POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

TEE-445 3(3-0-0)
Lecture-2
Prof: Ravi Saxena
Electrical Engg
COT Pantnagar
Comparators:

let S1 and S2 be the two input signals such that when the phase relationship
or magnitude relationship obeys predetermined threshold conditions, tripping
is initiated.
The input signals are derived from the primary power system via current and
voltage transformers. These signals may be derived from the primary voltage
or current or from both, the latter necessitating some form of mixing device
such as a current voltage transactor as shown in Fig above.
Contd…

Let

where K1 and K3 are scalar constants and K2 and K4 vector constants with
angles θ2 and θ4, respectively. Taking A as the reference vector and vector B
to lag A by an angle Φ, Eq. (4.1) reduces to
Amplitude Comparator :
If the criteria for operation is given by |S1|≥|S2|, then at the threshold of
operation |S1|=|S2|, equating the moduli of expression (4.2)

Rearranging the terms

 Dividing by (K22-K24) |A|2

or
Equation (4.5) represents the equation of a circle on the β-plane having |B/A|
cos Φ and j |B/A| sin Φ as coordinates represented as |B/A|p j |B/A|q. This
circle has
 Radius

Similarly Eq. (4.4) can be plotted in the α-plane by dividing it by (K21 – K23) |B|2.
Analysis for Phase Comparator:
The two quantities to be compared are S1 and
S2. If α is the phase angle of input S1 and β that
of S2, the relay operates when the product of S1
and S2 is positive. The product is maximum
when the two quantities are in phase. All the
conventional characteristics of relays can be
obtained with a symmetrical phase comparator
with (α – β) = ±90°. Therefore, this is the
threshold condition, i.e.
that is, when

This equation is again similar to Eq. (4.4) and can be plotted on the β-
plane. Dividing Eq. (4.6) throughout by K2K4|A|2 cos(θ2-θ4) we get
where
The circle has

The circle has

In most relays at least one of the constants K(i.e. K1, K2, K3, K4) is zero and
two of them are often equal. Also the angle of the two vector constants is
usually the same. This makes the practical case relatively simple.
If θ 2 = θ4 the values of r and c in the two cases
are tabulated in Table 4.1.
Duality Between Amplitude and Phase Comparators:

Equations (4.4) and (4.6) represent the general operating characteristics of the
relays using the amplitude and phase comparators respectively. These are
Comparator Equation in Power System Protection of a circle on complex planes
and indicate that an operating characteristic equation can be obtained either by a
phase comparator or by an amplitude comparator through proper selection of the
four constants K1 through K4.

Consider the operation of an amplitude comparator with input signals A and B. It

operates, say, when

If the inputs are changed to (A + B) and (A — B) so that it operates when

It has now become an inherent phase comparator as shown in Fig. (4.3) vector
diagram, i.e. if the inputs are changed to (A + B) and (A—B) the original
amplitude comparator would compare phases of A and B.
Similarly, a phase comparator working with inputs A and B,
operates when A and B have same directional sense. If now the
inputs are changed to (A + B) and (A—B) it would operate when
(A + B) and (A—B) have the same directional sense, i.e. |A| > |B|
as shown in Fig. (4.4). Such comparators are known as
converted comparators.
• Though a given relay characteristic can be obtained using
either of the two comparators, consideration of the
constants calculated for required characteristics would
indicate which type of comparator is preferable.
• In general an inherent comparator is better than the
converted type, because if one quantity is very large
compared with the other, a small error in the large
quantity may cause an incorrect comparison when their
sum and difference are supplied as inputs to the relay.
General Equation for Electromagnetic Relay:
It has already been shown that when not more than two quantities are
involved, the equation for the characteristic of the relay at the threshold of
operation under steady state conditions, when plotted on complex planes is a
circle.

|A| and |B| – two quantities being compared

Φ – electrical angle between A and B

θ – relay characteristic angle, which is the value of Φ for

maximum torque

K and K’ – scalar constants

K″ – mechanical restraining torque

For Electrical Quantities V & I

which can also be explained as: the current

winding produces a torque KI2 and the
potential winding a torque K’V2, while the
torque due to interaction of current and
potential windings will be VI cos (Φ-θ).
What is Overcurrent Relay ?
• A protective relay which operates when the load current
exceeds a preset value, is called an overcurrent relay.
• The value of the preset current above which the relay
operates is known as its pick-up value.
Advantages & Application
• Cheapest and simplest form of protection.
• Used for the protection of distribution lines, large motors,
power equipment, industrial systems, etc.
• Also used on some sub transmission lines which cannot
justify more expensive protection such as distance or pilot
relays.
• A scheme which incorporates overcurrent relays for the
protection of an element of a power system, is known as
an overcurrent protection scheme or overcurrent
protection.
• An overcurrent protection scheme may include one or
more overcurrent relays.
 Types of Overcurrent Relay:
• Instantaneous Overcurrent relay
• Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
• Inverse Definite Minimum Time Overcurrent Relay
• Very Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent Relay
• Extremely Inverse Definite Time Overcurrent
Relay
Inst. O/C Relay

As the name suggests, an instantaneous overcurrent relay trips off the circuit
as soon as a current higher than the set threshold is sensed by it.
Definite Time O/C Relay :

A definite time overcurrent relay comes into action after an intentional time
delay. Unlike the instantaneous overcurrent relay which causes the circuit to
trip-open immediately in case of an overcurrent situation, a definite-time
overcurrent relay allows the overcurrent or the overload to sustain for a
certain period of threshold time.
Inverse Definite Minimum Time Relay
Applications of Overcurrent Relays
1. Feeder line protection
2. Transformer Protection
3. Motor Protection
4. Capacitor bank protection
5. Cable Protection
Objective of O/C Protection Relay
• Detect Abnormal Condition
• Isolate Faulty Part of the System
• Fast speed protection to minimize the danger.
IDMT Characteristics with TMS
T ∝ ɸV ɸI sin (ɸ + θ) where ɸV ∝
V and ɸI ∝ I

So the torque equation for the

relay can be given as –

T = K V I sin (ɸ + θ) … (3.10)
• The torque is maximum when the two fluxes are displaced by 90° i.e. when
(ɸ + θ) = 90°. Here dotted line in the phasor diagram represents the desired
position of ɸI for maximum torque. Since V is the reference quantity and ɸV
has fixed position with respect to V for a particular design, the angle
between the dotted line and the reference quantity V is known as the
maximum torque angle and let it be denoted by τ.

• Zero torque will occur when sin (ɸ + θ) = 0 i.e., (ɸ + θ) = 0° or 180°, this

being satisfied when the relay current phasor lies along the chain dotted line
which is at right angles to the maximum torque line. The directional element
will, therefore, operate provided the current phasor lies within ± 90° of the
maximum torque line. If the current phasor is displaced by more than 90°
the directional element will restrain. The operating and the non-operating
regions are shown in the figure.

It may be seen that –

τ = 90° – ɸ
or ɸ = 90° – τ …(3.11)

and the torque equation becomes

T = KV I sin (θ + 90° – τ)

= KV I cos (θ – τ) …(3.12)

When the relay is about to start, neglecting the spring constant,

V I cos (θ – τ) = 0

or θ – τ = 90°

or θ = τ + 90° …(3.13)
The zone between the dotted line and the line parallel to it corresponds to the
spring torque. If the current phasor lies within these lines the torque developed is
less than spring torque and hence the relay does not operate. If the current
phasor crosses the dotted line the operating torque exceeds the spring torque and
hence the relay operates. Relay will not pick up or it will reset for any current
phasor lying in the negative torque region.

It may be noted that the system current usually lags behind the system voltage
but the relay current is made to lead the relay voltage by inserting resistance or
capacitance or a combination of the two in series with the voltage or potential coil.
Such relays are very suitable for protection of parallel feeders. The directional
overcurrent relay suffers from the drawback that the feeder voltage falls to a
much lower value when a fault occurs resulting into non-operation of the relay.
This shortcoming may be overcome by compensating the relay secondary
winding on the lower magnet.

The compensating winding ampere-turns on the lower magnet opposes the

ampere-turns produced by the current coil. Therefore, turns of current coil will
have to be appropriately increased. When the voltage falls due to the fault on the
feeder, the resultant ampere-turns provided by the windings on the lower
electromagnet jointly increase, compensating the reduced ampere-turns provided
by the voltage coil.
What is Recloser ?
• A Recloser is an automatic, high-voltage electric switch.
Like a circuit breaker
• A Recloser automatically tests the electrical line to
determine whether the trouble has been removed. And, if
the problem was only temporary, the recloser
automatically resets itself and restores the electric power.
• On high-voltage electric lines, 80 to 90 percent of trouble
occurrences are temporary – such as lightning, windblown
tree branches or wires, birds, or rodents – and will, by
their very nature, remove themselves from the electric line
if the power is shut off before permanent damage occurs
to the lines.
• The recloser senses when trouble occurs and
automatically shuts off the power.
• An instant later (the length of time may be
noticeable only as a light bulb flicker), the
recloser turns the power back on, but if the
trouble is still present, it shuts it off again. If the
trouble is still present after three such tries, the
recloser is programmed to consider the problem
permanent and it remains off.
• Examples of permanent problems include: power
lines or other equipment damaged by lightning
strikes, fallen tree limbs, or vehicle crashes.
 Fault Arc Resistance
An approximate value of arc resistance is to be obtained by empirical relations.
Warrington gives the expression

Fault Resistance Calculation

where

L = length of arc in metres in still air,

I = fault current in amperes.

In the Soviet Union the expression used is

L will initially be equal to conductor spacing in the case of phase-faults and
distance from conductor to tower in ease of earth faults. With cross wind,
when there is a time delay in fault clearance such as in zones 2 and 3, the arc
is extended considerably, and the resistance is increased.

For zone 1 where the tripping is instantaneous, the effect of arc resistance is
small and may be neglected except on very short feeders; but for zones 2 or 3
high velocity winds may cause the relay to underreach seriously.

When both wind and time are involved, Warrington’s formula for arc resistance
is
Warrington’s formula for arc resistance

where

VL = nominal system interphase voltage, KV

v = wind velocity in km per hour

t = time in second
From the above, the positive torque produced due to the current element is
proportional to I2 and the negative torque produced due to the voltage
element is proportional to V2. If K3 is the torque due to the control spring.
The torque equation of the electromagnetic type impedance relay is given
by,

T = K1I2 – K2V2 - K3
Since the effect of spring is small it can be neglected. Thus by putting K3 =
0, we get the torque equation as,
T = K1 I2 - K2 V2
For relay operation,
Impedance Relay - its Principle of Operation & Operating Characteristics
In the case of static and microprocessor-based relays, for the operation of the
relay,

From the above equation, it can be seen that the impedance relay will operate
only if the impedance (V/I ratio) seen by it is less than the preset value i.e.,
design impedance or given constant.
From the above equation, it can be seen
that the impedance relay will operate only if
the impedance (V/I ratio) seen by it is less
than the preset value i.e., design
impedance or given constant.
As seen from the above figure, the V-I characteristics of an impedance relay are
slightly bent near the origin, this is due to the effect of the spring torque (spring
effect) in electromagnetic types relays.
Operating Characteristics on R-X Diagram :
 Reactance Relay
• It is a high-speed relay.
• Consists of two elements an overcurrent element and a
current-voltage directional element.
• The current element develops positive torque and a
current-voltage (directional element) element opposes
the current element depending on the phase angle
between current and voltage.
• The directional element is arranged to develop maximum
negative torque when its current lag behinds its voltage
by 90°.
• The induction cup or double induction loop structures are
best suited for actuating reactance type distance relays.
The operating torque will be proportional to the square of the current while
the restraining torque will be proportional to VI cos (Θ – 90°). The desired
maximum torque angle is obtained with the help of resistance-capacitance
circuits, as illustrated in the figure. If the control effect is indicated by –k3,
the torque equation becomes
where Θ, is defined as positive when I lag behind V. At the balance point
net torque is zero, and hence

The spring control effect is neglected in the above equation, i.e.,

K3 = 0.
If the value of τ, in the general torque equation,
expressed below is made any other 90º, a straight line
characteristic will still be obtained, but it will not be
parallel to R-axis. Such a relay is called an angle
impedance relay.
• This type of relay is not capable of selecting whether the
fault has taken place in the section where the relay is
located, or it has taken place in the adjoining section when
used on the transmission line.
• The directional unit used with the reactance relay will not
be same as used with the impedance type relay because
the restraining reactive volt-ampere, in that case, will be
nearly equal to zero.
• Therefore the reactance type distance relay needs a
directional unit that is inoperative under load conditions.
• Reactance type relay is very suitable as a ground relay for
ground fault because its reach is not affected by fault
impedance.
Mho Relay
Feature of Mho Relay

Mho relay is suitable for EHV/UHV heavily loaded

transmission lines as its threshold characteristic in Z-plane
is a circle passing through the origin, and its diameter is ZR.
Because of this, the threshold characteristic is quite
compact enclosing faulty area compactly and hence, there
is lesser chance to operate during power swing and also it
is directional.
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

• The relay whose operation depends on the

phase difference of two or more electrical
quantities is known as the differential protection
relay.

• It works on the principle of comparison between

the phase angle and the magnitude of the same
electrical quantities.
ESSENTIAL CONDITION FOR OPERATION

• The network in which the relay use should

have two or more similar electrical quantities.

• The quantities have the phase displacement of

approximately 180º.
APPLICATIONS & CLASSIFICATION

The differential protection relay is used for the

protection of the generator, transformer, feeder, large
motor, bus-bars etc. The following are the
classification of the differential protection relay.

Current Differential Relay

Voltage Differential Relay
Biased or Percentage Differential Relay
Voltage Balance Differential Relay
DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
Transformer Protection
should be at its negative maxima and increasing as shcwn in Figure 4.13. In a time equal
to T!2 (half cycle), the flux changes from -$, to + 6, as shown in Figure 4.14. The
change in flux is therefore 2 q , in TI2 seconds. This is the steady-state picture.

I Transient flux

flux

I
I

: Excitation characteristics of core

I H(AT1rn)
i 10 , : 810
Steady-state
magnetizing current I
4 Inrush current I

4
Time
90 Fltt~~/n~rrc.~tinl,r
qf Pob~!erSj'stettr Protecrio~l

Table 4.1 Harmonic content of inrush waveform

-
Frequency P
Magnitude
Fundamental 100%
DC 40-60%
Second harmonic 30-70s
Third harmonic 10-30%
Fourth harmonic Less than 5%
Fifth harmonic Less than 5%
Sixth harmonic Less than 56
Seventh harmonic Less than 5%

Figure 4.15 shows the conceptual scheme of a harmonic restraint differential relay.
The fundamental component of spill current is segregated with the help of a filter and is
used to develop the tripping torque. The non-fundamental component of the spill current
aids the unfiltered circulating current in developing the restraining torque. This makes
the relay stable on inrush while at the same time not affecting its operation in case of
 Sixth harmonic
Seventh harmonic
Less than 5 6
Less than 5%
1.I
J

Figure 4.15 shows the conceptual scheme of a harmonic restraint differential relay.
The fundamental component of spill current is segregated with the help of a filter and is @.
used to develop the tripping torque. The non-fundamental component of the spill current
aids the unfiltered circulating current in developing the restraining torque. This makes
the relay stable on inrush while at the same time not affecting its operation in case of
genuine internal faults. . . ,.

I CT secondaw 1
(17 - 12) I currents I,, 1;
\, j.

I Filter
Unfiltered /
1 Fundamental
component ( All harmon~w
I I Fundamental +
all harmonics

i
> '

Operating
torque -Relay

Figure 4.15 Conceptual representation of harmonic restraint percentage differential relay. . .

A harmonic restraint percentage aifferential relay which implements the conceptual

 - Transf~7rmerProrecrron 91

CT
Transformer 1 :

Fundamental + Harmonics
circulating current
All harmonics
spill current
.Fundamental
spill current
Figure 4.16 Percentage biased differential relay with harmonic restraint.

4.8 High Resistance Ground Faults in Transformers

A percentage differential relay has a certain minimum value of pick-up for internal faults.
Faults with fault current below this value are not detected by the percentage differential
INCIPIENT FAULTS
• Faults which are not significant in the beginning but which
slowly develop into serious faults are known as incipient
faults.
• Buchholz relay provides protection against such incipient
faults.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY ARRANGEMENT
Continued:
• Protects the transformer from internal faults.
• It is the gas actuated relay.
• Relay is placed between the main tank and
the conservator.
• Such type of relay is used in the transformer
having the rating higher than 500KVA.
• Not used in small transformer because of
economic consideration.
BUCHHOLZ RELAY
 Transjornler Protection 95
Analysis ofof Trapped
4.1 0.2 Analysis Tmpped Gases Gases
The trapped gases in the conservator can give valuable clue to the type of damage that
takes place inside the transformer. This is because the insulation between the winding
turns, the insulation between the stampings of the core and the oil, all liberate specific
gases when they get heated up due to a fault. The presence of these gases can be used
as a signature of a particular type of damage that may have taken place inside the
transformer. Table 4.2 lists this information.

Table 4.2 Analysis of trapped gases

Type of gas Diagnosis
Hz and C2Hz Arcing in oil between constructional parts
Hz, CzHz and C% Arcing with some deterioration of phenolic insulation,
e.g. fault in tap changer
Hot spot in core joints
HZ, CH4, COz and CsHB Hot spot in a winding

4.1 1 Phenomenon of Over-fluxing in Transformers

Transformer Differential Protection
Over fluxing Protection in Transformer
• Reasons for Over fluxing:
• Over voltage causes due to sudden load
rejection
• Low frequency generation of power
• Transmission line is lightly loaded
• Proper shunt compensation in
transmission system is not provided. etc.
Numerical Problems: