Developments in amplitude-comparator techniques for

distance relays
H. P. Khincha, M.E., K. Parthasarathy, M.E., Ph.D., and B. S. Ashok Kumar, M.E.

Indexing terms: Power-system protection, Relays

Abstract
The paper reports the development of new amplitude-comparator techniques which allow the instantaneous
comparison of the amplitude of the signals derived from primary line quantities. These techniques are used
to derive a variety of impedance characteristics. The merits of the new relaying system are: the simple mode
of the relay circuitry, the derivation of closed polar characteristics (i.e. quadrilateral) by a single measuring
gate and sharp discontinuities in the polar characteristics. Design principles and circuit models in their
schematic form are described and, in addition, a comprehensive theoretical basis for comparison is also
presented. Dynamic test results are presented for a quadrilateral characteristic of potentially general applica-
tion.

List of principal symbols thereby eliminating the need for such types of relay circuits as
/ zero-crossing detectors, delay units, sampling gates and
L/_® L sin CD/ = system fault voltage, referred amplitude-pulse-duration convertors. It has been shown that,
to voltage-transformer secondary wind- with a single measuring gate, it is possible to derive a variety
ing of pickup characteristics. Conventional multi-input amplitude
= IL/~ 4> ~ L sin (cut — <f>) = system fault current, comparators inevitably produce continuous curves not
referred to current-transformer second- characterised by sharp discontinuities. The new comparison
ary winding technique yields characteristics marked by sharp disconti-
ZL =-ZL/(f) = impedance seen by relay (referred to nuities. A theoretical basis has been developed for each polar
secondary side) characteristic. Design principles of the relay are described
?2 = current coefficients first, followed by typical discriminating and logic circuits.
• 04 = voltage coefficients
= angular limit of phase comparison Principle of the relay
impedance just causing operation The principle of the relay is enunciated with the help
X = accuracy = impedance setting of relay of the block schematic in Fig. 1. The line voltage VL
system source impedance
Y = range =
impedance setting of relay
measuring
circuits K2ILIS2
1 Introduction
The design of distance-relaying schemes has evoked K 3 v L ie 3
considerable interest in the field of protective relaying, and
the diverse nature of the system to be protected has led to the
development of protective relays of the distance type with
different operating characteristics on the impedance plane.
Developments in amplitude-comparison1"3 and phase-com-
parison techniques4"6 have led to the realisation of these
characteristics by suitable combinations of signals derived T
from primary line quantities. trip
In 1948, a conductance characteristic was obtained by Fig. 1
Macpherson, McConnell and Warrington7>8 by effecting a Relay block diagram
comparison of the instantaneous current and voltage values. f.w.r. = full-wave rectifier
McLaren9 extended this principle of comparison of in- C = instantaneous amplitude comparator
stantaneous voltage and current values to a new sampling and current IL are applied to \measuring circuits which
technique which allows a comparison of the instantaneous produce voltages K\IL^Jd{, K2IL^6j, K2VL^J> + 03 and
values derived at different instants of time. Though this K4 VL/ <f> + 94, where coefficients Kt /6\ and A r 2 /^2 ern brace
technique dispenses with the need to phase-shift or mix current transformation and K3^63 and K4^J)4 embrace
signals derived from the primary line quantities, the relaying
system requires more complicated relaying circuitry. More- voltage transformation. Voltages K\IL and K2lL are fullwave-
over, a minimum of four measuring gates are required by rectified (without filter circuits) to assume the operating
current-polarised relays, and two by voltage-polarised relays, quantitity. Voltages K3VL and K4VL are fullwave-rectified
to produce a closed characteristic locus on the impedance to be the restraining quantity. Through instantaneous
plane. comparison of the two quantities, judgment is made
The purpose of the present paper is therefore to report the continuously of whether or not the operating value is larger
development of a new amplitude-comparison technique which than the restraint value. The relay characteristic with this
permits a comparison of the voltage and current at every mode of comparison could be represented by the expression
instant during each halfcycle rather than at different instants,
Z, < (1)
\K3/<f>
Paper 6133 P, first received 10th November 1969 and in revised form
26th January 1970 where the modulus sign is used to represent the rectified
The authors are with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore 12, India signals rather than their average values. It is shown that, by
1118 PROC. 1EE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970
varying the coefficients Ku K2, K3 and K^ and using phase- When the restraining voltage is limited by point F, the
splitter networks together with rectifiers for some of the operating criterion emerges as
signals, a variety of pickup characteristics can be obtained. K3ZL\s\n(<j> - ^ /L2|sin (02 — 0j)
2.1 Quadrilateral distance relay
or (3)
We take K4 = 0 and 03 = 0, in expr. 1, the operating
quantity as \KXIL/9X\ + \K2IL//_92\ a n d t n e restraining This is, in general, a resistance characteristic, and is
quantity as \K3VL/(f>\. The relay characteristic obtained with represented by the straight line BC in Fig. 2, and is inclined at
these input signals is shown in Fig. 2. The operation of the an angle 0i to the real axis.
amplitude comparator is best understood by referring to the Switching over of the operating characteristic from straight
waveforms in Fig. 3. A tripping signal is generated when, and line AB to straight line BC occurs when the phase angle <f> of
the impedance vector exceeds the angle a which is obtained
by equating exprs. 2 and 3; i.e.
Kx sin (0 2 — 9X) _ K2 sin (0 2 — 0,)
K3 sin (02 — a) K3 sin (a — 0])
which yields
Kx sin 0, + K2 sin 0 2
tan a = ~K cos 9 + K cos 0 . . . (4)
X X 2 2

Because of fullwave rectification, the circuit produces image

characteristics. Lines DC and AD are parallel to AB and BC,
respectively. When 0, = 0, line BC represents the reactance
characteristics, and, in addition, if 02 = 90°, line AB repre-
sents the resistance characteristics (Fig. Aa and b).

2.2 Offset impedance relay

The block schematic of this type of relay is shown in
Fig. 5 (K2 = 0 , 04 = 0, 03 = 0). To obtain an offset im-
pedance relay, the comparator is fed with the operating
quantity KJL (without rectification) and restrained by the

Fig. 2 • JX UX
Pickup characteristic of the quadrilateral distance relay
c B

K3J

>R
K1/K3

jtrip
. block
D
A

a b
Fig. 4
Typical pickup characteristics of the quadrilateral distance relay
a 6, = 0
b e, = 0,9 2 = 90°

measuring C trip
circuits
IL »
Fig. 3 K3VL
Waveforms of the amplitude comparator
(Quadrilateral distance relay) K4Vf
r '
K5VL
a No-trip condition P
b Trip condition

only when, the operating quantity is greater than the restrain- Fig. 5
ing quantity at every instant during each halfcycle. The Block diagram of the offset impedance relay
comparator circuit is described in Section 4. It can easily be C = instantaneous-amplitude comparator
P = phase-splitter network
seen that, depending on the phase angle <f>, the restraining
voltage for tripping conditions is limited either by point E
on the voltage signal KXIL (when K2IL = 0) or by the point
F on the voltage signal K2IL (when KXIL = 0).
When the restraining voltage is limited by point E and 62
is greater than 9U the operating criterion emerges as
K4VL
Q.C. input
I
K3ZL\sin (0 2 - <f>)\ < tfjlsin (0 2 -
Kx\sin(92-9X)\
1
or ZL< (2)
K3\sin (92 - 0)|
d.c. output
filter
This is a resistance characteristic and is represented by straight
line AB in Fig. 2. Line AB is inclined at an angle 92 to the real Fig. 6
axis. Phase-splitter network
PROC. IEE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970 1119
signals K3 VL and the phase-splitter output K5 VL(K5 > K3). The where 0 = wt. The coefficients Ki/di, K3, and Ks being
phase-splitting network is used, together with rectifiers fixed, expr. 5 expresses ZL as a function of <f> and 0. Hence,
(Fig. 6), to provide direct voltages with reduced ripple. The for each (/>, the comparator produces a tripping signal only
direct voltages so obtained require a minimum of filtering when the impedance seen by the relay is a maximum.

K 5 VL

comparator output comparator output

Fig. 7
Waveforms for an offset impedance relay
a No-trip b Trip

and respond rapidly to changes in the input alternating vol- Therefore, dZJdd = 0 yields the angle 0 at which the
tage. The operation of the comparator may be understood by tripping signal is generated. On differentiating expr. 5 with
reference to the waveforms in Fig. la and b. respect to 0 and equating to zero,
A tripping signal is generated when the operating quantity
exceeds the restraining signal at any instant during a cycle. = cos" 1 £- 3 sin (</» - t (6)
The operating criterion may be written as
K5VL - K3VL sin (0 + <£)< KyIL sin (0, + 0) Hence an offset impedance characteristic results from expr. 5
and eqn. 6, and this is illustrated in Fig. 8a. The centre and
sin +0) radius of the circle are given by
or K5 - K3 sin (0 (5)
centre C =
K\-K\
(7)
and radius r =
K\-K\
The reach in the forward direction is
Kl
OA =
A
5 ~~ A 3
and the offset I (8)

By swivelling this conic characteristic (varying 0^ in the

leading direction, its tolerance to fault resistance can be in-
creased (Fig. 86).
2.2.1 Plain impedance relay
Setting K2 = 0 in expr. 5 and eqn. 6, the operating
criterion is obtained as

K
(9)
5
This is a plain impedance relay, and is illustrated in Fig. 9.

Fig. 8 Fig. 9
Offset impedance relay Plain impedance relay
1120 PROC. IEE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970
2.2.2 Angle impedance relay Voltage VL is halfwave-rectified and clipped before being
This characteristic can be realised by letting Ks = AT3. fed to the amplitude comparator. Current IL is clipped only
during the positive halfcycle. A fixed d.c. bias Ks functions as
2.3 Directional overcurrent relay
the restraining quantity with the current as the operating
quantity. The clipped voltage K3VL provides the directional
Since the measuring circuits are supplied with rectified control and K3 (clipper level) represents the minimum VL
signals, the mode of comparison makes the relay inherently
nondirectional because of the effect of producing image
characteristics on the other side of the origin. Hence, before
dealing with the other types of polar characteristics, a com-
posite measurement (phase with amplitude) is described in
this Section to obtain the directional-control-with-overcurrent
feature. The block schematic for this is shown in Fig. 10.

I d.c. bias output

I K5
measunng amplitude
circuits comparator
Ii-

phase
comparator

|trip
Fig. 10 output
Composite measurement for directional feature
h.w.r. = halfwave rectifier
C = clipper Fig. 13
Waveforms of the comparator for conic characteristic 1
a No-trip
b Trip

- amplitude-comparator output
• phase-comparator output

I amplitude-comparator output
phase-comparator output
K5

Fig. 14
Conic characteristic 1
amplitude-comparator output
phase-comparator output
K4V1.
Fig. 11
Waveforms of the amplitude/phase comparator

output

1 output

Fig. 15
Fig. 12 Waveforms of the comparator for conic characteristic 2
a No-trip
Characteristic of the directional overcurrent relay b Trip
PROC. IEE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970 1121
52 P18
required to maintain the directional property. Under normal in Fig. 16. During the remaining range for the angle <f>, ZL
conditions (as shown in the waveforms of Fig. lla), the current is controlled by exprs. 11 and 13 and eqn. 12. This is repre-
KXIL is small compared with the restraining quantity K5 — K3, sented by segments AF, CD, EF and DE.
and no output is generated from the amplitude comparator.
Only when the magnitude of K{IL exceeds the current-clipper 2.4.3 Conic characteristic 3
setting K[, which is set slightly more than K5 — K3, is an out-
put generated from the amplitude comparator, in the form of This is obtained by letting K4 = 0, 03 = 0 and d2 = 0.
a voltage block lasting for the duration of coincidence /,; The operating quantities are the phase-split signal K2IL and
the fullwave-rectified signal KXIL. The restraining quantity
(Fig. 116), given by
is fullwave-rectified K3 VL. The mode of comparison is similar
to that explained in Section 2.1. A tripping signal is obtained
(10) when, and only when, the restraining quantity is smaller than
the operating quantity at every instant during each halfcycle.
This voltage block is then applied to a phase comparator, The operating criterion emerging is that, when the magnitude
which compares the duration tc with the set duration t$ of the restraining quantity is limited by current KJ^, the
corresponding to the symmetrical angular tripping limit j8 characteristic on the impedance plane is given by
(Fig. lie). This gives a zone of operation as shown in Fig. 12.
The comparator will not produce a tripping signal when ZL< (17)
A-3|sin
VL = 0 or IL = 0.

where 0 = cos" 1 < —- sin (<f> - dx) > - (f> . . . . (18)

2.4 Composite conic/directional characteristics
2.4.1 Conic characteristic 1 When the magnitude of the restraining quantity for operation
A conic characteristic can be obtained by putting is limited by K2IL,
K2 = 0, 0 3 = O and 04 = 0 in expr. 1. Voltage K3VL is
obtained as a phase-split output. The operating quantity is Zr< (19)
K\lL full wave-rectified, and the restraining quantities are
full wave-rectified voltage K4VL and the phase-split output The changeover from one characteristic to another occurs
K3VL. The comparator waveforms are shown in Fig. 13. The when <f> = a, at which the ZL determined from expr. 17 and
comparator compares the magnitude of the operating quantity 19 are equal. A typical polar characteristic is shown in Fig. 17.
at every instant with the magnitude of the restraining quantity,
and a tripping signal is generated at the instants when the
operating quantity exceeds the restraining quantity. The
criterion for operation is expressed by the following equations.
When the magnitude of the operating quantity for operation
is limited by the voltage K4VL, ZL is given by
A'1|sin(0
zL< (ID

where 6 = cos" 1 i — K—- sin (<£ — 0j) f — 0! . . . (12)

I 3 J
When the magnitude of the operating quantity for operation
is limited by K3 VL (at points A, B, C etc.), ZL is given by
^sin^-00
(13)

The change over from one characteristic to another occurs Fig.16

when <f> reaches a, given by Conic characteristic 2
a=K3 sin (0 + 0j) = sin (a - 0,) {A"3 + K4 sin (0 + a)}
. . . . (14)
K 1
and 0 = -^sin(a -Bx)\- (15)
K
)
The resultant polar characteristic obtained from exprs. 11
and 13 and eqn. 12 when 0i = 0, along with a directional
control obtained in Section 2.3, is shown in Fig. 14. This
characteristic can be made to correspond closely to the fault
area of the transmission line.

2.4.2 Conic characteristic 2 Fig. 17

Another conic characteristic may be realised by letting Conic characteristic 3
K2 = 0, 03 = 0 and 04 — 0 in expr. 1, and taking the restrain-
ing signal as a combination of phase-split output K3 VL and
halfwave-rectified signal K4VL. The operating quantity is
—KXIL. The operating criterion for the comparator to issue a restraining
tripping signal emerges (as depicted by waveforms in Fig. 15) output
from
as follows. input
When the magnitude of the operating quantity is limited by circuits
K3 VL, the characteristic is represented by
operating buffer integrating level
^ for0, - 9 0 ° < +90° (16) amplifier AND detector
A3
Fig.18
This is represented by portion ABG of the polar characteristic Schematic of the comparator
1122 PROC. IEE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970
3 Summary of relay characteristics 5 Test results
All the above characteristics have been realised in the The quadrilateral distance relay was subjected to tests
steady state. The operating time of the relay is less than using the protective testing facilities developed by Hamilton
one cycle. Dynamic testing has been confined only to the and Ellis.10 Fault current was obtained from the bench

(Hi)

Fig. 19
Oscillograms showing the waveforms of the comparator
(i) Input signal
(ii) Capacitor changing
(iii) Output
j No trip condition
b Trip condition

quadrilateral distance relay with the directional, control. It

can be seen that the characteristics can be shaped to corre-
spond closely to the fault area of a transmission line. By varying 10
the phase shift 6X associated with the current signal, the relay
can be given more fault resistance, with less vulnerability to
power swings. 08

p 0-6
4 Relay circuits
The relay circuits for realising the polar characteristics
described in Sections 2.1 and 2.4.3 need special mention. The 0-4
design of the comparator should be such that a tripping pulse
has to be generated only when the operating quantity is larger
than the restraining quantity at every instant during each
halfcycle of comparison; whereas, for other characteristics,
the design of the comparator is simple, since, under normal
6 8 10 40 60
conditions, the operating quantity at every instant of com- range Y
parison is smaller than the restraining quantity, and a tripping
signal emerges only when, at any instant, the operating Fig. 20
quantity exceeds the restraining quantity. Accuracy/range chart for the quadrilateral distance relay
The circuit diagram of the relay is shown in Fig. 18. The
operating- and restraining-voltage signals are connected in
opposition at the base of transistor Trj. Ebias, the bias
voltage of transistor Tr4 is so adjusted that, if C is allowed to
charge continuously for half a cycle, Tr4 will conduct. The
oscillograms in Fig. 19 illustrate the principle of operation of
the comparator. Transistor Tr3 is fed with the alternating dynamic
voltage VL. Under normal conditions, during one halfcycle
when VL is positive, transistor Tr3 stops conducting and
allows capacitor C to be charged. During the intervals in this
halfcycle when the restraining quantity is larger than the
operating quantity, transistor Tr2 will conduct and C is dis-
charged. In effect, the capacitor is prevented from being
charged through a complete halfcycle. During the other half-
cycle, when VL is negative, Tr3 conducts and discharges
capacitor C. The comparison is limited to one halfcycle. In
the event of a fault inside the tripping zone, the operating
quantity is larger than the restraining quantity at every 3 4 5 6f 7
instant during each halfcycle, so that capacitor C is allowed secondary resistance, Q.
to charge for a complete halfcycle, resulting in a tripping Fig. 21
pulse at the collector of transistor Tr4. Dynamic polar curve
PROC. IEE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970 1123
current transformers. Fault voltage was applied through a reaches during the angular range 60-210°, and the maximum
phase-shifting transformer to simulate faults in almost any overreach is less than 10%. The relay can be regarded as
position in the complex impedance plane. A sequence timer making a measurement during one halfcycle in each cycle.
The oscillograms in Fig. 23 illustrate the operating time of
the relay. For faults within 80 % of the relay reach, the relay
1-25
operating time is less than 1 • 5 cycles, and near the threshold
point it is about three cycles. The operating time can be
considerably reduced by duplicating only the comparator
circuits shown in Fig. 18.
1
2! 6 Conclusion
uO75 The paper provides a theoretical basis for amplitude-
I
4-1
comparison methods of transmission-line protection. The new
relaying system, in addition to offering many advantages,
.§050 such as lower load and faster operation, has the following
025 merits:
(a) Closed polar characteristics (i.e. quadrilateral) are
obtained by a single measuring gate.
0 60 120 180 240 300 (b) Improved polar characteristics with sharp discontinuities
angle of switching ,deg are realisable.
Fig. 22 (c) It has a simple mode of input signals and relay circuitry.
Transient overreach (d) It allows realisation of a directional overcurrent control.

relay operation 7 Acknowledgments

The paper is based on the research carried out at the
Relay Laboratory, Department of Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 12, India. The authors
wish to acknowledge the advice and encouragement given
to them by Prof. B. N . Narayana Iyengar of the Electrical
Engineering Department. Thanks are also due to F . S.
Prabhakara and P. V. Subramanian for their kind assistance.
relay operation

References
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2 CALECA, V., HOROWITZ, S. H., MCCONNELL, A. J., a n d SEELY, H. T . :
Fig. 23 'Static mho distance and pilot relaying—application and test
Operating time of the relay results', IEEE Trans., 1963, PAS-67, pp. 424-436
3 PARTHASARATHY, K. : 'Static and semistatic conic distance relays',
a Fault within 80% of reach of relay Elect. Times, 22nd July 1965, pp. 119-125
b Fault near the threshold 4 ADAMSON, c , and WEDEPOHL, L. M. : 'Power system protection
with'particular reference to the application of junction transistors
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and a controlled switching unit incorporated in the test bench 5 HUMPAGE, w. D., and SABBERWAL, s. p.: 'Developments in phase-
served to apply a fault at any particular point in the voltage comparison techniques for distance protection', ibid., 1965, 112,
(7), pp. 1383-1394
wave. The relay was connected as a phase-fault element. The 6 GIOT, G., MARCHAL, c , and VASQUEZ, R. : 'New possibilities of
transformation coefficients were selected as Kx = 2 - 5 / 0 , transistor circuits for distance protection'. CIGR£, Paris, paper
309,1964
K2 = 10^75° and K3 = 1 / 0 . The impedance of the simulated 7 BARNES, H. c , and MACPHERSON, R. H. : 'Field experience—elec-
transmission line was selected as 10Q at an angle of 70°. tronic mho distance relay', Trans. Amer. Inst. Elect. Engrs., 1953,
72, Pt. Ill, pp. 857-865
Angle j8 was set at 60° for the directional scheme. 8 MACPHERSON, R. H., WARRINGTON, A. R. VAN C , a n d MCCONNELL,
The accuracy/range chart for the relay is shown in Fig. 20. A. j . : 'Electronic protective gear relays', ibid., 1948, 67, Pt. II,
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The dynamic polar curve of the relay is shown in Fig. 21. The 9 MCLAREN, p. G.: 'Static sampling distance relays', Proc. IEE,
directional-control circuit of the relay required a minimum 1968, 115, (3), pp. 418-424
10 HAMILTON, P. L., and ELLIS, N. s.: 'Developments in bench testing
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range Y of 8 : 1. It will be observed that the relay over- (Pergamon, 1960)

1124 PROC. IEE, Vol. 117, No. 6, JUNE 1970