Program : B.

Tech
Subject Name: Mathematics-II
Subject Code: BT-202
Semester: 2nd
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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

Module 4: Functions of Complex Variable

Contents
Functions of Complex Variables: Analytic Functions, Harmonic Conjugate, Cauchy-Riemann Equations
(without proof), Line Integral, Cauchy-Goursat theorem (without proof), Cauchy Integral formula
(without proof), Singular Points, Poles & Residues, Residue Theorem, Application of Residues theorem
for Evaluation of Real Integral (Unit Circle).

COMPLEX VARIABLES

If = + , then Z is called a complex variable. Also x and y are respectively called real and
imaginary parts of z. sometimes we express z as = + = ( , ).

We also write R(z) = x and I(z) = y.

The complex conjugate, or briefly conjugate of = − .

For example, conjugate = −3 − 5 is = −3 + 5

+ +
It is easy to verify that: = = , and � = = .
2 2

POLAR FORMS OF A COMPLEX NUMBER

The polar form of a complex number is another way to represent a complex number. The form
= + is called the rectangular coordinate form of a complex number.

The horizontal axis is the real axis and the vertical axis is the
imaginary axis. We find the real and complex components in
te s of a d θ he e is the le gth of the e to a d θ is the
angle made with the real axis.

From Pythagorean Theorem:

2 2 2
= +

By using the basic trigonometric ratios:

� = / and �= /

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Multiplying each side by r:

�= and �=

The rectangular form of a complex number is given by = +

Substitute the values of a and b in = + , Therefore

= �+ �

�
i.e. = �+ � or =

In the case of a complex number, r represents the absolute value o odulus a d the a gle θ is
called the argument of the complex number.

This can be summarized as follows:

The polar form of a complex number = + is
= ( �+ �) , where = | | = 2 + 2 , = � and = � , and � = − 1( / )
for a>0 and
�= − 1( / ) + �
Or � = − 1( / ) + 180° for < 0.

ANALYTIC FUNCTION

A function f (z) is said to be analytic in a region R of z-plane, if it is uniquely differentiable at

every point of R .
Necessary condition or Cauchy-Riemann equations for analytic function :
The necessary condition for the function w = f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) to be analytic in a region R is that
u(x,y) and v(x,y) satisfy the following equations
� � � �
= and =−
� � � �

= and =−
Which are known as Cauchy-Riemann equations.
Sufficient condition for analytic function:
If w = f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) be a function of complex variable defined in the region R such that

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� � � �
I) , , , are continuous functions of x and y in the region R and
� � � �

� � � �
II)
�
= ,� = − �
�

Then the function w = f(z) = u(x,y) + i v(x,y) is analytic and

� �
f '(z) = = � + �

CAUCHY-RIEMANN EQUATIONS [ In Polar Form ]:

Let = = + = ( + )
Put = �and = �, then
+ = ( �+ �)
�
+ = …( )
Differentiate equation (i) partially w.r.t. r
� � ′ � �
+ = …( )
� �
Differentiate equation (i) partially w.r.t. �
� �
+ = ′ � �
…( )
�� ��
� � � �
+ = −
�� �� � �
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
� �
=−
�� �
� �
=
�� �
Which is the polar form of C-R equations.
Example 1: Test the analytic behavior of
Solution: let =
+ = log +
+ = log⁡
( �+ �)
�
+ = log⁡
( )
+ = log + �
Equating real and imaginary part

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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

= and =�

Differentiating partially w.r.t r and �

� 1 �
= and =0
� �
� �
= 0 and =1
�� ��
� 1� � 1�
It is clear that
�
= and =−
�� � ��

The function is analytic except at origin.

2
Example 2 : Show that = is an analytic function.

Solution: Since = +
2
Therefore =( + )2
2
= 2
− 2
+2

Hence, = + = 2
− 2
+2

Equating the real and imaginary parts,

= 2
− 2
, =2
� �
=2 , =2 ,
� �

� �
�
=-2 , =2 ,
�

� � � �
Hence, = , =− ie, u & – .
� � � �
Therefore, f(z) is analytic.
HARMONIC FUNCTION
A real valued function = ( , ) is called harmonic function, if
�2 �2
+ =0
� 2 � 2
i.e. u satisfies Lapla e s e uatio
�2 �2
∇ u= 2+ 2=0
2
� �
Example : Prove that, if f(z)=u+iv is analytic function in domain D, then u and v are harmonic.

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Solution: Since f(z)=u+iv is analytic,it means it is satisfies C-R equations.

� � � �
i.e. = and =−
� � � �

Differentiate w.r.t. x and y, we get

�2 �2 �2 �2
= and =−
� 2 � � � 2 � �

By adding both the equation, we get

�2 �2
+ =0
� 2 � 2
Here, u is harmonic
Similarly,
�2 �2
+ =0
� 2 � 2
Here, v is harmonic.
METHODS FOR CONSTRUCTING AN ANALYTIC FUNCTION:-
Method-I
If u is given function then to find v:
� �
= +
� �
� �
=− +
� �
= + …( )

� �
Where, =− and =
� �

� �2 � �2
Differentiate =− and =
� � 2 � � 2

Since u is harmonic, therefore

�2 �2
+ =0
� 2 � 2
�2 �2 � �
= − ⇒ =
� 2 � 2 � �

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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

Hence equation (i) is exact differential equation. dv can be solve to get v.

Method-II: Milne Thomson Method
Type-I: To construct analytic function f(z) in terms of z, when real part u is given by the
following formula,

= ∅1 , 0 − ∅2 ( , 0) +

� �
Where ∅1 , = and ∅2 , =
� �

Type-II: To construct analytic function f(z) in terms of z, when imaginary part v is given by the
following formula,

= ∅1 , 0 + ∅2 ( , 0) +

� �
Where ∅1 , = and ∅2 , =
� �

Type-III: To construct analytic function f(z) in terms of z, when U = u – v is given by the

following formula,

(1 + ) = ∅1 , 0 − ∅2 ( , 0) +

� �
Where ∅1 , = �
and ∅2 , = �

Type-IV: To construct analytic function f(z) in terms of z, when V = u + v is given by the

following formula,

(1 + ) = ∅1 , 0 + ∅2 ( , 0) +

� �
Where ∅1 , = and ∅2 , =
� �

Example: Use C-R equation to find v , where =3 2

− 3
.
Solution: Here =3 2
− 3

Differentiating u w.r.t x and y

We have
�
=6 = ∅1 ,
�
�
=3 2
−3 2
= ∅2 ( , )
�

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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

Also
�2 �2
+ = 6 + −6 =0
� 2 � 2
Here u is harmonic
Now putting x = z, y = 0

∅1 , = 0 and ∅2 , =3 2

Hence by Milne Thomson method,

= ∅1 , 0 − ∅2 ( , 0) +

= 0−3 2
) +

=− 3
+
= −( + )3 +
= + = 3 2
− 3
+ (3 2
− 3
+ )
Here = (3 2
− 3
+ ).
INTEGRATION IN THE COMPLEX PLANE
Complex Line Integrals and Some Integral Theorems

, then  f ( z )dz   f ( z (t ))  z ' (t )dt

b
For smooth curve C: z=z(t) for
a

Special case 1C: |z-z0|=r  z(t)=z0+reit, dz = z t dt=i eitdt, and 0

c

2�
Special case 2C: |z|=r  z(t)=reit, dz=z t dt=i eitdt, and 0 2�

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Example 1. Find  dz , C: |z|=1.

1
z

c z 0 e it dt  2i
c

Solution: | | = 1  = 
2 ie
it
dz
,0 2�, ’( ) = ,

 z  3i , C: |z-3i|= 3 .
dz 1
Example 2: Evaluate:
C

Solution:
1 1
( )=3 + , ’( ) = ,

C z  3i 0 1 it  3 e dt 2i
3 3


dz 2 1 i it
e

Example 3: Evaluate  zdz , C: |z|=1.

3

,  zdz   e it  ie it dt  2i

c
2
−
Solution: ( ) = , z= , ’( ) =
0
c

Example 4: Evaluate  [ z  R ( z)]dz , C: |z|=2.

e

Solution : |z|=2  z(t)=2eit, z t = i eit

c

Re ( z )  ( z  z )  (2e it  2e it ) z  Re ( z )  ( z  z )  (2e it  2e it )

1 1 1 1
2 2 , 2 2

 [ z  Re ( z)]dz   [ z(t )  Re ( z(t ))]  z' (t )dt   (e  e it )  2ie it dt  2i  (e 2it  1)dt  4i
2 2 2 it 2

c
0 0 2 0

CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL THEOREM

 f ( z)dz  0 .
Let f(z) be analytic in a simply-connected domain D, C is a simple closed curve in D, then

Example 1: Integrate z2 along the straight line OA and also along the path OBA consisting of two
straight lines OB & BA where O is the origin , B is the point z=3 and A is the point z=3+i.
Hence show that the integral of z2 along the closed path OBAO is zero.
Solution : We have z=x+iy , dz=dx+idy

 z dz    x  iy   dx  idy 
Along the curve C , We have
2
2

c c

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A (z=3+i)

O B(z=3) x

 z dz    x 
 y 2  2ixy (dx  idy ) ………………………..
2 2

C C

The point A is z=3+I i.e. A(3,1)

The equation of the line OA is
1−0
−0= ( − 0)
3−0

i.e. =3
Now, On the line OA, x=3y
dx=3dy y:0 to 1

Therefore from (1) we have,

1
2 2
= 8+6 3+
0
26
=6+i 3

 
Again,
z 2 dz  z 2 dz
OBA OB  BA

1
3
= 2
x dx + 9 − y 2 + 6iy i dy
0
0

26
=6+i 3

   z dz  0
2
Lastly , The integral of z along the closed path OBAO is given by
z 2 dz  z 2 dz  2

OBAO OBA OA

i.e Cauchy Integral theorem is verified.

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Application of Cauchy Integral theorem :

Example 1. Evaluate  dz , C: |z-2|=1.

1
z


c

0
1 dz
Solution : f(z)= is analytic except z=0. No poles are within C,
z z


c

dz
| z| 1 z  4
Example 2. Evaluate 2


1 dz
z 4 | z| 1 z  4
Solution : f(z)= 2
is analytic except z=±2. No poles are within C, 2
=0

 sin( z)( z  2i)

z
Example 3 . Evaluate 3
dz , C: |z-8i|=1.
C

Solution: f ( z ) 
z
sin( z )( z  2i) 3
is a al ti e ept z= i, π = ,± , ± , …

No poles are within C,  f ( z)dz  0

CAUCHY’S INTEGRAL FORMULAE

2i
then  dz = πi f z 0 ) and 
Let f(z) be analytic in a simply-connected region D, and let C be a simple curve enclosing z 0 in D,
  f ( n 1) ( z 0 ) .
f ( z) f ( z )dz
c
z  z 0 c ( z  z 0 ) n
( n  1)!


e 2 z dz

Example 1 : Evaluate .
| z| 3
z 2

Solution : 
e2z
z2
= πie ∙ = πie4
| z | 3

c z 3 dz , C: |z|=3.
e iz
Example 2: Evaluate

(e iz )
c z 3     i
e iz
(3  1)! z0 0
Solution : dz i 2

 dz  2i and  dz  4i . If let f(z)=a+bz, find a and b

f ( z) f ( z)
( z  1) 2
Example 3: Given
C z C

Solution: πi= πi．f = πai a d πi= πi．f' = π i, a=1 and b=2.

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
   dz if C : z     0.
sin 6 ( z ) sin 6 ( z )
z 
Example 4: Evaluate dz and
z  
3
6
 6
c c
6

   i
 
dz  2i  sin 6   
sin 6 ( z )
z  6  32
Solution: Let f(z)=sin6(z) and n=3 , ,
c
6
2i 21i
 dz   [sin 6 ( z )]  
sin 6 ( z )
 z0 
z  
3
2! 16
 6
c 6

zz  (z  z
dz dz
Example 5: Let be within C, find and , 2.
)n

Solution: Let f(z)=1, f(n-1)(z0)=0    (z  z

c 0 c 0

 2i and  0.
dz dz
z  z0 )n

Example 6: Evaluate 
c 0

2
2 sin( z )
( z  1) 4
dz , C is a closed curve not passing 1.

c ( z  1) 4 dz  0
c

2 sin( z 2 ) 2 sin( z 2 )
( z  1) 4
Solution: If C does not enclose 1, is analytic within C,

If C encloses 1, let f ( z )  2 sin( z 2 )  

2 sin( z 2 ) f ( z)
( z  1) ( z  1) 4
4
,n=4, n-1=3

f (3) ( z )  24 z sin( z 2 )  16 z 3 cos( z 2 )

2i i
c ( z  1) 4 dz  3! [24 sin(1)  16 cos(1)]  3 [24 sin(1)  16 cos(1)]
2 sin( z 2 )

CAUCHY’S RESIDUE THEOREM

Let f(z) be analytic in D except z1, z2, …,zn and C encloses z1, z2, …,zn within D. Then we have

 f ( z )dz  2i   Re s( f )
n

j 1
zj
c

Method of finding Residue:

d m1
Re s( f )  lim m1 [( z  z j ) m  f ( z )] , where m is the order of a pole z=zj.
1
zj (m  1)! z  z j dz
In case of m=1, Re s( f )  lim [( z  z j )  f ( z )] .
zj zz j

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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

z
Example 1: Find the residues of f(z)=z−1.

Solution: At z=1, m=1, Re s( f )  lim[( z  1) 

z
z 1
] =1
1 z 1

z
Example 2: Find the residues of f(z)= .
(z−1)(z+1)2

Solution : At z=1, m=1, Re s( f )  lim[( z  1) 

z 1
( z  1)( z  1)
]=
1 z 1 2
4
( z  1)  z
lim [( z  1) 2  ] =
Re s( f )
1
1 d z
(2  1)!
1
( z  1) ( z  1) ( z  1) 2
At z=-1, m=2, =
 
z  1
2
z 1 dz 4

1
Example 3: Find the residues of f(z)= .
(z−1)2 (z+1)2

 2( z  1)
lim [( z  1) 2  ] =
1 d 1
(2  1)!
1
( z  1) ( z  1) ( z  1) 4
Solution: At z=1, m=2, Re s( f ) =

z 1
2 2
1 z 1 dz 4

 2( z  1)
lim [( z  1) 2  ]
1 d 1
(2  1)! z 1 dz
1
( z  1) ( z  1) ( z  1) 4
At z=-1, m=2, Re s( f ) = =
1
z  1
2 2
4
z 2  2z
( z  1) 2 ( z 2  4)
Example 4 : Find the residues of f(z)= .

z 2  2z z 2  2z
( z  1) 2 ( z 2  4) ( z  1) 2 ( z  2i)( z  2i )
Solution: f(z)= =

At z=-1, m=2,
z 2  2z (2 z  2)( z 2  4)  ( z 2  2 z )(2 z )
lim [( z  1) 2  
Re s( f )
1
1 d
(2  1)! z 1 dz ( z  1) ( z  4) ( z  4)
14
= ] =−
z  1
2 2 2 2 25

z 2  2z
At z=2i, m=1, Re s( f )  lim[( z  2i) 
( z  2i)( z  2i)( z  1)
7+i
]=
2i z 2 i 2 25

z 2  2z
At z=-2i, m=1, Re s( f )  lim [( z  2i) 
( z  2i)( z  2i)( z  1)
7−i
]=
 2i z 2i 2 25

cot( z ) coth( z )
Example 5: Find the residues of f(z)= .
z3
d m 1
Solution: It is difficult to compute the residue at 0 by Re s( f )  lim m 1 [( z  z j )m  f ( z )] . We
1
(m  1)! z  z j dz

a
zj


utilize f ( z )  ( z  z0 ) n      a0  a1 ( z  z 0 )  
a2 a 1
n   ( z  z0 ) ( z  z0 )
n 2

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cot( z ) coth( z ) cos( z ) cosh( z )

f(z)= = 3
z3 z sin( z ) sinh( z )
     
1      1     1   
z2 z4 z2 z4 z4

=   =   = 1 7 1
 5   
2! 4! 2! 4! 6
     5 z 
z 3  z      z     z    
3 3 9
z z z 45 z
 3!   3!   90 
7
Re s (f)=− 45

c z 2  1 dz , C: |z-1|=1.
z2 1
0

Example 6: Evaluate

Solution: There is only one pole1 within C.

c z 2  1 dz = πi．1 = πi
z2 1 z2 1 z2 1
Re s( f ) = lim[( z  1) 
z 2  1 z 1 z  1
] = lim =1,
1 z 1

z
cos( z ) 1 1
( z  1)
Example 7: Evaluate 2
dz for (a) C: |z|= , (b) C: |z-1|= , (c) C: |z|=2.[
c 3 3
Solution : (a)There is only one pole 0 within C.

=-1, 
 ( z  1) sin( z )  cos( z )
lim [ z 2  2 ]
1 d cos( z ) cos( z )
(2  1)! dz z ( z  1) ( z  1) 2 z 2 ( z  1)
Re s( f ) = dz =- πi

z 0
0 z 0
c

(b) There is only one pole1 within C.

Re s( f ) = lim[( z  1)  z
cos( z ) cos( z )
z 2 ( z  1) ( z  1)
] =cos(1), dz = πi．cos(1)
1 z 1 2

(c) There are two poles 0 and1 within C. 

c

cos( z )
z 2 ( z  1)
dz = πi．[-1+cos(1)]
c

Example 8: Find the residue of f ( z )  and evaluate 

sin( z ) sin( z )
( z  i) c ( z  i)
3 3
dz , C:|z-i|=2.

1
Solution: m=3, Re s( f )  lim 2 [( z  i) 3  ] sin(i)   i sinh(1)
1 d2 sin( z ) 1
i (3  1)! z i dz ( z  i) 3
2 2

 z  i 
 1 
dz  2i    i sinh(1)    sinh(1)
sin( z )
 2 
2

Example 9: Evaluate  tan zdz , C: |z|=2.

c

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Solution: The e a e t o poles ±π/ ithi C.


  sin( z ) z sin( z )  sin( z )
Re s ( f ) = lim [( z  )  tan( z )] = lim [( z  )  2

] = lim

z 2 z 2 cos( z ) z cos( z )

2 2 2 2

sin( z )  z cos( z )  cos( z )

 sin( z )
= lim 2 =-1

z


2

  sin( z ) z sin( z )  sin( z )

Re s ( f ) = lim [( z  )  tan( z )] = lim [( z  )  2

] = lim

 z  2 z  2 cos( z ) z  cos( z)


2 2 2 2

sin( z )  z cos( z )  cos( z )

 sin( z )
= lim 2 =-1

z 

 tan zdz =
2

πi．[(-1)+(-1)]= - πi
c

z
sin( z )
( z 2  4)
Example 10: Evaluate 2
dz , C is any piecewise-smooth curve enclosing 0, 2i, and –2i.
c

Solution : f ( z )  , limsin( z ) z   1 , f(z) has a removable singularity at 0  m

sin ( z ) z
z ( z  2i)( z  2i) z 0
Re s( f )  lim z  2 2 
sin( z ) 1
z ( z  4) 4
of the pole z=0 in f(z) is 1.
0 z 0

Re s( f )  lim ( z  2i)  2  sin(2i)   sinh(2)

sin( z ) i 1
2i z 2i z ( z  2i)( z  2i) 16 16

Re s( f )  lim ( z  2i)   sin(2i)   sinh(2)

sin( z ) i 1
 2i z 2i z ( z  2i)( z  2i) 16
2
16
i i
 f ( z)dz  2i  4  16 sinh(2)  16 sinh(2) 
1 

1 1
sinh(2)
c
2 4

Example 11: Evaluate 

1
3 z
z e
z3 1
dz , C: |z|=3.
c

Solution: Let t=1/z, z=1/t, dz=-dt/t2, C: |t|=1/3

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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

c z 3  1 c 1 3
 dt
c t 2 (t 3  1) dt .
 et
1 1

( )3 et
z 3e z t
( ) 1
dz = ( ) =
t2
t
There is only one pole 0 within C.

c z 3  1 dz = πi∙ -1)= - πi
 et
1

Re s( f )  lim [t 2  2 3 ]  -1,
1 d z 3e z
0 1! t 0 dt t (t  1)

Example 12: Evaluate 

ez
dz ,C: |z|=2.
c
cos( z )

Solution: os z has t o ze os at z=±π/ ithi |z|= .

 
ze z  e z  ze z 



Re s ( f ) = lim[( z  )  =e
ez ez
ez
 sin( z )
2 2 2
  2 cos( z ) z   
] = lim = lim
z cos( z ) z

 
2 2 2 2

ze z  e z  ze z 



Re s ( f ) = lim [( z  ) 
z ez ez
e
 sin( z )
2 2 =e
2
  2 cos( z ) z  
] = lim = lim

 z  cos( z ) z 
2 2 2 2

c cos( z)
 
ez 
dz = πi∙ e 2 -e 2 )

Example 13: Evaluate 

1
ez
z 1
dz , C: |z|=0.5.
c

Solution: Let t=1/z, z=1/t, dz= -dt/t2, C: |t|=2

c z  1 c 1 c t (t  1) dt . There are twopoles0and -1 within C.

 dt  et
1


ez et
( ) 1
dz = ( ) =
t2
t

 et  et
Re s( f )  lim[t  ]  1, Re s( f )  lim[(t  1)  ]  e 1 ,
0 t 0 t (t  1) 1 t  1 t (t  1)

c z 3  1 dz = πi∙ -1+e )
1
z 3e z -1

Evaluation of real Integral by Cauchy Residue Theorem i.e. Integration round the unit circle

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B.Tech , Sem- II, Mathematics -II (BT -202 )

2�
Consider the integral 0
(cos �, sin �) � ………………………

Where (cos �, sin �) is a rational function of osθ a d si θ .

Such integrals can be reduced to complex line integrals by the substitution

�
=
�
= �
�+ − � 1 1
We also know that , cos � = = ( + )
2 2

and
� −�
− 1 1
sin � = = ( − )
2 2

As θ a ies f o to π ,moves once round the unit circle in the anti-clockwise direction
where C is the unit circle |z| = 1.

Hence, after putting the above values in the given real integral (1) ,then it will be reduce in to
complex integral and the we, sovle by Cauchy Residue Theorem .
d
Example 1: Evaluate 
2

0 5  3 cos 
.

d
Solution:    2 =
2

0 5  3 cos 
dz iz 2idz 2idz
1 1 3z  10 z  3
5  3  z   c 3( z  )( z  3)
c 1
2 z
c
3
1
There is only one pole within |z|=1.
d 2i 

3

= 2i  Re s( f )  2i  lim1 ( z  )   2i   .

2

5  3 cos 
1 2i
8 2
z
3( z  )( z  3)
0 1 3 1
3 3
3

d
Example 2: Evaluate 
2

3  2 cos   sin 
.

d
 3  2 cos   sin  c

0


2 dz iz 2dz
1 1 1  1 (1  2i ) z  6iz  1  2i
3 2 z    z   c
Solution: 2
0

2 z  2i  z

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=
2i
2dz
(1  2i )( z  )[ z  (2  i )]
.
c

5
2−i
There is only one pole within |z|=1.
d

5
2

3  2 cos   sin 
2i
0

= 2i  Re s( f )  2i  lim {( z  )

2i
2 1
} = πi∙ =π.
(1  2i)( z  )[ z  (2  i)]
2 i 2 i
z 5 2i
5 5

d d 2
5

  
2 2

a  b sin  a  b cos  a  b2
Example 3: Show that if a>|b|.
0 0 2

d
 a  b sin  c
  2 =
2 dz iz 2dz 2dz
1 1 bz  2iaz  b b( z  z1 )( z  z 2 )
a b z   c
Proof:
0 c

   
2i  z

Poles: z1   a  a 2  b 2 is within C: |z|=1, but z 2   a  a 2  b 2 is not.

i i
b b

Re s( f )  lim ( z  z1 )      
2 2 1 2 b 1
z1 z  z1 b( z  z1 )( z  z 2 ) b z1  z 2 b 2i a 2  b 2 i a 2  b 2
d 2
  2i  
2

a  b sin 
1
0
i a 2  b2 a 2  b2

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