uncertainty range, which might be 68% or If you can make several measurements x1 , x2 , . . .
95% or even 99%. x N , calculate the mean, x̄, and use that as “the”
Usually, in an experiment we measure some num- measurement. Then calculate the standard devi-
ber of quantities directly, and combine them math- ation of the mean:
ematically to get a final result. Therefore, esti- √
mating the final uncertainty usually involves two (x1 − x̄)2 + (x2 − x̄)2 + . . . + (xN − x̄)2
σm =
steps. First, we must estimate the uncertain- N
ties in the individual quantities that we measure (1.2)
directly. Second, we must combine those uncer- and use this as the uncertainty, ∆x. If your cal-
tainties to get the overall uncertainty, in a way culator has a√standard deviation function, divide
that corresponds to the way that we combine in- its result by N to get the standard deviation of
dividual measurements to get the final result. the mean.

5
Expt. 16. Error Analysis 6 1.4. Error in results

1.4 Combining Uncertainties in cannot do this if the same variable appears more
than once in the equation or calculation, or if you
Calculated Results
have situations not covered by the rules given
above, such as trig functions. In such cases you
In the following equations, ∆x means the abso- must use the general procedure given below.
lute uncertainty in x, which is the number you get
from one of the methods above; it has units just The following table gives an idea about the rela-
like the measurement itself has. ∆x % means the tion between error and actual equation:
percent (or fractional) uncertainty in x, which
is the uncertainty expressed as a percentage or Table 1.1: Some examples
fraction of the measurement; it has no units.
S. Relation bet- Relation between
No. ween Z & (A, B) ∆Z & (∆A, ∆B)
1.4.1 Addition and Subtraction
1 Z=A+B (∆Z)2 = (∆A)2 + (∆B)2
If z = x + y or z = x– y, 2 Z=A-B (∆Z)2 = (∆A)2 + (∆B)2
( ∆Z )2 ( ∆A )2 ( ∆B )2
√ 2 Z = AB = A + B
∆z = ∆x2 + ∆y 2 (1.3) ( ∆Z
Z
)2 ( ∆A )2 ( ∆B )2
3 Z = A/B Z = A + B
∆Z ∆A
If you’re adding and subtracting more variables, 4 Z = An Z =n A
simply add more terms 5 Z = ln A ∆Z = ∆A A
∆Z
inside the square root. 6 Z = eA Z = ∆A

1.4.2 Multiplication and Division

If z= xy or z = x/y, 1.5 General Procedure

√( ) ( )
∆z ∆x 2 ∆y 2 If z = f (x,y), first calculate the differences caused
= + (1.4) by the uncertainty in each variable separately:
z x y
(∆z)x = f ((x + ∆x), y) − f (x, y)
or (same thing in different notation). (1.7)
(∆z)y = f (x, (y + ∆y)) − f (x, y)
√
∆z% = (∆x%)2 + (∆y%)2 (1.5) Then combine the differences to get the total
uncertainty:
If you’re multiplying and dividing more variables, √
simply add more terms inside the square root. (∆z) = (∆z)2x + (∆z)2y (1.8)

If there are more variables, extend these equa-

1.4.3 Powers, Including Roots
tions appropriately by adding more terms. If a
variable occurs more than once in the formula
If z = xn , ( )
∆z ∆x for f (x,y), change all occurrences simultaneously
=n (1.6) when calculating the difference for that variable.
z x
To illustrate the procedure for calculation the er-
ror in an experiment, we will work out the av-
1.4.4 More Complicated Calculations
erage (mean) value xand the standard deviation
of the mean, σ̄ and the standard deviation of an
Sometimes you can combine the three rules given
individual data point, σ, using the position mea-
above, doing the calculation one step at a time,
surements in the accompanying Table (1.2).
combining uncertainties as you go along, and
switching back and forth between absolute and From the Table (1.2) we can make the following
percent uncertainties as necessary. However, you calculations:

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 16. Error Analysis 7 1.6. Suggested Experiments:

the fractional error is small. Note that increas-

Table 1.2: Position Measurements.
ing the number of individual measurements on
xi (m) xi − x̄i (m) (xi − x̄i )2 (m2 )
the uncertainty of the average reduces the statis-
15.68 0.15 0.0225
tical uncertainty (random errors); this improves
15.42 0.11 0.0121 the “precision”. On the other hand, more mea-
15.03 0.50 0.2500 surements do not diminish systematic error in the
15.66 0.13 0.0169 mean because these are always in the same direc-
15.17 0.36 0.1296 tion; the “accuracy” of the experiment is limited
15.89 0.36 0.1296 by systematic errors.
15.35 0.18 0.0324
15.81 0.28 0.0784
15.62 0.09 0.0081
1.6 Suggested Experiments:
15.39 0.14 0.0196
1. Measure the diameter of a wire using a screw
15.21 0.32 0.1024
gauge at 10 different places on the wire. Cal-
15.78 0.25 0.0625
culate the standard deviation in your measure-
15.46 0.07 0.0049 ments.
15.12 0.41 0.1681
15.93 0.40 0.1600 2. Measure the thickness of a tabletop at using a
15.23 0.30 0.0900 scale in cm. Calculate the error in your measure-
men ts.
15.62 0.09 0.0081
15.88 0.35 0.1225 3. Measure the period of oscillations of a pendulum
15.95 0.42 0.1764 using your wrist watch and record your data ten
15.37 0.16 0.0256 times. Estimate the standard deviation and error
15.51 0.02 0.0004 in your measurements.

4. Ask your partner to drop a solid object at a same

height for 10 times. Measure the time of flight
∑N ∑N
2 with your wrist watch. The same can be repeated
N = 21; xi = 326.08m, (xi − x̄i ) = 1.61998m2 .
i=1 i=1 by your other partners also. Compare the stan-
and then evaluate the following quantities: dard deviation of each of your measurements.
∑N
xi 326.08
x̄ = i=1 = = 15.53m (1.9)
N 21
√∑ √
N
i=1 (xi − x̄)2 1.6201
σ̄ = = = 0.062m
N (N − 1) 20 · 21
√∑ (1.10)
N √
i=1 (xi − x̄)
2
1.6201
σ= = = 0.063m
N −1 20
(1.11)
The error or spread in individual measurements
is σ = 0.28 m. But for the mean x̄± σ̄= 15.53 ±
0.06 m. This says the average is 15.53 m which
has an error of 0.06m. Or putting it another way,
there is about a 68% probability that the true
value of x falls in the range 15.47 m to 15.59 m.
In some cases the fractional error σ x̄, or relative
error, is of more interest than the absolute value
of σ. It is possible that the size of σ is large while

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 2 Interference by Newton’s rings Method

2.1 Objective

To determine the wavelength of sodium light by

Newton’s rings method.

2.2 Short Biography of Sir Is-

sac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (4 January 1643 - 31

March 1727) was an English physicist, math-
ematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, al-
chemist, and theologian and one of the most
influential men in human history. His Philoso-
phie Naturalis Principia Mathematica, published
in 1687, is considered to be among the most in-
Figure 2.1: A portrait of Isaac Newton (aged
fluential books in the history of science, laying
46) by Godfrey Kneller in 1689. The inset is
the groundwork for most of classical mechanics.
the signature of Newton.
In this work, Newton described universal gravi-
tation and the three laws of motion which domi-
nated the scientific view of the physical universe of scientists in Britain’s Royal Society asking who
for the next three centuries. Newton showed that had the greater effect on the history of science,
the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial Newton or Albert Einstein. Newton was deemed
bodies are governed by the same set of natural the more influential. Newton was also highly reli-
laws by demonstrating the consistency between gious (though unorthodox), producing more work
Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and his the- on Biblical hermeneutics than the natural science
ory of gravitation, thus removing the last doubts he is remembered for today.
about heliocentrism and advancing the scientific
revolution.
In mechanics, Newton enunciated the principles
2.3 Apparatus required
of conservation of both momentum and angular
momentum. In optics, he built the first practi- An optical arrangement for Newton’s rings with
cal reflecting telescope and developed a theory of a plano-convex lens of large radius of curvature
colour based on the observation that a prism de- (nearly 100 cm) and an optically plane glass plate,
composes white light into the many colors which A short focus convex lens, sodium light source.
form the visible spectrum. He also formulated an Traveling microscope, magnifying lens, reading
empirical law of cooling and studied the speed of lamp and a spherometer.
sound.
In mathematics, Newton shares the credit with 2.4 Description of apparatus
Gottfried Leibniz for the development of the dif-
ferential and integral calculus. He also demon-
The experimental apparatus for obtaining the New-
strated the generalized binomial theorem, devel-
ton’s rings is shown in the Figure 2.2. A plano-
oped the so-called "Newton’s method" for ap-
convex lens L of large radius of curvature is placed
proximating the zeros of a function, and con-
with its convex surface in contact with a plane
tributed to the study of power series.
glass plate P. At a suitable height over this com-
Newton’s stature among scientists remains at the bination, is mounted a plane glass plate G in-
very top rank, as demonstrated by a 2005 survey clined at an angle of 45 degrees with the vertical.

8
Expt. 1. Newtons’s Rings 9 2.5. Working Principle

This arrangement is contained in a wooden box. Where t is the thickness of the air film at B and
θ is the angle of film at that point. Since the
Light from a broad monochromatic sodium source
radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens is
rendered parallel with the help of convex lens L1
very large, the angle θ is extremely small and
is allowed to fall over the plate G, which partially
can be neglected. The term λ/2 corresponds to
reflects the light in the downward direction. The
a phase change of π radians introduced in the
reflected light falls normally on the air film en-
ray DE due to reflection at the denser medium
closed between the plano-convex lens L, and the
(glass). For air the refractive index (µ) is unity
glass plate P. The light reflected from the upper
and for normal incidence, angle of refraction is
and the lower surfaces of the air film produce in-
zero. So the path difference x becomes:
terference fringes. At the center the lens is in
contact with the glass plate and the thickness of
the air film is zero. The center will be dark as a x = 2t + λ/2 (2.2)
phase change of π radians is introduced due to
reflection at the lower surface of the air film as At the point of contact the thickness of the film
the refractive index of glass plate P (µ=1.5) is is zero, i.e., t = 0, So x = λ/2. And this is
higher than that of the air film (µ = 1). So this the condition for the minimum intensity. Hence
is a case of reflection by the denser medium. As the center of the Newton’s rings is dark. Further,
we proceed outwards from the center the thick- the two interfering rays BC and DE interfere con-
ness of the air film gradually increases being the structively when the path difference between the
same all along the circle with center at the point two is given by
of contact. Hence the fringes produced are con-
centric, and are localized in the air film (Fig- x = 2t + (λ/2) = 2nλ/2 (2.3)
ure 2.4) The fringes may be viewed by means of
a low power microscope (traveling microscope) or
M as shown in the figure. 2.3. 2t = (2n − 1)λ/2 [Maxima] (2.4)
and they interfere destructively when the path
difference
2.5 Working Principle

When a plano-convex lens of large radius of cur- x = 2t + λ/2 (2.5)

vature is placed with its convex surface in contact = (2n + 1)λ/2 (2.6)
with a plane glass plate P a thin wedge shaped
or 2t = 2nλ/2 [Minima] (2.7)
film of air is enclosed between the two. The
thickness of the film at the point of contact is
From these equations it is clear that a maxima or
zero and gradually increases as we proceed away
minima of particular order n will occur for a given
from the point of contact towards the periphery
value of t. Since the thickness of the air film is
of the lens. The air film thus possesses a ra-
constant for all points lying on a circle concentric
dial symmetry about the point of contact. The
with the point of contact, the interference fringes
curves of equal thickness of the film will, there-
are concentric circles. These are also known as
fore, be concentric circles with point of contact
fringes of equal thickness.
as the center (Fig. 2.4).
In Figure 2.3 the rays BC and DE are the two
interfering rays corresponding to an incident ray 2.6 Experimental Methods
AB. As Newton’s rings are observed in reflected
light, the effective path difference x between the
2.6.1 Calculation of the diameters rings:
two interfering rays is given by:

x = 2µt cos(t + θ) + λ/2 (2.1) Let rn be the radius of Newton’s ring correspond-
ing to a point B, where the thickness of the film

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 1. Newtons’s Rings 10 2.7. Methodology

2.6.2 Calculation of λ:

From equation (2.12), if Dn+p is the diameter of

(n+p)th bright ring, we have
2
Dn+p = 2[2(n + p) − 1]λR (2.13)

Subtracting equation (2.12) , from equation (2.13),

we get :
2
Dn+p − Dn2 = 4pλR (2.14)
2
Dn+p − Dn2
λ= (2.15)
4pR

By measuring the diameters of the various bright

rings and the radius of curvature of the plano
convex lens, we can calculate λ from the equa-
tion (2.15).

Figure 2.2: Schematic of experimental setup of

Newton’s Rings. The lower image is the actual
setup used in the experiment.
Figure 2.3: Schematic of method used to cal-
culate the diameter of lens and hence the wave-
is t, Let R be the radius of curvature of the sur- length of light used.
face of the lens in contact with the glass plate
p, then from the triangle CMB (Figure 2.3), we
have: 2.6.3 Formula used
2
R = rn2 + (R − t) 2
or rn2 = 2Rt − t 2
(2.8)
The wavelength λ of the sodium light employed
Since t is small as compared to R, we can neglect for Newton’s rings experiment is given by:
t2 .and therefore 2
Dn+p − Dn2
Rn2 = 2Rt, or 2t = rn2 /R (2.9) λ=
4pR
If the point B lies over the nth dark ring then Where Dn+p and Dn are the diameter of (n+p)th
substituting the value of 2t from equation (2.7) and nth bright rings respectively, p being an inte-
we have, ger number. R is the radius of curvature of the
[rn2 /R = 2nλ/2], or rn2 = nλR (2.10) convex surface of the plano-convex lens.

If Dn is the diameter of the nth ring then,

2.7 Methodology
Dn2 = 4nRλ (2.11)

Similarly, if the point B lies over a nth order 1. Adjust the position of the traveling microscope
bright ring we have so that it lies vertically above the center of lens
L. Focus the microscope, so that alternate dark
Dn2 = 2(2n − 1)λR (2.12) and bright rings are clearly visible.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 1. Newtons’s Rings 11 2.8. Observations

2. Adjust the position of the traveling microscope 3. LC of the microscope scale (a/b) = . . . cm.
till the point of inter-section of the cross wires
(attached in the microscope eyepiece) coin-
cides with the center of the ring system and
2.8.2 Observation table
one of the cross-wires is perpendicular to the
horizontal scale of microscope.
.Table 2.1: Determination of Dn+p
2 − Dn2 and p

3. Slide the microscope to the left till the cross- Order Microscope Diameter Diameter2
wire lies tangentially at the center of the 20th of Reading of the (in mm2 )
dark ring (See Figure ) Note the reading on The (in mm) ring
the vernier scale of the microscope. Slide the Rings
microscope backward with the help of the slow Left Right (a∼ b) (a∼ b)2
motion screw and note the readings when the hand hand
cross-wire lies tangentially at the center of the, side side
16th , 12th , 8th , and 4th dark rings respectively (a) (b)
[Observations of first few rings from the center
are generally not taken because it is difficult 20
to adjust the cross-wire in the middle of these
16
rings owing to their large width.]

4. Keep on sliding the microscope to the right and 12

note the reading when the cross-wire again lies
8
tangentially at the center of the 4th , 8th , 12th ,
16th , and 20th dark rings respectively. 4

2.9 Calculations

1. Find the diameter of the each ring from

the difference of the observations taken on
the left and right side of its center.
2 2

2 0
Figure 2.4: Typical Newton’s Rings as ob-
1 8
served in Physics Laboratory of SGSITS, In-
)

1 6
2

L in e a r fit c u r v e
dore. Courtesy Ms. K. Dudhe (PG student
S q u a r e o f D ia m e te r (m m

1 4
2007-2009). 1 2
2 2
1 0 D n
- D n + p

2.8 Observations 6

4 p
2
2.8.1 Determination of Least Count
2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0
N u m b e r o f R in g s
Determination of the Least Count (LC) of the
Horizontal Scale of traveling Microscope
Figure 2.5: Variation square of the diameter of
1. Value of 1 div. of main scale (a) = . . . cm. rings as a function of number of rings.
2. Total number of div. on Vernier scale (b) = . . .

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 1. Newtons’s Rings 12 2.10. Results

2. Plot a graph between the number of the • While measuring diameters, the microscope cross-
ring on X-axis and the square of the corre- wire should be adjusted in the middle of the
sponding ring diameter on Y-axis. It should ring.
be a straight line as shown in figure 2.5
• The amount of light from the sodium light
3. Take two points on this line and find its source should be adjusted for maximum visi-
slop by taking the corresponding values of bility. Too much light increases the general il-
D2n+p - D2n and p. lumination and decreases the contrast between
bright and dark rings.
4. Finally calculate the value of wavelength of
the sodium light source using the formula
given by the equation 2.11. 2.12 Sample oral questions:

• What do you understand by the interference of

2.10 Results light?

Calculated value of the wavelength of sodium • What are essential conditions for obtaining in-
light is terference of light?

• What do you understand by coherent sources?

• Using the observations directly = . . . Å

• Using the graphical calculations = . . . Å • Is it possible to observe interference pattern by

having two independent sources such as two
• Standard average value of the wavelength of
candles?
the sodium light = 5893 Å
• Why should be two sources be monochromatic?
• Percentage error = . . . . . . %
• Why are the Newton’s rings circular?

2.11 Sources of errors and pre- • Why is central ring dark?

cautions: • Where are these rings formed?

• Sometimes these rings are elliptical or distorted,

• The optical arrangement as shown in Figure
why?
2.2 should be very clean (use spirit for clean-
ing these optical elements) and so made that • What is the difference between the rings ob-
the beam of light falls normally on the plano- served by reflected light and those observed by
convex lens L and glass plate P combination. transmitted light?

• What will happen if the glass plate is silvered

• The plano-convex lens used for the production on the front surface?
of Newton’s rings should have large value of
radius of curvature. This will keep the angle • What will happen when a little water is intro-
of wedge shape air film very small and there- duced in between the plano-convex lens and
fore the rings will have a larger diameter and the plate?
consequently the accuracy in the measurement • How does the diameter of rings change on the
of the diameter of the rings will be increased. introduction of liquid?
• To avoid any backlash error, the micrometer • Can you find out the refractive index of a liquid
screw of the traveling microscope should be by this experiment?
moved very slowly and be moved in one direc-
tion while taking observations. • Is it possible to have interference with a lens
of small focal length?

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 1. Newtons’s Rings 13 2.12. Sample oral questions:

• What will happen if the lens is cylindrical?

• Why do the rings gets closer and finer as we

move away from the center.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 3 Steward & Gee’s Tangent Galvanometer

3.1 Aim field along the axis of the circular loop (z = 0

at the center of the circular loop and is positive
To study the Variation of magnetic field along above the loop and negative below the loop) is
the axis of a circular coil carrying current and to given by
calculate the radius of the coil. µ0 I r2
B(z) = √
3 (3.1)
2 2 r2 + z 2
3.2 History This equation assumes SI units, so the current
is in amperes, distances are in meters, and the
3.3 Equipment required magnetic field is in Tesla (T). The constant µ0 =
4π × 10−7 N/A2 . Notice that along the axis of
the circular loop, the magnetic field is parallel
Stewart & Gee’s apparatus, DC power supply,
to the axis. Its relationship to the current in
commutator, keys, connecting wires, etc.
the circular loop is given by a right hand rule.
Curl the figures of your right hand around the
circular loop so they point in the direction of the
current; your thumb then gives the direction of
the magnetic field along the axis of the circular
loop. If instead of a single circular loop there are
N turns of a coil in the form of a circular loop,
then the magnetic field is simply N times the
magnetic field due to a single circular loop.
If the tangent-galvanometer is set such that the
plane of the coil is along the magnetic meridian
i.e. B is perpendicular to BH (BH is the horizon-
tal component of the Earths magnetic field), the
needle rests along the resultant. From tangent
law, one can write,

B(z) = BH tan θ. (3.2)

or
B(z) ∝ tan θ. (3.3)
That means, bu measuring the deflection in the
tangent galvanometer, one can calculate the value
Figure 3.1: Photography at the top shows
of magnetic filed indirectly.
the Stewart-Gee’s apparatus used in SGSITS.
The bottom figure is connection diagram From equation 3.1, the maximum value of B =
for performing the experiment. The inset Bmax = µ0 I/2r occurs when z = 0. Hence the
shows the circuitry. L-lechlanche cell, Rh- value of B(z) is found to be
Rheostat, K-key, A-Ammeter, C-commutator,
Bmax
S-G-apparatus, N-coil selector. B(r) = √
2 2
= 0.35 × Bmax .
sinceB(r) ∝ tan θ
3.4 Theory
B(r) ∝ 0.35 × tan θmax (3.4)
For a current I going around a circular loop of
wire of radius r, the strength of the magnetic

14
 Expt. 2. Tangent Galvanometer 15 3.5. Procedure

• Move the box slowly towards center with the step

of 2cm, and record the values of θ1 , θ2 , θ3 and
θ4 .

• Repeat the previous procedure till the other end

of the sliding bench.

• Plot the data as graph between distance (z) in

X-axis and tan θ in Y-axis for all three data sets.

• Draw a straight line parallel to 0.35 tan θmax ,

draw two vertical lines where the two lines are
crossing (see Figure 3.2).

• Find the diameter and then the radius of coil and

report.

Figure 3.2: Graph between z and tan θ. Note

No of coils used:.........
a horizontal line at tan.
Value of current:........
3.5 Procedure
S. distance Deflection (deg) tan θ
• Use the given compass box (tangent Galvanome- No. z(cm) θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 mean θ
ter - TG) to find the east and west directions. 1 0
(The needles of the given compass always show 2 2
east-west direction, why? Why not the North- – –
South as taught in book?) Now the plane of the 9 –
circular coil is said to be parallel to the magnetic – –
meridian.
19 38
• Place the compass box exactly at the center of 20 40
the wooden sliding bench. (Why the instrument
is made of wood? Is it non-magnetic?). Maximum value of tan θ =....... .

• Connect all electrical wires as per the diagram

given in Figure 3.2. First select the circular coil 3.6 Results
between 0 and 5.

• Adjust the rheostat to generate a deflection of 1. Magnetic field along the axis of a circular
about ± 70◦ . Also note that the current is not coil is studied.
exceeding ...A. (Why?). Monitor this value is a
2. The radius of the circular coil is found to
constant throughout the experiment. If the value
be ............. cm.
varies adjust the rheostat to keep it constant.

• Now move the TG to on end (say 20cm) of the

sliding bench. Record the corresponding value of
(z) as 0 cm in the table. Observe the value of
magnetic needle and record it as (θ1 and θ2 ).

• Reverse the current using commutator and record

the values of θ3 and θ4 .

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 4 Numerical Aperture of Optical Fiber

4.1 Aim to transmit the light, while the glass coating, or

cladding, prevented the light from leaking out of
To measure the numerical aperture of given op- the core by reflecting the light within the bound-
tical fiber. aries of the core. Commercial applications fol-
lowed soon after. In 1977, both AT&T and GTE
installed fiber optic telephone systems in Chicago
4.2 Equipment required and Boston respectively. In 1990, Bell Labs trans-
mitted a 2.5 Gb/s signal over 7,500 km without
regeneration. Today, DWDM technology contin-
He-Ne or semiconductor laser, optical fiber, photo
ues to develop. As the demand for data band-
detector, translation stage, etc.
width increases, driven by the phenomenal growth
IMPORTANT : DO NOT LOOK INTO of the Internet, the move to optical networking
THE LIGHT BEAM EMITTED FROM is the focus of new technologies.
THE LASER OR FROM THE FIBER.
THIS MAY LEAD TO PERMANENT
DAMAGE TO YOUR EYE.

4.3 Brief history of optical fiber

The earliest attempts to communicate via light

undoubtedly go back thousands of years. Early
long distance communication techniques, such
as "smoke signals", developed by native North
Americans and the Chinese were, in fact, optical
communication links.
Jean-Daniel Colladon, a 38-year-old Swiss profes-
sor at University of Geneva, demonstrated light
guiding or Total internal reflection (TIR) for the
first time in 1841. He wanted to show the fluid
flow through various holes of a tank and the
breaking up of water jets.
In 1870, John Tyndall, using a jet of water that
flowed from one container to another and a beam
of light, demonstrated that light used internal
reflection to follow a specific path. As water Figure 4.1: Portraits of Jean-Daniel Colladon
poured out through the spout of the first con- and John Tyndall. The bottom image shows
tainer, Tyndall directed a beam of sunlight at the early TIR demonstration.
path of the water. The light, as seen by the au-
dience, followed a zigzag path inside the curved
path of the water.
4.4 Theory
Fiber optic technology experienced a phenom-
enal rate of progress in the second half of the
An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or plastic
twentieth century. Early success came during
fiber that carries light along its length. Fiber
the 1950 with the development of the fiberscope.
optics is the overlap of applied science and engi-
This motivated scientists to develop glass fibers
neering concerned with the design and applica-
that included a separate glass coating. The in-
tion of optical fibers. Optical fibers are widely
nermost region of the fiber, or core, was used

16
Expt. 3. Numerical Aperture of OF 17 4.5. Procedure:

Figure 4.2: Demonstration of total internal re-

flection (TIR) in an optical fiber.

used in fiber-optic communications, which per-

mits transmission over longer distances and at
higher bandwidths (data rates) than other forms
of communications. Fibers are used instead of
Figure 4.3: Pictorial view of experimental
metal wires because signals travel along them
setup used for the calculation of NA of opti-
with less loss, and they are also immune to elec-
cal fiber.
tromagnetic interference. Fibers are also used for
illumination, and are wrapped in bundles so they
can be used to carry images, thus allowing view- As this fiber accepts light up to 34 degrees off
ing in tight spaces. Specially designed fibers are axis in any direction, we define the ACCEPTANCE
used for a variety of other applications, including ANGLE of the fiber as twice the critical angle or
sensors and fiber lasers. in this case, 2×34=68◦ .

Light is confined in the core of the optical fiber by

total internal reflection. This causes the fiber to 4.5 Procedure:
act as a waveguide. Fibers which support many
propagation paths or transverse modes are called
multi-mode fibers (MMF), while those which can Important Precaution: Do not look in
only support a single mode are called single-mode to the light beam emitted from the laser
fibers (SMF). Multi-mode fibers generally have or from the optical fiber. It may lead to
a larger core diameter, and are used for short- permanent damage to you eye.
distance communication links and for applica-
tions where high power must be transmitted. Single-1. Switch on the laser.
mode fibers are used for most communication
links longer than 550 metres (1,800 ft). 2. Adjust the height and position the optical fiber
Multimode optical fiber will only propagate light such that light is launched into the fiber. Use
that enters the fiber within a certain cone (see a small paper nearer to the other end of the
Figure 4.3), known as the acceptance cone of the optical fiber to check light output.
fiber. The half-angle of this cone is called the ac- 3. Mount the detector nearer to the other end of
ceptance angle, θmax . For step-index multimode the fiber, adjust the height and position the
fiber, the acceptance angle is determined only by detector for maximum coupling.
the indices of refraction:
√ 4. Make the output end of optical fiber vertically
n sin θmax = N A = n21 − n22 , (4.1) aligned with the center of the graduated co-
centering ring pattern as given in physics lab
where n1 is the refractive index of the fiber core, journal and shown in figure 4.4.
and n2 is the refractive index of the cladding.
5. Vertically move the output end of optical fiber
For example, taking 1.62 for n1 and 1.52 for n2 ,
nearly 1cm away from the center of the pat-
we find the NA to be 0.56. By calculating the
tern.
sin−1 (0.56) = 34◦ , we determine THE CRITI-
CAL ANGLE.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 3. Numerical Aperture of OF 18 4.6. Measurement and Results:

1 1

1 0 F W H M
θ C
9 Z

(m m )
7
S l o p = t a n ( θ) = B C / A B
6

F W H M
5

4
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 A
3 B

1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
V e r tic a l P o s itio n , Z , o f O p tic a l F ib e r (c m )
Figure 4.5: Sample curves obtained at different
Z. The inset shows the method to calculate
FWHM.

Figure 4.4: Sample curves of ring patterns 4.6 Measurement and Results:
to be illuminated vertically by the laser light
emerging out from the output end of the fiber. Z - Vertical position of fiber tip
D - Diameter of illuminated ring
6. Record the diameter of the ring illuminated by FWHM - half of the measured diameter
the light emerging out from the fiber end.
Z (cm) 1 2 3 4 5
7. Now move the output end of optical fiber nearly D (mm) ... ... ... ... ...
2cm away from the center of the pattern repeat FWHM (mm) ... ... ... ... ...
the initial adjustments and record the diame-
ter of the ring illuminated by the light emerging
out from the fiber end.
1. Light is coupled to an optical fiber. The
8. Repeat the previous steps for three more dis- value of numerical aperture of the given
tances i.e. 3, 4 and 5cm. optical fiber found to be .. .
9. In a graph paper plot the half of the diameter
of ring ( which is full width at half maxima
(FWHM) of the output intensity) along Y-axis
4.7 Probable Questions
and vertically scan distance along X-axis. Re-
fer to figure 4.4 1. What is an optical fiber?

10. Record the values of FWHM at different dis- 2. How numerical aperture and acceptance
tances Z. cone can be explained?

11. Plot another graph between the distance Z and 3. What are the sources for fabricating optical
FWHM. Find the slope F W HM/z. Refer to fiber?
figure 4.5 4. Discuss some applications of FO.
12. The sine of slope of the curve directly gives the 5. Is light of any wavelength can be coupled
Numerical aperture of the given optical fiber. to optical fiber?
NA = sin θ = sin(tan−1 (FWHM/Z)).

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 3. Numerical Aperture of OF 19 4.8. Suggested reading

4.8 Suggested reading

1. www.lightandmatter.com (Download Book

on Optics, it is free!).

2. F. A. Jenkins and H. E. White, Fundamen-

tals of Optics, (McGraw-Hill, New York,
1957).

3. M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of Optics,

(Pergamon, Oxford 1986).

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 5 Measurement of Planck’s constant using LEDs

5.1 Aim

To measure Planck’s constant using light emit-

ting diodes (LED) of various colors, to under-
stand work function and to obtaine VI charcater-
istics of junction diodes and Zenor diode.

5.2 Apparatus required

LEDs of various colors (Blue, Green, Yellow, Or-

ange, Red, Infrared, etc), pn junction diodes,
Zener diode, power source, connecting wires, Volt
meter, Ammeter etc.
Figure 5.1: Max Planck presents Albert Ein-
stein with the Max-Planck medal of the Ger-
5.3 Theory man Physical Society, June 28, 1929 in Berlin.

5.3.1 Historical Perspectives or absorbed by a system results from a change

in state whereby the quantum number, n, of the
Max Planck (1858-1947) was born in Kiel Ger- system changes by one.
many and attended schools in Munich and Berlin. In 1905 Albert Einstein (1879-1955) published a
Planck was pioneer in the field of quantum physics. paper in which he used Planck’s quantization of
Around 1900 Planck developed the concept of a energy principle to explain the photoelectric ef-
fundamental unit of energy, a quantum, to ex- fect. The photoelectric effect involves the emis-
plain the spectral distribution of blackbody radi- sion of electrons from certain materials when ex-
ation. This idea of a basic quantum of energy posed to light and could not be explained by clas-
is fundamental to quantum mechanics of mod- sical models. For this work Einstein received the
ern physics. Planck received a Nobel Prize for Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921.
his work in the early development of quantum
mechanics in 1918. Interestingly, Planck him- Niels Bohr (1885-1962) used Planck’s ideas on
self remained skeptical of practical applications quantization of energy as a starting point in de-
for quantum theory for many years. In order veloping the modern theory for the hydrogen atom.
to explain blackbody radiation, Planck proposed Robert Millikan made the first measurement of
that atoms absorb and emit radiation in discrete Planck’s constant in 1916. The best current
quantities given by value for Planck’s constant is 6.62607554 x 10−34
Js.
E = nhν (5.1)

where: 5.4 Experiment

n is an integer known as a quantum number
In this experiment, you will use light emitting
ν is the frequency of vibration of the molecule, diodes (LED) to measure Planck’s constant. You
and should be familiar with semiconductors and diodes
from Modern Physics. To review: LEDs are semi-
h is a constant, Planck’s constant. conductors that emit electromagnetic radiation
in optical and near optical frequencies when a
Planck named these discrete units of energy quanta. voltage is applied to them. LEDs emit light only
The smallest discrete amount of energy radiated

20
Expt. 6. Finding h using LED & VI study of diodes. 21 5.5. Procedure

when the voltage is forward biased and above 5.5 Procedure

a minimum threshold value. This combination
of conditions creates an electron hole pair in a 1. The circuit that will be used to experimentally
diode. Electron hole pairs are charge carriers determine Planck’s constant is illustrated in
and move when placed in an electrical poten- Figure 5.2.
tial. Thus many electron hole pairs produce a
current when placed in an electric field. Above 2. Connect any one LED (say red) to the circuit.
the threshold value the current increases expo- The wire color almost matches with the color
nentially with voltage. emitted by LED.
A quanta of energy is required to create an elec- 3. Put the multimeter to 10mA mode.
tron hole pair and this energy is released when an
electron and a hole recombine. In most diodes 4. Make sure that the knobs of power supply are
this energy is absorbed by the semiconductor as at the lowest. Switch on the power supply and
heat, but in LEDs this quanta of energy produces check the voltage is zero.
a photon of discreet energy E = hν. Because
5. Slowly increase the voltage and observe the
multiple states may be excited by increasing the
corresponding change in the current value.
voltage across a diode, photons of increasing en-
ergies will be emitted with increasing voltage. 6. Record the voltage (from power supply) and
Thus the light emitted by an LED may span a current values in your note book.
range of discrete wavelengths that decrease with
increasing voltage above the threshold voltage 7. Now change the connections to another LED.
(shorter wavelength ⇒ higher energy). We are
8. Repeat steps 2-7 for Blue and Green LEDS and
interested in the maximum wavelength that is
record your data.
determined by the minimum energy needed to
create an electron hole pair. It is numerically 9. Now plot V-I characteristics of all three (red,
equal to the turn on voltage of the LED. The re- blue and green) LEDS.
lation between the maximum wavelength, λ, and
the turn on voltage, V0 , is 10. Find the threshold voltage (V0 ) for each one
of them, by extrapolating the linear part of the
hc curve to x-axis as shown in figure 5.3.
E = hν = = eV0 = eVthreshold (5.2)
λ
11. If possible plot all LEDS in the same graph
where:
sheet.
ν is the frequency of the emitted photons, 12. Record the values of λ, 1/λ and corresponding
V0 in another table.
c is the velocity of light,
13. Plot another graph of V0 vs 1/λ. Make a
e is the electronic charge, and
straight line fit to the data.
h is Planck’s constant.
14. The slope of the graph is hc/e. Find the Planks
constant by multiplying the slope with e/c.
The maximum wavelength of the LED can be
measured to a resolution of a few nanometers
with a good spectrometer. If the turn on voltage,
V0 , is measured for several diodes of different 5.6 Questions
color (and different maximum wavelength, λ),
a graph of V0 vs. 1/λ should be linear with a
1. What is photoluminescent?
slope of hc/e. An experimental value of Planck’s
constant may then be determined by using the 2. What is a LED? What is Laser Diode? What
known values of the speed of light, c, and the is Photoelectric effect?
charge of an electron, e.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 6. Finding h using LED & VI study of diodes. 22 5.6. Questions

Breakdown
Reverse Forward

V
A

Figure 5.3: Sample V-I characteristic of a junc-

tion diode, note that the scale used +ve and
-ve axes are not same. The middle one shows
the LED VI curve of LED. Find Vo by extrap-
olating the data. The last graph shows the
linear fit of data V0 vs 1/λ.

the LED point gap. How would this velocity

change with color? (Hint: KEmax = qV o =
1 2
2 mv )

5. If the point gap approximates 1.0 mm, calcu-

late the acceleration (v 2 = 2ad) of the electron
and the time t to cross the gap. What vector
field supplies the accelerating force?
Figure 5.2: Circuit diagram and experimental
setup for measuring Planck’s constant.

3. Which LED has the highest work function (W0 )?

Explain what does this mean.

4. Choose one of your LEDs, then calculate the

final velocity of an electron as it travels across

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 6. Finding h using LED & VI study of diodes. 23 5.6. Questions

Red Blue Green

V I V I V I
(V) (µA) (V) (µA) (V) (µA)
0.01 —- 0.01 —- 0.01 —-
0.02 —- 0.02 —- 0.02 —-
– —- – —- – —-
3.0 —- 2.0 —- 1.0 —-
– —- – —- – —-
– —- – —- – —-

Table 5.1: Record of V-I data for LEDs. The

values shown in the tables are for indicative
purpose only.

Diode No. λ (nm)

Ultraviolet LED-1 401
Blue LED-2 454
Green LED-3 505
Yellow LED-4 514
Orange LED-5 596
Red LED-6 647
Infrared LED-7 942

Table 5.2: Wavelength and color of LED

S. No. LED λ 1/λ V0

Color (nm) (nm)−1 (Volt)
1 IR
2 Red
3 Orange
4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 UV

Table 5.3: Data from the V-I plots for LEDs.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 6 Consortium for Upper-Level Physics Software

6.1 Aim

To study working of laser using “PhET” Laser

Module.

6.2 Equipment required

PC, Java Runtime environment and Phet.jar file. Figure 6.1: Parts of a laser system. 1- Active
medium, 2-Pumping source, 3-4-Cavity cou-
plers, 5-laser output.
6.3 Laser Theory
2. In order to achieve the population inversion in a
Devices generating visible or invisible light, based 2LL, the upper level should have very large life
on the process of stimulated emission of light are time.
called lasers. LASER is an acronym for Light
Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. 3. While in a 3LL, the intermediate level needs large
Laser emits directed light beam which due to its life time.
high spatial coherence can propagate over long
4. In a 3LL population inversion can be achieved
distances without much divergence (often limited
by pumping atoms to third level directly, which
only by diffraction)and can be focused to very
is having lower life time. The stimulated emis-
small spots, where a high intensity is achieved.
sion can be achieved between the lower and in-
termediate level (this level need to have larger
6.3.1 Introduction life time.)

Coherent Light generation is obtained by the pro- In this experiment the above mentioned ideas will
cess of Light oscillation and Stimulated Emission be verified and understood.
of radiation. The lasing from laser source need
to satisfy the following
6.4 Making of a LASER
1. A lasing medium, cavity mirror and pump.

2. Population inversion between the lasing levels This part of the experiment expects the student
to understand the processes of Absorption, spon-
3. Multiple oscillations between the cavity to en- taneous emission and stimulated emission pro-
hance number of photons to achieve stable op- cess. Also, this module will help you understand
eration. the process of population inversion, laser oscilla-
tion, and lasing process.
The medium and pump satisfy the following con-
ditions: 1. Open the Laser module from desktop shortcut.

2. Observe various parts of the system, locate find

1. The pump energy should exactly match with the
the operating with the following (i) Lamp control
energy gap between the two level, (in case of
with intensity and wavelength, (ii) Laser power
2-level laser, 2LL)
indicator, (iii) energ levels of the 2-L system, and
(iv) other options.

24
 Expt. 8. Understanding Laser using PhET module 25 6.4. Making of a LASER

3. Increase the power of lamp, What do you ob-10. Select Three level system.
serve?
11. Increase the power of Lamp 2, carefully observe
4. Hold the Level - 2 and drag up and down, what what is happening. Is the atom goes to levels 1,
do you observe? At a particular value the atoms 2 and 3.
goes from State 1 → 2, what does this mean?
What is the name of this process? What is the12. Reduce the lifetime level 2, where does the elec-
minimum requirement here in terms of energies? tron stays? Record and explain your answer.

5. Now keeping the energy levels constant, adjust13. Reduce the lifetime level 3, where does the elec-
the wavelength of source. What is your observa- tron stays? Record and explain your answer.
tion for what values does the atom goes to ex-14. Click Waveview for lower transition. What type
cited states? What is the minimum requirement of radiation is coming out, explain.
here in terms of energies?
15. Change the internediate energy level, tune wave-
6. Make pump and atom energies equal. The atom length of Lamp - 1 to match. Is the radiation
goes to exited state in both medium and energy coming out. How critical is this? What type
level diagram. Reduce the lifetime to minimum. of process is this? Why the energy needs to be
What do you observe? The level system shows many degrees accurate here?
the Why does the atom is staying in the exited
state (upper level)? 16. Enable mirrors. Make sure that atleast two pho-
tons of Lamp -1, are trapped and oscillating, oth-
7. Increase the life time, put source power to max- erwise disable and enable mirror. Once stable
imum. Click on the enable mirror (cavity). How conditions is achieved, observe carefully, wait for
many photons are trapped in the cavity. Some about 20 seconds and monitor the internal power
of them escape through the system, some does to build up. When green indicators reaches 50%,
not, why? Is the atom go to excited state? For slowly reduce the reflectivity to 90%, What do
how long the photons are trapped in the cavity? you observed. Explain the complete process as
per your understanding.

17. Wait for few seconds, why all the energy drains
very fast. Repeat the previous step. Make lower
transition to Photons. Why the generated pho-
tons are always doublet. Compare the results
obtained in step - 8, to this. What is their path?
Change to wave view. Reduce the refrlactivity to
99%. How long does the lasing continues? How
to explain the process happened in this step?

18. Make lifetime of upperlevel to maximum and for

lowerlevel minimum. Explain your observations.
Figure 6.2: A front panel of PhET window What are the optimum values of lifetime of lev-
showing the Lamp-1, medium and power lev- els?
els.
19. Summarise the observations.

8. Now reduce the life time to minimum, are the

• Report a diagram of the laser with conditions for
photons trapped? Explain your observations?
laser output
9. Increase lifetime, disable and enable the cavity to
• Summarise answers to all questions asked above.
trap some more photons. Reduce the reflectivity
gradually from 100 to 50, record and explain your
observations.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 8. Understanding Laser using PhET module 26 6.5. Additional Resources

6.5 Additional Resources

• Visit the following websites for download simula-

tions and manuals.

– http://www.compadre.org/student/items/
detail.cfm?ID=7
– http://www.rpi.edu/dept/phys/Dept2/
cups/
– http://phet.colorado.edu/

• Read the following books

– Concepts of Modern Physics, A. Beiser, Tata Mc-

Graw, New Delhi 2010.
– Optics, A. Ghatak, Tata McGraw, New Delhi,
2012.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 7 Wavelength of spectral lines by grating

7.1 Aim

To determine the wavelength of prominent spec-

tral lines of mercury light by a plane transmission
grating using normal incidence.

7.2 Apparatus required

A spectrometer, mercury lamp, transmission grat-

ing. reading lamp and reading lens.

7.3 Description of Apparatus

7.3.1 Spectrometer

This is an arrangement for producing pure spec-

trum. The essential parts of a spectrometer in-
clude collimator, prism table, and a telescope
(See Figure 7.1).

7.3.2 Collimator

The collimator provides a narrow parallel beam

of light. It consists of a horizontal, cylindrical, Figure 7.1: Photo of optical spectrometer
metallic tube fitted with an achromatic conver- mounted with a prism and ray diagrams of the
gent lens at one end and a short coaxial tube at same. The bottom figure shows the three mea-
the other end. The short coaxial tube, which his surements using a grating. T0 is direct reading
provided with a vertical slit of adjustable width while T and T’ are the left and right measure-
at the outer end, can be moved inside the main ments for a particular order m.
tube with the help of a rack and pinion arrange-
ment. The slit is illuminated by the source of
It can be rotated independently of the collima-
light, whose spectrum is to be examined and the
tor and telescope about the vertical axis passing
distance between the slit and the convergent lens
through instrument’s center of a circular scale
is so adjusted that the slit lies in the first focal
graduated in half degrees carried by the telescope
plane of the lens. Under this condition, the rays
(See Figure 2) the rotation of the prism table can
of light emerging from the collimator are paral-
be read with the help of two diametrically oppo-
lel. Usually in a spectrometer, the collimator is
site verniers attached to it and sliding over the
rigidly fixed with its axis horizontal, but in same
circular scale. The prism table can be clamped
instruments, it can be rotated about the vertical
to the main body of the instrument in any de-
axis passing through the center of instrument.
sired position with the help of a clamping screw
and then a fine rotation can be given to it with
7.3.3 Prism Table the help of a tangent screw provided at the base.
The prism table can be raised or lowered and may
It is a circular table supported horizontally on a be clamped at any desired height with the help
vertical rod at the center of the spectrometer. of a clamping screw provided for it. It is also

27
Expt. 14. Grating Diffraction 28 7.4. Measure angle

provided with the three leveling screws P, Q, R 30000 per inch and the ruled surface varies from
(See Figure 2) so that the refracting faces of the 2’’ to 6’’ . The gratings available in our SGSITS,
prism can be adjusted parallel to the axis of the Physics laboratory are having 15000 ruled lines
instrument Concentric circles and straight lines per inch and the ruled surface is of around 2’’
parallel to the line joining any two of the level-
ing screws are drawn on the surface of the prism
table, which help in placing the prism in proper 7.3.6 Grating Element
position during the experiment.
The distance between the centers of any two con-
secutive ruled lines or transparent spaces acting
7.3.4 Telescope as a slit is called grating element. Let e be the
width of the transparent space and d be the width
It is simple astronomical telescope and consists of ruled space, then the grating element = (e+d)
of a horizontal, cylindrical metallic tube fitted
with an achromatic convergent lens (called the
objective) at one end and a short coaxial tube 7.4 Measurement of angles with
called eyepiece tube at the end. The eyepiece
the help of spectrometer
tube (provided with the cross-wires and Ramsden
eyepiece) can be moved inside the main tube with
the help of rack and pinion arrangement. Pulling The spectrometer scales are angle measuring util-
or pushing the eyepiece in eyepiece tube by hand ities for the positions of the telescope which can
can also change the distance between the cross- be rotated about the central axis of the instru-
wires and the eyepiece. Thus the telescope can ment. The main circular scale is attached with
be adjusted to receive parallel rays and to form a the telescope so that when the telescope is ro-
clear image upon the cross-wires, which in their tated, the main circular scale also rotates with
turn are distinctly visible through the eyepiece. it. The angle, through which the telescope is ro-
The telescope can be rotated about the central tated, can be measured by reading the positions
axis of the instrument. It is also provided with of the verniers attached to the prism table and
a clamping and a tangent screw at the base by sliding over the main scale. In a spectrometer
which a slow rotation can be given to it. The there are two sets of main circular scales (fitted
main circular scale is attached with the telescope with the telescope) and vernier scale (attached
so that when the telescope is rotated, the main with the prism table). Both sets are diagonally
circular scale also rotates with it. The angle, (left hand and right hand sides) fixed in the in-
through which the telescope is rotated, can be strument and measures angle for a particular tele-
measured by reading the positions of the Verniers scope position with a difference of 180 degrees.
attached to the prism table and sliding over the These scales can be used in a similar manner as a
main scale. simple Vernier Caliper or traveling microscope is
used. The vernier Caliper or traveling microscope
is used to measure small distances (in centime-
7.3.5 Plane Transmission Grating ters and fractions whereas spectrometer scales
are used to measure small angular displacements
An arrangement, which is equivalent in its ac- (in degrees, minutes, and seconds){1 degree =
tion to a large number of parallel slits of same 60 minutes, and 1 minute = 60 seconds; (1◦ =
width separated by equal opaque spaces is called 60’ and 1’ = 60”)
diffraction grating. It is constructed by ruling
fine equidistant parallel lines on an optically plane
glass plate with the help of a sharp diamond point 7.4.1 Least Count of the Spectrom-
of an automatically plane transmission grating. If eter Scale:
the rulings are made on a metallic surface, the
grating is called reflection grating. The number Physics Laboratory, SGSITS has two types of
of ruled lines in a grating varies from 15000 to spectrometers in which

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 14. Grating Diffraction 29 7.5. Formula Used:

1. 60 divisions of vernier Scale are equal to 7.6.1 Adjustment of the Spectrome-

59 divisions of the Main Scale, and ter:
2. 30 divisions of vernier Scale are equal to Before doing any measurement with the spec-
29 divisions of the Main scale. trometer, the following adjustments exactly in
the sequence given below must be made:
Now, we will find out the least count in first case
which 60 divisions of Vernier scale are equal to
• The axis of the collimator and the telescope must
59 divisions of the main scale. The method is as
intersect at the perpendicular to the common
follows:
axis of the prism table and the telescope (usu-
ally being made by the manufacturer)
1. Value of one division of circular main scale
= 0.5◦ = 30’ (as 1◦ = 60’) • The eyepiece should be focused on the cross-
wires. For doing it turn the telescope towards
2. Value of one division of sliding vernier scale a white wall and adjust the distance between the
= (59/60) x 0.5◦ objective and eyepiece of the telescope with the
help of rack and pinion arrangement such that
3. Least count of spectrometer scale = Value
the field of view appears bright. Now alter the
of 1 div. of main scale - value of 1 div. of
distance between eyepiece and the cross-wires by
vernier = 0.5◦ - [(59/60) x 0.5]◦ = [0.5 x
pulling or pushing the eyepiece in the eyepiece
1/60]◦ = 0.5’ = 30” (THIRTY SECONDS)
tube, till the cross-wires are distinctly visible.
4. Similarly the least count of the spectrom- This focuses the eyepiece on the cross-wires.
eter scale in second case in which 30 divi-
sions of Vernier scale are equal to 29 divi- Adjustment of Collimator and the telescope
sions of the circular main scale can also be must be adjusted respectively for emitting and
calculated. In this case the value of least receiving parallel rays of light. This can be done
count will be 1’ or 60” in the following manner.

1. Illuminate the slit of the collimator with the source

7.5 Formula Used: of light, whose spectrum is to be analyzed (mer-
cury vapor lamp in this experiment). Bring the
The wavelength λ of any spectral line using plane telescope in line with the collimator with the help
transmission grating can be calculated from the of rack and pinion arrangements such that the
formula (e + d) sin θ = nλ , Where (e + d) is image of the collimator slit as seen through the
the grating element, θ is the angle of diffrac- telescope appears to be sharp and well focused.
tion, and n is the order of the spectrum. If Make the collimator slit as narrow as possible
there are N lines per inch ruled on the grat- (of course with a clear appearance through the
ing surface then the grating element is given by telescope).
(e + d) = 2.54/N cm. Hence (2.54/N) sin θ =
nλ or λ = 2.54 sin θ/nN cm 2. Mount the prism on the prism table such that
its center coincides with the center of the prism
table and adjust the height of the prism table
7.6 Procedure such that the prism is in level with the collimator
and the telescope.
The whole experiment is divided into two parts
(i) Adjustments, and (ii) Measurement of the
diffraction angle θ.
Adjustment

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 14. Grating Diffraction 30 7.6. Procedure

If necessary, the telescope may be slightly turned• The slit should be adjusted parallel to the rulings
to keep he spectrum in the field of view but its of the gratings
(telescope) focusing arrangement is not to be dis- For this rotate the slit in its own plane till the
turbed while focusing collimator. Focus the tele- diffracted images of the spectral lines become as
scope on he spectrum with the help of its rack bright as possible. The observations may now be
and pinion arrangement to make the spectrum as taken.
sharp as possible. This time do not disturb the
precious arrangement of the collimator.
7.6.3 Measurement of the Angle of
Diffraction:
7.6.2 Adjustment of the grating for
normal incidence: • To measure the angle of diffraction, proceed as
follows:
For this proceed as follows:
• Rotate the telescope to one side (say left) of the
direct image of the slit till the spectrum of the
• Bring the telescope in line with the collimator
first order (n=1) is visible in the field of view of
such that the direct image of the slit falls on the
telescope. Clamp the telescope and then move
vertical cross wire of the telescope. Note the
it slowly by tangent screw till the vertical cross
readings on both spectrometer scales.
wire coincides with the red line of the spectrum.
• Rotate the telescope through 900 from this posi- Note the readings of both the verniers. Thus go
tion and then clamp it. The axis of the telescope on moving the telescope so that the vertical cross
will now be perpendicular to the axis of collima- wire coincides in turn with the different spectral
tor. lines namely, yellow, green, violet, etc. Each time
note the readings of both the spectrometer scales
• Mount the grating on the prism table such that (left and right verniers).
its ruled surface passes through the center of
the prism table and is also perpendicular to the • Unclamp the telescope and rotate it to the other
line joining the two leveling screws E1 and E2 as side (say right) of the direct image till the first or-
shown in Figure 7.1b. The prism table is now ro- der spectrum is again visible in the field of view.
tated till the reflected image of the slit from the Clamp the telescope and use the tangent screw to
grating surface falls on the vertical cross wire. coincide the vertical cross wire on various spec-
Adjust the screws E1 and E2 if necessary to get tral lines in turn and each time note the readings
the image in the center of the field of view. The of the verniers.
grating surface is now inclined at an angle of 450
with the incident rays. Note the readings of both • Find the difference in the readings of the same
the spectrometer scales. kind of vernier for the same spectral line in two
settings. This gives an angle equal to twice the
• Rotate the prism table through 450 or 1350 as angle of diffraction for that spectral line in the
the case may be so that the ruled surface of the first order (n=1). Half of it is will give the angle
grating becomes normal to the incident rays and of diffraction. Similarly calculate the angle of
faces the telescope. Now clamp the prism table. diffraction for other spectral lines.
• The ruling of the grating should be parallel to the • Repeat the above observations for second order
main axis of the instrument: For this unclamp spectrum also.
the telescope and rotate. The diffracted images
of the slit or the spectral lines will be observed • The number of lines per inch on the grating sur-
in the field of view of the telescope. Adjust the face is usually written on the grating (the grating
leveling screw K, if necessary, to get these images used in SGSITS have 15,000 lines per inch).
at the center of the cross wires. When this is
done the rulings of the grating will be parallel to
the main axis of the instrument.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 14. Grating Diffraction 31 7.7. Observations

7.7 Observations

1. Least count (LC) of the Spectrometer scale:

(a) Value of 1 div of main scale (a) = ..

(b) Number of div on vernier scale (b) = ..
a
(c) LC of Spectrometer scale = b = ....

Angle θ
2. Number of lines per inch on grating (N)=...
2.54
3. Grating element (e + d) = N = ...

2θ = x-y
Table 7.1: Table for the measurement of the angle of diffraction θ
7.8 Precautions

Vernier Total
• The axes of the telescope and the collimator must

(y)
intersect at and be perpendicular to the main axis

Spectrum to the
right of the direct
of the spectrometer.

Scale
• The collimator must be so adjusted as to give
out parallel rays.

• The telescope must be so adjusted as to receive images

Main
Scale
parallel rays and form a well defined image of the
slit on the crosswire.
Vernier Total

• The prism table must be optically leveled.

(x)
Spectrum to the left
of the direct images

• The grating should be so mounted on the prism

table that its ruled lines are parallel to the main
Scale

axis of the spectrometer.

• The plane of the grating should be normal to the

Main
Scale

incident light and its ruled surface must face the

telescope so that the error due to nonparallelism
of the incident rays is minimum.
Window 1
Window 2
Window 1
Window 2
Window 1
Window 2

• The slit should be as narrow as possible and par-

Wndows

allel to the ruled surface of the grating.

• While handling the grating one should not touch

its faces but hold it between the thumb and the
Green

fingers by edges only.

color

Blue

Red

• While taking observations of the spectral lines,

the prism table must remain clamped.

• The reading of both the verniers should be recorded.

This eliminates the error due to non-coincidence
of the center of the graduated scale with the
main axis of the spectrometer.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 14. Grating Diffraction 32 7.9. Calculations & Results:

7.9 Calculations & Results: • . When white light passes through a diffraction
grating, what is the smallest value of m for which
the visible spectrum of order m overlaps the next
For first order λ = (e+d)sin(θ/2) Å.
one, of order m+1? (The visible spectrum runs
from about 400 nm to about 700 nm.)
Calculate λ for all visible spectral lines.
• Is a CD (compact Disk) a grating?

Table 7.2: Observations error (%)

CHECK APPENDIX - B FOR ATOMIC
Colour Wavelength λ error SPECTRA FROM MERCURY
Standard measured
(Å) (Å) (%)
Violet I 4047
Blue 4358
Green 5461
Yellow I 5770
Red 6234

7.10 Sample Questions

• What do you understand by diffraction of light?

• How does it differ from interference of light?

• What is a diffraction grating? How is it con-

structed?

• How do you measure the wavelength of light us-

ing grating?

• What is grating element?

• How do you adjust telescope and collimator for

parallel rays?

• How do you set the grating for normal incidence?

• Why should the ruled surface of grating face for-

wards the telescope?

• How many orders of spectra are you getting with

the grating?

• What is the difference between a prism spectrum

and a grating spectrum?

• What are the various series of lines observed in

hydrogen spectrum?

• What is Rydberg constant?

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 8 Standing Wave on a String

8.1 Aim

To study the relationship between the length,

tension and mass of a string and the frequen-
cies of standing waves on a string using Melde’s
method.
Figure 8.2: Standing waves in a vibration
string with four nodes.
8.2 Equipment required
harmonic motion at the same frequency but the
Massless String, pan with mass, meter scale, me- amplitude varies from point to point.
chanical wave driver / vibrator and other me-
chanical components. The oscillating states are known as stationary
or standing waves, and the frequencies of the
waves are the natural or resonant frequencies of
8.3 Theory the stretched string. Standing waves may be re-
garded as a superposition of propagating waves
A mechanical wave is a disturbance which moves that are repeatedly reflected at the ends of the
through some medium. The apparatus used in string; the term standing or stationary refers to
this experiment is shown in Figure 8.1. A 50 the fact that the nodes (minima) and antinodes
Hz ac source supplies a sinusoidal voltage that (maxima) of the wave remain fixed in position,
drives the mechanical vibrator. A string is at- as shown in Figure 2.
tached to the vibrator at one end, and a weight In Melde’s Experiment one end of a stretched
hanger at the other, stretching over the pulley string is attached to a vibrating support and the
which is clamped to a table. Ths frequency of other end passes over a pulley to a hanging weight
oscillation of the vibrator can also be found from which produces tension in the string. The stretched
the relationship string is set in motion by the vibrating support,
but if the frequency of vibration is not one of the
natural frequencies of the string the vibrational
amplitude of the string is very small. However,
when the frequency f of the vibrating support is
the same as one of the natural frequencies (or
the harmonics) of the string the vibrational am-
plitude will be large and will exhibit clearly de-
fined nodes and segments or loops corresponding
Figure 8.1: Experimental setup for generating to the standing wave of that particular frequency.
standing wave pattern. The equations you need to analyze your data are
simply given here, but are derived in the text-
books. It will be helpful for you to refer to your
f = 1/T (8.1) textbook. The standing waves are not propagat-
ing but they are the superposition of propagating
where T is the period or time for one cycle of waves and their frequency and wavelength satisfy
the sinusoidal voltage waveform. The waveform the wave relation
is displayed on the oscilloscope screen. A string
that is fixed at both ends can oscillate at various fλ = v (8.2)
frequencies that are determined by the length,
tension, and mass of the string. When oscillating where v is the wave velocity on the string. The
in this way all parts of the string undergo simple velocity of a transverse wave on a string that has

33
 Expt. 9. Melde’s Experiment 34 8.4. Procedure:

a mass per unit length µ and is under tension T is 3. Put 50gm in the pan and adjust the length of
√ wire (move vibrator) to get 2-3 loops.
T
ν= (8.3) 4. Now adjust the length of the wire slightly to
µ
make maximum amplitude and stable standing
In this discussion we are assuming that the ends wave pattern. Make sure that the oscillations
of the string are fixed. The wavelengths of the are on a single plane only.
standing waves are determined by the condition
that a whole number of half-wavelengths must 5. Record the distance L between the pulley and
equal the length of the string. In this experiment vibrator, Tension T on the wire, number of loops
the length and or weight in the pan is adjusted n, mass per unit length µ and frequency f . All
until the string vibrates in segments forming a these five values of equation 8.7 are known now.
standing wave pattern. If the standing wave has 6. Part 1 : to prove f ∝ n:
n segments (n = 4 in Figure 2) then the wave-
length µ and the string length L are related by (a) Keep the values of T and L constant and record.
(b) Using equation 8.7, do calculations for the res-
L = nλ/2 (8.4)
onant frequency fcalc for loops 1, 2, 3, 4 ... and
or enter the values in note book.
λ = 2L/n (8.5) (c) Change the frequency to obtain the required
number of loops. Record the respective frequen-
Combining these relations leads to cies as fmeas in the notebook.
√
(d) Repeat the above procedure for maximum num-
2L T
f = (8.6) ber of loops.
n µ
7. Part 2 : to prove f ∝ L−1 :
as the fundamental relation connecting the fre-
quency of oscillation and the parameters of the (a) Keep the values of T and n (say n = 3) con-
string (length, tension, mass per unit length) stant and record.
when it is vibrating in a standing wave pattern (b) Using equation 8.7, do calculations for the reso-
with n loops. Solving for the frequency nant frequency for various resonant lengths for
√ every additional 2 cm and enter the values in
n T
f= (8.7) note book as fcalc .
2L µ
(c) Move the oscillator slightly to reach the nec-
The tension is provided by the weight in newtons essary value of length. Change the frequency
of the hanging mass. In this experiment, one end to obtain the required number of stable loops.
of the vibrating string is attached to the mechan- Record the respective frequencies as fmeas in
ical vibrator, which moves up and down a small the notebook.
distance. This end moves with the vibrator, and (d) Repeat the above procedure for maximum pos-
as a result cannot be a true node, thereby in- sible length L.
troducing a systematic error. When you report √
your results you will need to consider the effects 8. Part 3 : to prove f ∝ T :
of this error. (a) Keep the values of n and L constant and record.
(b) Using equation 8.7, do calculations for the res-
onant frequency for various loads starying from
8.4 Procedure:
50gm and for every additional 5 gm and enter
the values in note book as fcalc .
1. Arrange vibrator, pan and string as shown in Fig-
(c) Add weight to pan. Change the frequency to ob-
ure 1.
tain the required number of stable loops. Record
2. Switch on the vibrator. Set the frequency to the respective frequencies as fmeas in the note-
20Hz. book.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 9. Melde’s Experiment 35 8.5. Interesting Notes

(d) Repeat the above procedure for maximum pos- lights? You may see yellow and blue on the vi-
sible load T . brating string. This has to do with the way fluo-
rescent light works. Most fluorescent tubes have
9. Plot all three sets of data in a single had the air inside removed and replaced by a
graph between for fcalc vs fmeas . Note small amount of mercury vapor and argon gas.
that the it should be straight line, oth- The inside of the glass tube is coated with a
erwise fit the curve to a straight line fit. white phosphor powder. When electricity flows
10. Plot three other graphs for (i) fmeas vs n, in the tube, almost instantly the argon emits blue
2
(ii) fmeas vs L and (i) fmeas vs T . Discuss light and the mercury vapor emits ultraviolet.
the nature of curve obtained. If neces- The ultraviolet light strikes the phosphor pow-
sary fit the data linearly. der and after a brief delay the phosphor re-emits
yellow light. The familiar white fluorescent light
is due to the combination of the two complemen-
tary colors of blue and yellow light. Due to the
Table 8.1: Table for collecting data
slight delay in the production of yellow, there is
To show f ∝ n
a moment at start-up when only blue is visible
Load m = ..............g and a moment at turn-off when only yellow is
Length L = ...........cm visible. Because we use alternating current to
No. of fcalc fmeas run these lights, we go through many on-off cy-
Loops (Hz) (Hz) cles every second. This produces a repeated se-
1 — quence of blue and yellow moments. For station-
2 ary objects these alternating colors are reflected
3 from the same location and persistence of vision
4 causes them to combine into white. However,
To show f ∝ L−1 if the object changes position quickly, like the
Load m = .............g vibrating string, we see the blue reflection in a
Loops n = .............. different location than the yellow reflection. Be-
Length fcalc fmeas cause the images don’t overlap, our eyes do not
(cm) (Hz) (Hz) combine the colors and we see separate blue and
140 — yellow colors. Reference: www.edgerton.org/
145 kidscorner/blues.html
150
155
√
To show f ∝ T
Length L = .............cm
Loops n = ..............
Load fcalc fmeas
(g) (Hz) (Hz)
5 —
10
15
20

2. Use Figure 1 to answer the following questions.

8.5 Interesting Notes (a) If the person playing this guitar loosens knob A,
which variable in equation (8.7) do they affect,
1. Why do blue and yellow colors become visible and how does loosening affect the frequency at
when objects spin or vibrate under fluorescent which the string vibrates?

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 9. Melde’s Experiment 36 8.5. Interesting Notes

(b) If the person playing this guitar puts her fin-

ger across the fret at point B, which variable in
equation 5 is affected, and how does it change
the frequency at which the string vibrates?
(c) The strings of a guitar are not all the same
appearance. Some are a lot thicker than oth-
ers. Which variable is affected by a thicker
string, and how would the frequency change for
a thicker string?

3. Does the relationship in your graph of frequency

vs. number of vibrating segments agree with
what was predicted?

4. Are your results consistent with the actual mass

values? Explain your conclusion and discuss the
sources of experimental error.

5. Does the amplitude of the mechanical driver af-

fect the amplitude of the standing wave?

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 9 Raytracing of optical components

9.1 Aim 2. As the window opens, first press S on the key-

board and then G. You will see small dots appear-
To study the Dispersion by a triangular prism and ing in the window. These are called grid points
to verify the laws of refraction using Raytrace. and the whole window is called grid. This helps
us in finding distance and pasting objects.

9.1.1 Apparatus Required 3. Now click on the following menu items in the
following order Edit → Library → Paste from.
Ray trace software and PC A new window opens. Click on the Change Li-
brary.

9.2 Part 1: To study the dis- 4. A new window opens. You will see Conics, Lenses,
Prisms etc.
persion
5. Click on Prisms and then click on OK.
9.2.1 Introduction 6. Now you will see a list of types of prisms under
the button Change Library. Choose Triangle
RAYTRACE is a software, that simulates differ- 60-60-60 from there. (It is the last type in the
ent components of an optical system, namely list.)
prisms, lenses, glass plates and different kind of
sources. It enables one to manipulate the envi- 7. Click on Paste. A small window opens Raytrace:
ronmental variables, like refractive index, wave- Paste element. Click the close button on it.
length of light etc. and see the effects on light
8. Now click on the center of the screen.
rays. This software is in perfect coordination
with the ideas of ray optics and hence is useful 9. You will see a prism on the screen. (Notice that
in devising optical systems for various operations. the three vertices of the triangular cross sec-
It has nothing to do with wave optics, however tion of the prism lie on three of the grid points.
and this poses a limitation on the user in terms of This is the reason we press S and G buttons of
use. It is in no way able to simulate wave optical the keyboard in the step 1. If we do not do this
phenomena. the prism will not be having its three vertices
on three grid points.)
9.2.2 Experiment 10. Now click on the following menu items in the
following order Create → Source → Point.
Objectives
11. A new window opens. Make the number of rays
The experiment aims at; understanding refrac- 3, which you will see 10, by default.
tion from prism and find the angle of minimum
deviation for a particular colour and hence finding12. Click on the boxes Drag on create and Drag
the refractive index for that colour and compar- symmetrically. Click OK. can create rays.
ing it with the standard value for the material of13. Click with this plus sign on the left of the prism,
the prism. some distance apart from its base. You will see
that with your click the create written in the box
9.2.3 Procedure with the plus sign changes to aperture and a 1
appears in a box adjacent to the plus sign.
The following steps are to be followed to attain
14. Drag this plus sign to the left side of the triangle
the objectives.
preferably to the mid-point of the side. As you
drag the plus sign you will see that an arrow
1. Click on the desktop icon of RAYTRACE. appears. Make the tip of this arrow touch the

37
 Expt. 10. Virtual experiments 38 9.2. Prism

mid-point of the side of the triangular prism. By

doing this you are choosing the position where
the central ray should incident. If you choose
this to be the mid-point of the side, you may
have a symmetric diagram, that will be easier
to handle. in other case you may find it to be
clumsy enough for measurement purpose.

15. As you touch the tip of the arrow to the left side,
click you mouse again. you will see the number
change from 1 to 2. Keeping mouse at the same
position click again. So that all the rays fall on Figure 9.1: Prism at angle of minimum devi-
the same point ation. Note that the ray inside the prism is
parallel to the base.
16. Click once again and you see that the plus sign
disappears and the three rays have been created.
Note that you see only a single ray. to the incident plane.

17. Click on the point from where the rays have ini-22. Select the ray of the colour (on the other side
tiated. You will see that the rays are selected. of the prism), for which you have to measure
This is confirmed by small red rectangles ap- the angle of minimum deviation and press F7.
pearing at the end points. This will extrapolate the out coming ray in the
backward direction. Now you are able to see the
18. Now select the incident ray, then click on the angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Modify button of the menu and select Ray. A Refer to figure 9.1
window appears.
23. Strictly follow this procedure to measure angle
19. Click on the buttons in the following sequence of incidence: Click on the menu button Create
red → next → green → next → blue → OK. and select protractor, (Now mouse shows cen-
You will see that there are three rays coming out. ter), click the mouse at the bisecting point of
The lower most ray has become blue, the upper incident ray to the perpendicular. Press E click
most has become red and the ray in between is on the starting point of incident ray, then go to
green. This means we have generated the ray of the end of the tangent line and click. You will
three colours and that is why in the previous step see a small line showing the angle. Now you can
we have said that the three rays have been cre- move the incident ray to change angle of inci-
ated. It is worthwhile to note that initially the dence.
rays wer of one colour Red, so even after pass-
ing through prism we were able to see a single24. Click on the vertex of the angle you want to mea-
ray. Now since we have made the three rays sure. Now click on one arm and then on the
of three different colours, we see the common other. You see an angle value appears. This is
phenomenon of dispersion of light. the angle subtended.

20. Now you see the incident ray becomes blue, be-25. Select the incident ray and change the angle of
cause of the sequence we have chosen the colours. indicant so that the ray passing through the prism
It’s nothing to worry about. Chose this ray, as becomes parallel to its base. Note the angle of
you did it last time. Press F5; this draws a nor- incidence (θi ) and angle of deviation (δm ) for a
mal at the point of incidence. We will use this to each (RED, GREEN or BLUE) color.
measure the angle of incidence. Press F6, This
extrapolates the incident ray. this we will use to26. Use protractor to measure angle of minimum de-
measure the angle of deviation. viation. Refer to 9.3. Repeat the procedure for
green and red. Record your data in the note
21. Select the incident ray press F5 then F6, this will book.
extrapolate the incident ray and the draw normal

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 10. Virtual experiments 39 9.3. Rectangular Block

1. The incident ray, the refracted ray and the

normal to the interface at the incident point
all lie in the same plane.
2. For any two media and for light of a given
colour (wavelength), the ratio of the sine
of the angle of incidence to the sine of the
angle of refraction is a constant.

If the angle of incidence is i and the angle of

refraction is r, then
Figure 9.2: Finished raytracing of a prism.
sin i
= constant = n (9.2)
sin r
27. Save your file with your rollnumber as file name.
This my be useful for taking print out.
9.3.2 Procedure
28. The refractive index of the material may be cal-
culated from the formula; 1. Open New file. In order to make a rectangular
block follow this procedure.
2. Select Create → Element → Region
( A+δ )
sin m
µ= 2
(9.1) 3. Mouse will be changed to START. You have to
sin A2 make Click at any point on the screen, move
horizontally to 10 grid points, then go down six
points, go horizontally backwards 10 points, then
go up six points. Now you might have reached
9.3 Part 2. Verification of laws the start point. Right click the mouse and click
of refraction on Finished. You will see a blue colored rectan-
gular box now.
9.3.1 Theory 4. Select Create menu and select Ray. The mouse
change to START. Start a ray from the top side
Light rays travel in straight lines in a homoge- and allow the ray to fall the upper side of the
neous medium. But whenever a light ray passes block at some angle. Left click the mouse and
from one transparent medium to another, it de- select Finished. Now the ray might be making
viates from its original path at the interface of refraction and passing though the block.
the two media. In the second medium the ray ei-
ther bends towards the normal to the interface or 5. Select the incident ray and press F2 then f5. you
away from the normal. The bending of the light- might see reflected rays and the Normal drawn
ray from its path in passing from one medium to from the incident planes. If required, click on the
the other medium is called refraction of light. If reflected rays and reduced the length by dragging
the refracted ray bends towards the normal rela- the end points to appropriate length.
tive to the incident ray, then the second medium 6. Measure the angle of incidence and refraction as
is said to be denser than the first medium. But discussed in the previous procedure.
if the refracted ray bends away from the normal,
then the second medium is said to be rarer than 7. Now select the rectangular region, select Modify
the first medium. → Element → Refractive Index. Change the
refractive index of red colour to 1.00. Is θi = θr ?
The refraction of light takes place according to
Why?
the following two laws known as the laws of re-
fraction: 8. Now change the refractive index of red colour to
2.00, find the values of θi and θr .

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 10. Virtual experiments 40 9.4. Observations

Figure 9.3: Finished raytracing of a rectangu-

lar block.

9. Record all values of angles in the table.

9.4 Observations

Angle of the prism = A = 60◦

Raytracing with a rectangular block.

sin( A+δm )
Color θi δm µ = sin A2
2
Red
Green
Blue
Raytracing with a rectangular block.
sin θi
Refractive θi θr µ = sin θr
index
1.5
1.0
2.0

9.5 Results

1. Raytracing of a prism and a rectangular

block is done with a PC.

2. Laws of reflection and refraction are veri-

fied.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 10 e/m by Thomson Method

10.1 Aim

To measure the charge to mass ratio of elec-

tron using Thomson method and to find the sign
charge of electron.

10.2 Apparatus requires

Cathode ray tube, High and low tension power

supplies, bar magnets, scale, etc.

10.3 Discovery of electron

Figure 10.1: Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856
Roentgen set out to study cathode rays but was - 1940). Portrait by Arthur Hacker.
rewarded, on or about Christmas 1895, with the
discovery of X-rays. Becquerel searched for a sus- The present experiment is an exact copy of what
pected but nonexistent link between Roentgen’s J J Thomson performed while discovering a neg-
rays and phosphorescence. Instead, he found atively charged particle, later known as electron.
something totally unexpected: radioactivity. Sir
John Joseph Thomson at Caven- dish Labora-
tory at Cambridge University discovered electron 10.4 Theory
in 1898. The word ’electron’ first used by G.
J. Stoney in 1891 had been used to denote the Electrons are accelerated in an electric field and
unit of charge found in experiments that passed enter a magnetic field at right angles to the direc-
electric current through chemicals. tion of motion. The specific charge of the elec-
Thomson was investigating ’Cathode Rays’ which tron is determined from the accelerating voltage,
had been a puzzle for a long time. Through his the magnetic field strength and the radius of the
experiments Thomson put forward a then contro- electron orbit.
versial theory in which the ’Cathode Rays’ were
made up of streams of particles much smaller
than atoms, Thomson called these particles ’cor-
puscles’. Thomson mistakenly believed that these
’corpuscles’ made up the entire atom. This idea
was controversial as most people at this time
thought that the atom was the smallest particle
in matter and was divisible.
Thomson’s theory was not explicitly supported by
his experiments. It took more experimental work
by Thomson and others to conclusively prove the Figure 10.2: Schematic of an electron-gun used
theory. The atom is now known to contain other in the experiment. A sample electron gun
particles as well. Yet Thomson’s bold suggestion without housing and phosphor screen is shown
that ’Cathode Rays’ were material constituents at the lower corner. More details may be found
of atoms turned out to be correct. The rays in Appendix-A.
are made up of electrons: very small, negatively
charged particles. This experiment is carried out in a special vac-
uum tube, which contains a small amount of

41
Expt. 15. e/m by Thomson method 42 10.4. Theory

mercury vapor. Electrons emitted by a heated The electric and magnetic forces cancel one an-
cathode are accelerated by the voltage applied other if the following condition is met
between the cathode and anode. Some of the
electrons come out in a narrow beam through a v = E/B. (10.2)
circular hole in the center of the cylinder. This
emission is then focused into a narrow beam by
the grid of the tube. When electrons of suffi-
ciently high kinetic energy leaving the cathode
collide with a screen coated with phosphor ma-
terials, the induced phosphorescence leads to a
blue/green glow. This makes the possibility of
seeing the invisible electrons indirectly.
If an electron of mass m and charge e is accel-
erated by a potential difference V it attains the
kinetic energy:
1
eV = mv 2 (10.1)
2
where v is the velocity of the electron.
A charged particle moving in a magnetic field Figure 10.3: Demonstration of Flemings Right
experiences a force to the side (perpendicular to Hand Rule. The lower figure shows the deflec-
the particle’s motion) and perpendicular to the tion of electron in a uniform electric field.
magnetic field. If the particle’s initial velocity is
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field, it will Suppose that an electron is moving to the right,
move in a circle. The magnetic force, equal to as shown in Figure 10.3. It passes through a
e⃗v × B, is the only force on the electron. region of length L in which there is an electric
E field pointing up. If the electron is deflected
The direction of the force on the electron is given downward by a distance d as it passes through
by the right-hand rule. Walker gives this rule as the field, the ratio of e/m, can be calculated as
follows: "To find the direction of the magnetic follows (the following procedure is exactly same
force on a positive charge, start by pointing the as that followed by Sir J J Thomson).
fingers of your right hand in the direction of the
velocity, v. Now, curl your fingers toward the di- Since electrons are pushed down by an electric
rection of B. Your thumb points in the direction field pointing up, the charge of the electron is
of F . If the charge is negative, the force points negative. The magnitude of the downward elec-
opposite to the direction or your thumb." tric force is eE. The electrons accelerate down
with the vertical acceleration eE/m during their
Thomson subjected the cathode rays in his tube traversal of the horizontal distance L. (They also
to electric and magnetic fields at the same time. fall with the acceleration of gravity g. In practice,
Suppose the cathode rays are moving in the x- however, g is negligible compared to eE/m, the
direction. The parallel plates inside the tube, acceleration due to the electric field.) The ver-
when electrified, produce a known electric field tical displacement d of a uniformly accelerated
E in the upward z-direction. The effect of this body is 21 at2 , where a is the acceleration and t is
electric field is to drive the negatively charged the time interval over which it is accelerated. In
cathode rays downward. An magnet placed out- Thomson’s experiment, t = L/v and a = eE/m.
side the tube produces a known magnetic field B Thus:
in the y-direction. The effect of this field is to e 2dV
= 2 (10.3)
drive the electrons upward. Suppose that both m B Lw(L + 2D)
fields extend over the same length l (= L + D) where we substituted E = V /Lw, w is the width
along the trajectory of the cathode rays with D of the plate.
as the distance from the plates to the screen.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 15. e/m by Thomson method 43 10.5. Procedure

10.5 Procedure Adjust the focus and intensity to best value, so

that the spot is smaller and visible clearly at the
The measurement has two parts first to measure center of the tube. If the initial deflection (d0 )
the deflection then to measure the DC magnetic at zero voltage is finite (̸= 0, record it otherwise
field. is record it as 0.

2. Now apply finite voltage to electron gun (say

10.5.1 To measure magnetic field 20V).

3. Record the value of deflection (d1 ). Place the

1. Use the tangent galvanometer (TG) / compass
magnet on the ends of wooden arms. Move
box to align the wooden stand parallel to the
the magnets simultaneously towards the center
North-South Direction to nullify the earths mag-
to nullify the deflection to d1 → d0 . Record
netic field (Why?).
the position of magnets. (The corresponding
2. Note the value of deflections (zero?) θ0 in your magnetic field can be calculated from the graph
note book. drawn from the previous measurements).

3. Mount bar magnets to two extreme points on the

BH tan0 (Gauss)
scale but at equal distance from center. Move
the bar magnets towards the center simultane-
ously so that equal distance between them is
maintained.

4. When the TG starts showing deflections record

the values of θ1 and θ2 and corresponding dis-
tance X1 and X2 in your note book. Is X1 = X (cm)
X2 ?

5. After calculating the value of magnetic field B = Figure 10.5: Showing calibration curve ob-
BH tan θ, plot a curve between distance X (X- tained from Table ??.
axis) and magnetic field B (Y-axis). This can
also be carried out after completing the next part
of experiment. 4. Remove the magnet, reverse the voltage and re-
peat the previous step to find d2 .

5. Remove the magnet. Apply voltage say 30V. and

repeat the previous two steps.

6. Repeat the experiment for different values of volt-

age.

7. Use the calibration curve ploted from the data

of Table ??, to find out the mean θ and hence
the magnetic field corresponding to the mean X
observed in this table.
Figure 10.4: Experimental setup used in the
laboratory to measure e/m of electron.
10.6 Observation

10.5.2 To measure deflection Value of Earth’s Magnetic field (BH ) =

1. Now replace the TG with the electron tube. Re- Deflection (θ0 ) in the absence of magnet =
move the magnets. Switch on the power supply.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 Expt. 15. e/m by Thomson method 44 10.7. Results

Table 10.1: To measure magnetic field

D1 D2 Mean D θ1 θ2 Mean θ BH ×
(cm) (cm) (cm) tan θ
25 25 25
24 22 22
– –
– –
6 –
7 –

Table 10.2: To measure forward bias deflection (d1 ) and revers bias deflection (d2 )
10.7 Results

(Gauss)
Deflection in the absence of applied voltage ( d0 ) =......(mm)

B
Charge to mass ratio of electron = ....C/kg

Magnetic field
Mean D
Actual Value = ............ C/kg.

(cm)
Error in measurement = ...........%.

(mm) (mm) (mm) (cm) (cm)

D2
10.8 Questions
D1
1. What element controls the number of electrons
striking the screen?
Mean

2. What element is controlled to focus the beam?

Deflection

3. Why are the electrostatic fields between the elec-

d2

tron gun elements called lenses?

4. What is the function of the second anode?

d1

5. What effect do longer deflection plates have on

the electron beam?
Applied
No. Voltage
(V)

6. If a compass needle’s north points north, what

10
15
20
5

does that say when it is at the north pole?

7. What do you think will happen if you place a

S.

1
2
–
–

magnet flat onto the front of the monitor screen?

8. What do you think the field around the toroidal

magnet would be? (Hint: the poles are on the
two flat faces).

9. In what direction should the apparatus be aligned

to minimize the effects of the Earth’s magnetic
field? Explain.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 11 Verification of Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

11.1 Aim Region in his honor.) He also discovered sev-

eral interstellar nebulae and some double stars.
To determination of the intensity distribution of Huygens formulated also what is now known as
the Fraunhofer diffraction patterns due to vari- the second law of motion of Isaac Newton in a
ous single slits using laser and to calculate the quadratic form. Newton reformulated and gen-
uncertainty of momentum from the diffraction eralized that law.
patterns of single slits of differing widths and to
confirm Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

11.2 Equipment required

He-Ne or semiconductor laser, single slits differ-

ing widths, photo detector, translation stage, etc.

11.3 Brief biography of Huy-

gens

Christian Huygens, one of the more significant

physicists during the last three centuries, along
with Isaac Newton, was born in April 1629 at The
Figure 11.1: A portrait of Huygens.
Hague, the second son of Constantien Huygens,
(1596 - 1687), a friend of mathematician and
philosopher René Descartes. He also worked on the construction of accurate
clocks, suitable for naval navigation. In 1658 he
Christiaan studied law and mathematics at the
published a book on this topic called Horologium.
University of Leiden and the College of Orange
In fact his invention on Christmas 1656, the pen-
in Breda before turning to science. Huygens
dulum clock (patented 1657), was a breakthrough
achieved note for his arguments that light con-
in timekeeping. The oldest known Huygens style
sisted of waves, which became instrumental in
pendulum clock is dated 1657 and can be seen
the understanding of wave-particle duality. He
at the Museum Boerhaave in Leiden, which also
generally receives credit for his role in the devel-
shows an important astronomical clock owned
opment of modern calculus and his original ob-
and used by Huygens.
servations on sound perception (see Repetition
Pitch). Huygens also developed a balance spring clock
more or less contemporaneously with, though sep-
In 1655, Huygens proposed that Saturn was sur-
arately from, Robert Hooke, and controversy over
rounded by a solid ring, "a thin, flat ring, nowhere
whose invention was the earlier persisted for cen-
touching, and inclined to the ecliptic." Using a 50
turies. In February 2006, a long-lost copy of
power refracting telescope that he designed him-
Hooke’s handwritten notes from several decades’
self, Huygens also discovered the first of Saturn’s
Royal Society meetings was discovered in a cup-
moons, Titan. In the same year he observed and
board in Hampshire, and the balance-spring con-
sketched the Orion Nebula. His drawing, the first
troversy appears by evidence contained in those
such known of the Orion nebula, was published
notes to be settled in favor of Hooke’s claim.
in Systema Saturnium in 1659. Using his modern
telescope he succeeded in subdividing the nebula
into different stars. (The brighter interior of the
Orion Nebula bears the name of the Huygens

45
Expt. 12. Heisenberg Uncertainty 46 11.4. Theory

11.4 Theory

11.4.1 Principle

The distribution of intensity in the Fraunhofer

diffraction pattern of a slit is measured. The
results are evaluated both from the wave pat-
tern viewpoint, by comparison with Kirchhoff’s
diffraction formula, and from the quantum me-
chanics standpoint to confirm Heisenberg’s un-
certainty principle
Diffraction is a wave phenomenon that is depen-
dent on wavelength. Light waves bend as they
pass by the edge of a narrow aperture or slit.
This effect is approximated by:
λ
θ= (11.1)
D

where θ the diffraction angle, λ wavelength of

radiant energy, and D the aperture diameter. A
diffraction grating uses the interference of waves
caused by diffraction to separate light angularly
by wavelength. Narrow slits then select the por-
tion of the spectrum to be measured. The nar-
Figure 11.2: Experimental setup and diffrac-
rower the slit, the narrower the bandwidth that
tion pattern from a single slit.
can be measured. However, diffraction in the slit
itself limits the resolution that can ultimately be
achieved. The angle for the intensity maxima are
When a parallel, monochromatic and coherent α0 = 0
light beam of wave-length λ passes through a λ
single slit of width d, a diffraction pattern with a α1 = sin−1 1.430
d
principal maximum and several secondary max- λ
ima appears on the screen (Fig. 11.2). The in- α2 = sin−1 2.459
d
tensity, as a function of the angle of deviation (11.3)
α, in accordance with Kirchhoff’s diffraction for-
mula, is
The relative heights of the secondary maxima
( ) are:
sin βn 2
I(αn ) = I(0) (11.2)
βn
I(α1 ) = 0.0472 I(0)
where I(α2 ) = 0.0165 I(0)
πd
βn = sin αn (11.4)
λ
The intensity minima are at
( ) 11.4.2 Heisenberg Uncertainty - Quan-
−1 nλ tum mechanics treatment
αn = sin
d
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that
where n = 1, 2, 3 ...
two canonically conjugate quantities such as po-

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 12. Heisenberg Uncertainty 47 11.5. Procedure:

Broglie relationship:
h
= p = mc (11.9)
λ
Thus,
h
∆py = sin α1 (11.10)
λ
Figure 11.3: Geometry of diffraction at a single
slit a) path covered b) velocity component of According to equation 11.2, the angle α1 of the
a photon. first minimum is thus
( ( ))
nλ λ
sin α1 = sin sin−1 = . (11.11)
sition and momentum cannot be determined ac- d d
curately at the same time. Let us consider, for
example, a totality of photons whose residence If we substitute (11.11) in (11.10) and (11.6) we
probability is described by the function fy and obtain the uncertainty relationship
whose momentum by the function fp . The un-
certainty of location y and of momentum p are ∆y = ∆py = h (11.12)
defined by the standard deviations as follows
If the slit width ∆y is smaller, the first minimum
∆y∆p ≥ h/4π = ~/2 (11.5) of the diffraction pattern occurs at larger angles
α1 .
where h = 6.6262 × 10−34 Js and h = 1.054 × In our experiment the angle α is obtained from
1
10−34 Js, Planck’s constant (“constant of action”), the position of the first minimum (Fig. 11.3a):
the equals sign applying to variables with a Gaus-
sian distribution. a
tan α1 = (11.13)
b
For a photon train passing through a slit of width
d, the expression is If we substitute (11.13) in (11.10) we obtain

h ( a)
∆y = d (11.6) ∆py = sin tan−1 (11.14)
λ b
Whereas the photons in front of the slit move
only in the direction perpendicular to the plane Substituting (11.6) and (11.14) in (11.12) and
of the slit (x-direction), after passing through after dividing by h gives
the slit they have also a component in the y- d ( )
−1 a
direction. sin tan = 1. (11.15)
λ b
The probability density for the velocity compo- If the above parameters are substituted (with
nent vy is given by the intensity distribution in λ =670nm) one can verify Heisenberg’s uncer-
the diffraction pattern. We use the first mini- tainty principle using single slit diffraction. How-
mum to define the uncertainty of velocity (Figs. ever, the results of the measurements confirm
11.2 and 11.3). (11.15) within the limits of error.
∆vy = c sin α1 (11.7)

where α1 = angle of the first minimum. The 11.5 Procedure:

uncertainty of momentum is therefore
1. Switch ON the laser. Align the laser parallel
∆py = mc sin α1 (11.8) to the ground and optical bench.
where m is the mass of the photon and c is the 2. Mount the graph paper as a screen at the an-
velocity of light. The momentum and wave- other end of the optical bench.
length of a particle are linked through the de

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

Expt. 12. Heisenberg Uncertainty 48 11.6. Probable Questions

of optical bench.
7. With the help of pen/pencil trace the diffrac-
tion pattern over the graph paper.
8. Use the traced pattern to calculate the width
of central maxima (2a) of obtained diffraction
pattern.

Figure 11.4: Pictorial view experimental setup 9. Calculate the value of a as shown in figure 3.
for single slit diffraction. 10. Repeat the whole experiment for single slit #2.
11. Complete ( the calculations
) to verify the value
Single Silt
Diffraction Pattern of λd sin tan−1 ab <1.
(In-depth View)
11.5.1 Data recording:

2a Separation b/w detector and slit (b) = ... mm

Wavelength of laser light (λ) = .... nm

Single Silt Table 11.1: Verification of uncertainty relation

d
( −1 a )
Diffraction Pattern S. d a b λ sin tan b
tan (�����a / b�
(Cross-sectional View) No. (µm) (mm) (mm)
b

� 1 120 ... ... ...

2 240 ... ... ...

Silt
d

Laser Beam
11.5.2 Results
Laser Diode
1. Single slit diffraction using a laser is stud-
ied. Heisenberg uncertainty principle is un-
Figure 11.5: Schematic of experimental setup derstood and verified.
depicting both cross-sectional and in-depth
vied of single slit diffraction pattern.
11.6 Probable Questions
3. Make sure that the laser falls on the center of
the graph paper and its shows a spot of laser 1. What is Huygens principle?
beam on the graph paper.
2. What do you understand by interference by
4. Insert the single slit #1 and put a plain paper light?
behind it. Adjust the position of the slit, so 3. What are Fraunhofer and Fresnel class of
that the laser is passing through the center of diffraction?
the slit. Observe the diffraction pattern on the
paper. 4. How coherence is important for interfer-
ence / diffraction?
5. Note the width of the slit (d) and separation
between detector and slit (b). 5. What is laser? Do you know laser safety?

6. Remove plain paper and let the diffraction pat- 6. What are the precautions required while
tern fall over the graph, kept at the other end using laser?

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 A Color Tables

A.1 Color and wavelength (nm)

Take color print-out for clarity or use color monitor to viewing.

360 380 400 420 440 460 480 500 520 540 560 580 600 620 640 660 680 700 720 740 760 780 800
Wavelength and the corresponding color (Visibe Light).

A.2 Standard values for Mercury Spectrum.

Name yellow 2 yellow 1 green blue-green blue violet 2 violet 1

Color
λ(nm) 579.0 577 546 491 435 407 404

Table A.1: Standard values for Mercury Spectrum and corresponding color.

A.3 A Mercury Spectrum obtained from a spectrograph.

Figure A.1: Typical spectrum one observes in Physics Laboratory at SGSITS, Indore.

49
 B Some useful data and information

Table B.1: Base SI units

Name Symbol Unit
length m meter
time s second
mass kg kilogram
electric current A ampere
Temperature K kelvin
Amount of substance mol mole
Luminous intensity cd candela

Table B.2: Derived SI Units

Name Symbol Unit
energy J joule
electric charge C coulomb
electric potential V volt
electric capacitance F farad
electric resistance Ω ohm
electric conductance S siemens
magnetic Flux Wb weber
inductance H henry
pressure Pa pascal
magnetic Flux density T tesla
frequency Hz hertz
power W watt
force N newton
angle rad radian
angle sr steradian

50
Appendix B 51

Table B.3: Common Exponent

Symbol Name name of ten Factor
Y yatta 1024
Z zetta 1021
E exa 1018
p peta 1015
T tera trillion 1012
G giga billion 109
M mega million 106
k kilo thousand 103
h hecto hundred 102
da deca ten 101
d deci tenth 10−1
c centi hundredth 10−2
m milli thousandth 10−3
µ micro millionth 10−6
n nano billionth 10−9
p pico trillionth 10−12
f femto 10−15
a atto 10−18
z zepto 10−21
y yocto 10−24

Table B.4: Constants

symbol Name Value units
h Planck’s constant 6.626 068 76 ×10−34 Js
R gas constant per mole (8.20545±0.00037) ×10−2 liter atm/K-mole
kB Boltzmann’s constant (1.38042±0.00010) ×10−23 J/K
σ Stefan-Boltzmann (5.6686±0.0005)×10−8 W/m2 K4
constant
c velocity of light (2.99793±0.00001) ×108 m/s
e elementary charge (1.60207±0.00007) ×10−19 coulombs
me mass of electron (9.10958±0.00005) ×10−31 kg
N Avogadro number (6.02472±0.00036) ×1023 molecule/mole
ϵ 1/µ0 C permittivity of (8.8542±0.0001) ×10−12 farad/m
free space
µ permeability of free 4π = 12.5664 ×10−7 henry/m
space
Mass per unit length of 1 mg/cm
Nichrome

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

 C Brief History of Indian Nobel Laureates

The Nobel Prize is the most respected award, the world over. Beginning in 1901, and the Nobel
Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, beginning in 1969, have been awarded 609 times to 975 people
and 25 organizations. Among the recipients, 11 are Indians (four Indian citizens and seven of Indian
ancestry or residency). Rabindranath Tagore was the first Indian citizen to be awarded and also first
Asian to be awarded in 1913. Mother Teresa is the only woman among the list of recipients, and
here is a list of those Indians who have won this award and made the country proud.
Table C.1: List of Nobel Laureates who are Indian or Indian Origin
Sl.No Name Category Year Province
1 Rabindranath Tagore Literature 1913 West Bengal
2 C. V. Raman Physics 1930 Tamil Nadu
3 Mother Teresa Peace 1979 India (born in Skopje,
North Macedonia)
4 Amartya Sen Economics 1998 West Bengal
5 Kailash Satyarthi Peace 2014 Madhya Pradesh
6 Har Gobind Khorana Physiology or 1968 US (born in Raipur,
Medicine British India)
7 Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar Physics 1983 US (born in Lahore,
British India)
8 Venki Ramakrishnan Chemistry 2009 UK/US (born in Chi-
dambaram, India)
9 Abhijit Banerjee Economics 2019 US (born in Calcutta,
India)
10 Ronald Ross Physiology or 1902 UK (born in Almora,
Medicine British India)
11 Rudyard Kipling Literature 1907 UK (born in Bombay,
British India)
12 14th Dalai Lama Peace 1989 India (born in Taktser,
Tibet)

C.1 Rabindranath Tagore (1861 - 1941)

Nobel Prize for Literature (1913) Tagore was born and lived in Calcutta for most of his
life. He was one of modern India’s greatest poets and the composer of independent India’s national
anthem. In 1901 he founded his school, the Santiniketan, at Bolpur as a protest against the existing
bad system of education. The school was a great success and gave birth to Viswabharati. He was
awarded the 1913 Nobel Prize in Literature for his work "Gitanjali"; for the English version, published
in 1912. The noble citation stated that it was "because of his profoundly sensitive, fresh and beautiful
verse, by which, with consummate skill, he has made his poetic thought, expressed in his own English
words, a part of the literature of the West." In 1915, he was knighted by the British King George
V. Tagore renounced his knighthood in 1919 following the Amritsar massacre or nearly 400 Indian
demonstrators.

52
Appendix C 53 C.2. Sir C.V. Raman (1888 - 1970)

C.2 Sir C.V. Raman (1888 - 1970)

Nobel Prize for Physics (1930) Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was born on 7th Nov. 1888
in Thiruvanaikkaval, in the Trichy district of Tamil Nadu. He finished school by the age of eleven and
by then he had already read the popular lectures of Tyndall, Faraday and Helmoltz. He acquired his
BA degree from the Presidency College, Madras, where he carried out original research in the college
laboratory, publishing the results in the philosophical magazine. Then went to Calcutta and while
he was there, he made enormous contributions to vibration, sound, musical instruments, ultrasonics,
diffraction, photo electricity, colloidal particles, X-ray diffraction, magnetron, dielectrics, and the
celebrated "RAMAN" effect which fetched him the Noble Prize in 1930. He was the first Asian
scientist to win the Nobel Prize. The Raman effect occurs when a ray of incident light excites a
molecule in the sample, which subsequently scatters the light. While most of this scattered light is of
the same wavelength as the incident light, state (i.e. getting the molecule to vibrate). The Raman
effect is usef

C.3 Dr. Hargobind Khorana (1922-2011)

Nobel Prize for Medicine and Physiology (1968) Dr. Hargobind Khorana was born on
9th January 1922 at Raipur, Punjab (now in Pakistan). Dr. Khorana was responsible for producing
the first man-made gene in his laboratory in the early seventies. This historic invention won him
the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1968 sharing it with Marshall Nuremberg and Robert Holley for
interpreting the genetic code and analyzing its function in protein synthesis. They all independently
made contributions to the understanding of the genetic code and how it works in the cell. They
established that this mother of all codes, the biological language common to all living organisms, is
spelled out in three-letter words: each set of three nucleotides codes for a specific amino acid.

C.4 Dr. Subramaniam Chandrasekar (1910-1995)

Nobel Prize for physics (1983) Subramaniam Chandrashekhar was born on October 19, 1910
in Lahore, India (later part of Pakistan). He attended Presidency College from 1925 to 1930, following
in the footsteps of his famous uncle, Sir C. V. Raman. His work spanned over the understanding
of the rotation of planets, stars, white dwarfs, neutron stars, black holes, galaxies, and clusters of
galaxies. He won the Nobel Prize in 1983 for his theoretical work on stars and their evolution.

C.5 Mother Teresa (1910 - 1997)

Nobel Prize for peace (1979) Born in 1910, Skoplje, Yugoslavia (then Turkey) and originally
named Agnes Gonxha Bojaxhiu, Mother Teresa dedicated her life to helping the poor, the sick, and
the dying around the world, particularly those in India, working through the Missionaries Of Charity
in Calcutta. The Society of Missionaries has spread all over the world, including the former Soviet
Union and Eastern European countries. They provide effective help to the poorest of the poor in a
number of countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, and they undertake relief work in the wake
of natural catastrophes such as floods, epidemics, and famine, and for refugees. The order also has
houses in North America, Europe and Australia, where they take care of the shut-ins, alcoholics,
homeless, and AIDS sufferers. Mother Teresa died on September 5, 1997.

SGSITS, Indore Dept. Appl.Phys. & Optoelex.

C.6 Dr. Amartya Sen (Born 1933)

Nobel Prize for Economics (1998) Born in 1933, Bolpur, in West Bengal, Amartya Sen is the
latest in our list of Nobel Laureates. He was honored with the Nobel Prize for his work in Welfare
economics. When Thailand’s Baht plummeted, markets from Bombay to New York were in turmoil
and there was talk of worldwide depression, Sen’s argument that growth should be accompanied
by democratic decision-making seemed only too correct. Amidst the human suffering caused by
mass unemployment and exacerbated – as many felt – by the stringent economic policies of the
International Monetary Fund and ideas of free-market capitalism, Sen’s call for social support in
development appeared humane and wise. A new brand of softer, gentler economics seemed in order.
Although Sen is probably best known for his research on famines, his work on women – the attention
he has drawn to their unequal status in the developing world, and his calls for gender-specific aid
programs – is just as important.

C.7 V.S. Naipaul (Born 1932)

British writer of Indian origin, Sir Vidiadhar Surajprasad Naipaul was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature 2001 "for having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel
us to see the presence of suppressed histories."

C.8 K. Satyarthi (Born 1954)

Nobel Prize for Peace - 2014 Kailash Satyarthi was born in Madhya Pradesh and was awarded
the Nobel Peace Prize in 2014 for his struggle against the suppression of children and young people
and for the right of all children to education. He is an activist who has dedicated his whole life to
childrens rights and education spotlight, battling corporates for their use of child labor. He is the
person who has brought childrens right to education to the spotlight through his work with UNESCO.
He has shared this prestigious award with Young Pakistani Education Activist Malala Yousafzai.

C.9 A. Banerjee (Born 1961)

Nobel Prize for Economics - 2019 An Indian-American economist Abhijit Banerjee was born
on February 21, 1961, in Dhule (India). He is awarded the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic
Sciences with his wife Esther Duflo and Harvard Universitys Michel Kremer. He is currently serving
at MIT as an international Professor of Economics. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, which
awarded the Nobel Prize, commented These winners of the 2019 Economics Prize have produced
research that significantly improves our ability to fight global poverty.

C.10 ___________________

(Do you want to have your name here?) Work hard, read and understand more science, may be one
day your dream might become true.

We hope you enjoyed working in Physics Laboratory.

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PH10151: PHYSICS LAB MANUAL

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